Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Existing evaluations of urban flooding have so far neglected to account for the interactions of complex mechanisms associated with flooding caused by human-engineered stormwater networks. Our results demonstrate that the interaction of flooding types—facilitated by the connectivity created by human-engineered infrastructure—is an important aspect of urban flood dynamics. ...

    Options:
    A. Ignoring such a connectivity may lead to intensified urban floods, especially in regions where river-induced floods meet stormwater infrastructure, even when rainfall does not occur over the area served by the infrastructure.
B. To expand the applicability of the study findings to a broader range of flooding cases, we conducted simulations for the 14 largest events (including STORM2014) over the past 15 years in the Warren study area (rainfall return periods ≥1 year) with outfalls that have hydraulic connection with the receiving channel, thereby mimicking real-world conditions.
C. The simulation maximum flooded areas are shown in Fig. 4a.
D. The knowledge gained and capabilities demonstrated in this research could help to provide sustainable and resilient approaches to addressing the intensification of global urban flood hazards.
E. Specifically, we investigate the following.

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Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Cities are now taking the lead in implementing just urban transitionsfair and equitable transitions toward low-carbon and resilient urban societies. Given the global push towards urbanization into metro- politan areas, and the devolution of some authority in climate decision-making to subnational actors, cities have been leaders in climate action for over two decades. ...

    Options:
    A. More recently, city governments have been increasingly recognizing the connections between climate change and social justice, and making headway with the integration of justice and equity concerns into climate plans and policy implementation tools.
B. However, these efforts have been met with questions about whether and how cities will take just climate action from planning into practice.
C. Scholars have repeatedly criticized the gaps between the rhetoric and reality of urban climate action, which we define here as policies and programs to mitigate and adapt to climate change.
D. However, existing literature has focused primarily on either analysing the development of plans, policies and targets or evaluating the post-facto outcomes of cities' programs.
E. These barriers result in, at best, insufficient reductions in greenhouse gas emissions and, at worst, the exacerbation of climate vulnerabilities and injustice in cities.

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Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Whereas CAG members provided direction for incorporating justice in rule-making, city staff saw engaging with regulated parties as an important component of fulfilling justice goals in the long term. As one city official stated: “we need to bring all building owners along in this process to actually see building decarbonization happen”. ...

    Options:
    A. Regulated parties engaged in rule-making through public comment letters, public hearings and ad hoc meetings with city officials.
B. In this regard, city officials explained that “having a clear process for hearing and responding to feedback was really important”. “People notice that, and it matters.
C. Even if they're not all going to be happy with exactly where you ended up, they understand how you got there and felt like they weren't left out of the process” and it “builds some goodwill with stakeholders, even when we weren't taking all of their recommendations”.
D. Beyond rule-making, implementing the early stages of BERDO also involved operationalizing the procedural and recognitional aspects of justice in everyday decisions and practices (see definitions in Methods).
E. This included managing the reporting and third-party verification pro- cesses, a help desk, outreach and education for building owners and the Review Board's nomination and seating process.

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Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Contestations about distributive and procedural justice revealed underlying debates about who is recognized as vulnerable and deserving of justice under BERDO. Although BERDO regulates all types of building owners, CAG members largely focused on restricting the behavior of landlords and large institutions, sometimes overlooking the burdens placed on other building owners. ...

    Options:
    A. Some CAG members pushed for more nuanced discussions and highlighted how certain owners are also vulnerable.
B. This statement frames building owners as subjects of justice and challenges the assumption that protecting tenants at the expense of owners is always just.
C. Whereas CAG members generally agreed on prioritizing benefits to environmental justice populations, communities of color, tenants and low- and moderate-income residents, specifics about how to operationalize such priorities were often contested.
D. For instance, when discussing the Equitable Emissions Investment Fund, some suggested that money should only be directed to environmental justice neighborhoods and were wary of including “geographic equity” as a part of the Review Board's funding criteria, fearing that this would channel resources to wealthier neighborhoods.
E. Others argued that regulations should recognize the differences between environmental justice neighborhoods, and that projects in “wealthy” communities can also serve vulnerable residents.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    As U.S. health disparities widen and the intergenerational transmission of advantage in families and communities strengthens, increasing attention is being paid to the processes underlying these trends. Of particular interest is early life, when children are influenced by previous generations in ways that will be consequential for decades to come. ...

    Options:
    A. Sociological research has pinpointed the shaping of children's everyday lives by parents in ways that foster children's long-term health and socioeconomic wellbeing as one important mechanism of the intergenerational transmission of advantage.
B. Notions of children as agents in their own lives, rather than passive, innocent receptacles of socialization, and research on the importance of local norms and institutions contextualize families within communities as a site for reproducing inequalities.
C. With a health lifestyles approach, scholars can articulate variation within social categories and multilevel conceptualizations of contexts to understand how children's everyday lives and health are shaped by parents, children, and communities in ways that may reinforce future inequalities—a phenomenon about which not enough is yet known in childhood.
D. Empirical work on health lifestyles lags behind theory in crucial ways.
E. Despite a growing consensus that lifestyles likely extend beyond behaviors, extant (mostly quantitative) research has measured only health behaviors.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    We articulate an inductively derived theoretical model of the components of children's health lifestyles and describe their predominant types in study communities. As Cockerham (2023) and others (e.g., Krueger et al. 2009; Mollborn and Modile 2022) have foreshadowed, this model integrates with and expands the standard definition of health lifestyles beyond health-related behaviors to include understandings of health and health-related norms, narratives, and identities. ...

    Options:
    A. Although we rely primarily on interviews, multimethod data incorporating observed behavior, private narratives, and public talk document parental identity work, com- munity structures and normative processes, and child identity expression.
B. Through health lifestyles, parents, schools, and communities together influ- ence children's behaviors, identities, and futures. Health lifestyles are thus a pathway through which social and health advantages persist across lives and generations.
C. Furthermore, although it has long been understood that health lifestyles are collective (Cockerham, Rütten, and Abel 1997; Frohlich and Potvin 1999), empirical research has examined them in individuals.
D. Importantly, health lifestyles are theorized to be contextually specific (Cockerham et al. 2004), but almost all research has used national or geographically dispersed samples.
E. Despite a growing consensus that lifestyles likely extend beyond behaviors, extant (mostly quantitative) research has measured only health behaviors.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Conceptualizing lifestyles as a blend of structure and agency (Cockerham 2005), we find that children's health lifestyles are rooted in parents' expansive understandings of health, which blur boundaries across physical and psychological well- being, social integration, and academic achieve- ment (Pace, Mollborn, and Rigles 2022; Warner 2010). They are broader than researchers' implicit understandings of health when operationalizing health lifestyles. ...

    Options:
    A. Health lifestyles encompass children's behaviors (including traditional health behaviors and others linked to wider conceptualiza- tions of health, such as socializing and doing homework).
B. Although content likely varies, norms in the communities that we studied prescribe that chil- dren's health lifestyles must reflect substantial parental identity investments and coherent parent- ing narratives articulating the lifestyle's benefits for health, well-being, and future success.
C. Children's identity expression is also dictated by community norms.
D. Health lifestyles create advantages for children while simultaneously reaffirming parents' advantaged class standing.
E. Health lifestyles likely have implications for socioeconomic attainment, health, and future lifestyles and identities, fueling the intergenerational perpetuation of inequalities.

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Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    In the past two decades, states have emerged as important players in the immigration policy arena, passing immigration legislation at a scale not seen in over a century (Chacon 2019; Gulasekaram and Ramakrishnan 2015). State legislatures have passed more than 4,000 immigration-related laws and resolutions since 2005, spanning domains including public benefits, immigration enforcement, driver's licenses and identification systems, education, and employment (Johnston and Morse 2013; Morse 2019). ...

    Options:
    A. While some of these policies aim to drive out immigrants by enacting new immigration enforce- ment schemes and restricting immigrants' access to services and benefits, others seek to support immi- grant integration by expanding protections from deportation and facilitating access to health care, social services, higher education, and other resources.
B. Extant scholarship largely focuses on the deleterious health effects of restrictive state-level immigration policies (Hardy et al. 2012; Torche and Sirois 2019; Wang and Kaushal 2019; Young, Crookes, and Torres 2022) or on the health effects of states' immigration policy climate, a measure that captures a range of immigration-related policies enacted in a given state (Dondero and Altman 2020; Hatzenbuehler et al. 2017; Schut and Boen 2022; Stanhope et al. 2019; Sudhinaraset et al. 2021; Young et al. 2019).
C. Among the studies that examine how specific state-level inclusive immigration policies impact health, the focus has primarily been on policies that extend access to public health insurance to immigrants (for notable exceptions, see Koball, Kirby, and Hartig 2022; Potochnick, May, and Flores 2019; Schut and Boen 2022). How non- health-related inclusive immigration policies shape the health and well-being of immigrants and their children remains far less clear.
D. Additionally, to what extent individual inclusive policies can positively affect health independent of states' broader policy climate is also not well understood.
E. The present study expands understanding of the links between state immigration policies and health by leveraging 14 years of data from the U.S. natality files to assess how state laws that authorize undocumented immigrants to obtain driver's licenses are associated over time with key indicators of perinatal health—early entry into prenatal care, gestational age at delivery, and birthweight- among Mexican and Central American immigrants.

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Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Findings from this study highlight the potential of an individual state policy to positively shape the lives of Mexican and Central American immigrants and their children amid a highly conflictual federal and state immigration policy climate. Over the past two decades, deportations from the United States have reached record levels, and anti-immigrant rhetoric has intensified (Callaghan et al. 2019; Golash-Boza 2015). ...

    Options:
    A. Many states have simultaneously passed laws that intensify surveillance and immigration enforcement (Young and Wallace 2019).
B. Within this context, we find that states' move to extend access to a driver's license to undocumented immigrants is associated with improvements in low birthweight and mean birthweight for Mexican and Central American immigrants.
C. We further find no association between these laws and birthweight among U.S.-born non- Hispanic White birthing people—a group for whom no effect from the law was expected.
D. Given that birthweight is a critical measures of early development (Torche and Conley 2015), this study's findings underscore how states' extension of legal rights to immigrants can improve the health of the next generation.
E. The present study expands understanding of the links between state immigration policies and health by leveraging 14 years of data from the U.S. natality files to assess how state laws that authorize undocumented immigrants to obtain driver's licenses are associated over time with key indicators of perinatal health—early entry into prenatal care, gestational age at delivery, and birthweight— among Mexican and Central American immigrants.

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Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    The target population for this study was Mexican and Central American birthing people who were likely to be impacted by the passage of a license law. We believe that undocumented birthing people would be most strongly impacted because they would personally receive an additional privilege and reduction in deportation risk because of the implementation of this law. ...

    Options:
    A. The impact of these laws may also spill over to birthing people who are not themselves undocumented but whose partner or other loved ones are.
B. These persons may experience a reduction in stress because of the passage of the laws or increase in financial resources due to changes for others in their household.
C. Legal status is not included in birth certificate data.
D. These regions account for 67% of the U.S. undocumented population (Migration Policy Institute 2019).
E. However, to make the study population more likely to be undocumented or have undocumented partners or loved ones, we restricted the analysis to birthing people born in Central America or Mexico.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    One of the most consequential changes in the American labor market in the past half-century is the demise of the labor movement (Farber et al. 2018; Rosenfeld 2014). Whereas one third of pri- vate sector workers were union members in the 1950s, today, about 6% of the private sector is unionized. ...

    Options:
    A. Although most research on the consequences of union decline focuses on its economic impact, a growing literature has addressed the consequences of union membership for health and wellbeing (Leigh and Chakalov 2021; Reynolds and Brady 2012).
B. The current study uses multilevel growth curve models applied to 39 waves of data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics between years 1970 and 2019 to assess how the accumulated experience of union membership across the entirety of one's career, or what we term cumulative unionization, affects disparities of general health, functional limitations, and chronic conditions among adults ages 60 and older.
C. The measure of cumulative unionization, rather than a static measure of union status collected at a particular point in time.
D. The unequal accumulation of union experience further translates into health disparities in later life.
E. After documenting overall positive associations between a larger proportion of one's career spent in unions and positive physical health outcomes at older ages, we move on to examine key sources of heterogeneity.

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Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Moreover, union members have higher rates of various fringe benefits, such as retirement and pension plans (Rosenfeld 2014), and occupational security (Brown 2006; Malinowski, Minkler, and Stock 2015), which increase predictability and opportunity to plan for the future. As a result, unionized workers can more easily devote contem- poraneous spending to health needs and have access to health care to address health issues. ...

    Options:
    A. Union members on average have higher rates of paid sick leave, vacation leave, and paid family leave, all of which should increase access to health care and recovery time away from work in the case of a negative health event.
B. Union members are also more likely to have health insurance and higher quality health insurance (Hagedorn et al. 2016; Reynolds and Brady 2012), which may enable more immediate treatment of health problems and enable access to preventive care, which would reduce longer-term health problems.
C. Union members typically have lower rates of excessive overtime work and less exposure to precarious and contingent work, which may reduce workplace stress.
D. Unions provide an institutionalized platform for workers to organize collectively against unsafe conditions; the classic work by Wallace (1987) shows that higher union membership rate is associated with significant declines in fatal and nonfatal injury rates among miners.
E. Unions also enhance social stability and support, promoting stable marriage (Schneider and Reich 2014), greater sociality and support at work (Hagedorn et al. 2016), and more frequent community and charity engagement (Zullo 2013).

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Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Next, we consider the dynamic nature of physical health conditions in later life. The principle of life-span development suggests that aging is a life-long process, dependent on circumstances and events throughout the life course (Elder et al. 2003). ...

    Options:
    A. We therefore focus on growth trajectories of health outcomes and follow workers beyond the end of their careers.
B. To the extent that career mechanisms influence older adulthood health, we anticipate that these will decay the further a respondent moves from their working ages because any effects of career mechanisms will mix with more immediate life course and health issues that arise in older adulthood.
C. Moreover, the life course principle of time and place argues that the life course outcomes of individuals are embedded in and shaped by the historical times and places they experience over their lifetime (Elder et al. 2003).
D. The diverse historical circumstances of individuals from different birth cohorts may matter significantly for their career decisions, opportunities, and experiences.
E. Specifically, we are able to capture respondents who entered the labor market during the golden age of unionization (Cowie 2010) and the era of rapid union decline, led by the Carter and Reagan administrations, which diminished the support of federal institutions for labor (Jacobs and Myers 2014; Rosenfeld 2014).

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Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Preventive health care use can reduce the risk of disease, disability, and death (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services [USDHHS] 2022). For example, sigmoidoscopy and colonoscopy screen- ings are important tools in reducing deaths from colorectal cancer (Brenner, Stock, and Hoffmeister 2014), flu shots decrease the risk of serious illness if infected (Ferdinands et al. 2021), and COVID-19 vaccinations prevented an estimated 14.4 to 19.8 million deaths worldwide during the first year of use (Watson et al. 2022). ...

    Options:
    A. “Preventive care” generally includes spending on programs for public health information, education, and counseling; immunization, early disease detection, and healthy condition monitoring programs.
B. Thus, understanding and addressing the determinants of preventive care use is critical to reducing preventable deaths, which are higher in the United States than all other OECD countries, and vital for improving population health (Kamal and Hudman 2020).
C. A growing literature points to structural sexism as an important upstream driver of population health in the United States (Homan 2019, 2021a, 2021b; Kavanagh and Graham 2019; Krieger 2020).
D. Structural sexism refers to systematic gender inequality in power and resources in a given social context (Homan 2019).
E. Studies have shown that structural sexism in U.S. state-level institutions is linked to a variety of negative health outcomes among women, men, and chil- dren, including worse self-rated health, more chronic conditions, worse physical functioning, and higher infant and adult mortality rates.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Norms of femininity are largely framed in opposition to masculinity. Emphasized femininity is the complement to hegemonic masculinity and involves orienting one's behavior toward the interests and desires of men (Connell 1987). ...

    Options:
    A. Such femininity typically entails gentleness, nurturing, passivity, beauty, youth, fragility, and a domestic/family orientation.
B. While there is much less research on femininity and health, positive health beliefs and behaviors, including health care use, are typically considered feminine-typed behavior (Courtenay 2000; Fleming and Agnew-Brune 2015).
C. Additionally, the feminine ideals of youth, beauty, and nurturing may lead to increased contact with health care providers to obtain services for women themselves and their children (Daly and Groes 2017).
D. In sum, to the extent that structural sexism increases pressure to conform to the hegemonic ideals of masculinity and emphasized femininity (Connell 1987, 2012), we would expect greater structural sexism to be associated with higher levels of preventive health care use among women and lower levels among men (see Figure 1a).
E. A gendered power perspective links struc- tural sexism to preventive health care use through the impact of women's (dis)empowerment on social, political, and economic processes that allocate resources relevant for population health.

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Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Our analysis involved several dependent variables that measured the use of preventive health care from BRFSS. Several of these BRFSS variables have dif- ferent versions that factor age of respondent and frequency of use of the service. ...

    Options:
    A. For these measures, we analyzed the versions that included the largest sample sizes to provide the most complete picture of gendered patterns of health care use.
B. For example, there were two versions of the question about mammo- grams: (1) women who have ever had a mammogram and (2) women age 40+ who have had a mammo- gram in the past 2 years.
C. We used the former measure because the 2018 mammogram recommendations vary for women 40 years and older, and therefore, the latter measure may miss important variation by limit- ing the time period.
D. Most health care services apply to both men and women; however, there were three that were asked only of women and one that was asked only of men (described in the following).
E. All respondents were asked about a variety of health care services.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    The United States continues to have unenviable population health. U.S. life expectancy stagnated for five years (2010 to 2014) and subsequently declined for another three (2015 to 2017)—an unheralded decline among high-income nations (Crimmins and Zhang 2019; Woolf and Schoomaker 2019). Underneath these troubling trends are substantial and increasing disparities across U.S. states (Montez et al. 2020; Wilmoth, Boe, and Barbieri 2011; Woolf and Schoomaker 2019). ...

    Options:
    A. For instance, in 2018, the difference in life expectancy between West Virginia (74.7) and Hawaii (81.9) was a marked 7.2 years—up from 4.3 in 2000.
B. To understand why the United States is fairing so poorly, scholars are increasingly pointing toward macrolevel structural explanations (e.g., Beckfield and Bambra 2016; Gutin and Hummer 2021; Torche and Rauf 2021).
C. Income inequality and public policy are two major axes of the United States's sociopolitical landscape that have experienced fundamental shifts in recent years.
D. It has grown to such an extent that the top 20% of U.S. households acquired more income in 2018 than did the bottom 80% (Schaeffer 2020).
E. At the same time, the United States has undergone a rapid period of hyper-political divergence in the types of policies enacted across U.S. states.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Although there is little evidence of an indirect effect of income inequality on life expectancy through policy, this mediation model is theoretically viable because policy is known to shape the social, economic, and behavioral determinants of population health (Bambra, Smith, and Pearce 2019; Dawes 2020; Montez et al. 2017; Woolhandler et al. 2021). For example, U.S. state policy regulates access to human capital by funding schools, income by setting a minimum wage, prenatal care via Medicaid, childhood nutrition through the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, tobacco by way of excise taxes, and much more. ...

    Options:
    A. For these reasons, Bambra and colleagues (2019) aptly frame policies and the political choices behind them as the “causes of the causes of the causes” of geographic inequalities in population health.
B. While many studies have isolated the health benefits of specific policies, such as minimum wage (e.g., Kaufman et al. 2020), earned income tax credits (e.g., Strully, Rehkopf, and Xuan 2010), and Medicaid (e.g., Bhatt and Beck-Sagué 2018), others have focused on the health consequences of overarching policy contexts (Beckfield and Bambra 2016; Bradley et al. 2016; Montez et al. 2020).
C. For instance, lower life expectancies in the United States relative to other high-income countries are largely explained by the miserly social policies of the United States (Beckfield and Bambra 2016).
D. Furthermore, U.S. states with a more liberal policy context have exhibited longer life expectancies over a 45-year period than states with more conservative policy contexts (Montez et al. 2020).
E. Liberal policy contexts are often linked to good population health because they shape the material and social determinants of health in salubrious ways.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Our key indicator of income inequality was the income share of the top 10% of earners based off pretax gross income reported to the Internal Revenue Service. These data were obtained from the U.S. State-Level Income Inequality Database, developed by Mark Frank (2015) and constructed from individual tax filing data available from the Internal Revenue Service. ...

    Options:
    A. From the same source, we also obtained alternative measure of income inequality to use in supplemental analyses.
B. The main source of data on state policies came from Grumbach (2018).
C. Evidence on how these policy domains are plausibly linked to life expectancy are described elsewhere (Kemp, Grumbach, and Montez 2022).
D. For each state, the data contained a score for each domain annually from 2000 through 2014.
E. Liberal policy contexts are often linked to good population health because they shape the material and social determinants of health in salubrious ways.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    In this article, we first document increases in state IOL rates among pregnancies to U.S. states' Black, Latina, and White childbearing populations between 1990 and 2017. The trends show similar monotonic increases in U.S. states' IOL rates among all three populations, although trends among White women exhibit some nonlinearity during the 2000s and 2010s. ...

    Options:
    A. We then estimate how states' IOL trends are affected by changes in risk factors for “high-risk pregnancy” among states' childbearing populations.
B. Evidence suggests that increases in state IOL rates among pregnancies to White women were likely responding to changes in the demographic composition and changes in risk factors among states' White childbearing populations (e.g., increases in births to women with obesity and increases in the prevalence of maternal hypertension and maternal diabetes).
C. By contrast, the increases in state IOL rates among pregnancies to Black and Latina women are not associated with changes in demographics or changes in risk factors among states' Black and Latina childbearing populations.
D. Instead, we find evidence to suggest that increases in U.S. states' IOL rates among Black and Latina women were strongly shaped by changes in the demographics and risk factors of the states' White childbearing populations.
E. Taken together, our findings suggest a clear example in which U.S. obstetric care is not being centered at the margins (Hardeman et al. 2016) given that the rising IOL rates among all three racial-ethnic groups appear to be responding only to changes in risk factors among states' White childbearing populations.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    The use of induction of labor, or “the initiation of uterine contractions before the spontaneous onset of labor by medical and/or surgical means for the purpose of delivery,” has steadily increased among U.S. pregnancies since the 1990s (Ventura et al. 1999:92). In 2015, nearly one-quarter of all U.S. births were induced (Martin et al. 2017), up from just 10% in 1990 (Osterman and Martin 2014). ...

    Options:
    A. Labor induction is an important obstetric intervention for minimizing risks to maternal and fetal health, and increases in IOL have also come on the heels of efforts to reduce cesarean deliveries (Nicholson et al. 2004, 2009a, 2009b; Nicholson, Yeager, and Macones 2007).
B. Indeed, scholars and practitioners use the term “preventative labor induction” when considering how elective IOL might be used to reduce risks associated with pregnancy and childbirth (Caughey 2009; Caughey et al. 2009; robman et al. 2018; Nicholson et al. 2008).
C. However, IOL is often overused in the United States, as evidenced by research suggesting that two-thirds of the increase in IOL during the 1990s was a result of “nonmedically indicated” inductions (Ramsey, Ramin, and Ramin 2000), and gestational distributions of U.S. births have been dramatically changed by the increasing use of IOL at select gestations (Tilstra and Masters 2020).
D. Instead, we find evidence to suggest that increases in U.S. states' IOL rates among Black and Latina women were strongly shaped by changes in the demographics and risk factors of the states' White childbearing populations.
E. Taken together, our findings suggest a clear example in which U.S. obstetric care is not being centered at the margins (Hardeman et al. 2016) given that the rising IOL rates among all three racial-ethnic groups appear to be responding only to changes in risk factors among states' White childbearing populations.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Average state IOL rates among births to U.S. Black women increased from about 11% in 1990 to 23% in 2004 and to 33% in 2017. Similar increases in IOL are observed among singleton first births born to U.S. Latina (10%, 21%, 31%) and White women (14%, 28%, 36%). ...

    Options:
    A. Across this time, we also see substantial changes in the demographic profiles of states' childbearing populations.
B. Most noteworthy is the increasingly older age distributions of the states' childbearing populations, with large reductions in the proportion of births to teens (e.g., 43%-17% among Black women) and concomitant increases among women with AMA (e.g., 5%-10% among White women).
C. We also see sizable decreases in the proportion of births to women with education levels less than high school (e.g., 37%-23% among Latina women), which are offset by large proportionate increases in births to women with college degrees (e.g., 9%-20% among Black women and 24%-44% among White women).
D. The proportion of births to women who are married decreased substantially in the Latina (60%-40%) and White (76%-66%) childbearing populations.
E. Finally, the proportion of births among immigrants increased in the Black childbearing population (7%-21%), and the proportion of births among immigrants in the Latina childbearing population increased between 1990 and 2004 (47%-62%) and then decreased from 2004 to 2017 (62%-40%).

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    The inverse relationship between socioeconomic status (SES) and mental health is a cornerstone of the general argument linking social inequality to well- being (Adler et al. 1994; Aneshensel 2009; Pearlin 1989; Thoits 2010). The SES-mental health associa- tion is also one of the most consistent in social sci- ence (Thoits 2010), spanning over a century of research (Dohrenwend and Dohrenwend 1969; Faris and Dunham 1939; Hollingshead and Redlich 1958; Jarvis 1855; Srole et al. 1962) and continuing to the present day (Miech and Shanahan 2000; Warren 2009). ...

    Options:
    A. This consistency within countries, predominantly estimated in the North American context, supports a social causation interpretation, net of social selection (Warren 2009; Wheaton 1978), indicating SES as a primary social determinant of mental health.
B. To assess the effects of policy, we utilize spending effort as an operational indicator of policy differences, recognizing that policies may exist with varying levels of funding and that the hypothetical presence of a policy without supportive spending is likely to have little to no effect (Castles 2008).
C. Recent reviews demonstrate that the spending effort in general areas of social policy is associated with SES differences in mental health, where increases in spending generally reduce SES differences both between (McAllister et al. 2018) and within countries (Simpson et al. 2021).
D. Between-country differences highlight the importance of contextual differences in policy environments for SES inequalities in mental health, averaged over time, whereas within-country analysis demonstrate changes in either the direction or magnitude of specific policy effects over a given period.
E. Between-country studies find greater levels of active labor market (Niedzwiedz et al. 2016) and sickness benefit spending (van der Wel et al. 2015) reduce educational differences in mental health.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    This question emphasizes the importance of considering average policy climates across time. Policy levels are relatively stable over short periods due to “path dependency” logic where removal or reduction of benefits is contested (Pierson 2000). ...

    Options:
    A. We expect to find enduring differences between countries that continuously spend higher versus lower amounts on social investment and social protection spending.
B. We argue that this expectation reflects a “cumulative advantage” for mental health, especially among individuals in societies where continuous investment at high levels promotes overall relative structural advantages that individuals may benefit from, especially for those with low status.
C. Whereas changes over time in a country test the impact of the direction and magnitude of social policy effects, the average context between coun- tries assesses differences due to generalized differences in the levels of social policy that persist through time (Thoits 2010).
D. Our second question focuses on the impact of the direction and magnitude of changes in social policy over time: Do changes in social investment and social protection policies help account for variation in the inverse association between SES and mental health in countries over time?
E. In assessing both questions, we assess which of our two types of poli- cies are most relevant to the weakening of the link between SES and mental health and the specific policies that may be doing so.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Following Kuitto (2016), social investment was a measure combining four areas of welfare state spending reported as a percentage of total gross domestic product (GDP): education, ECEC, ALMP, and old age care. Education spending was extracted from the World Bank (2021). ECEC, ALMP, and old age care were extracted from the SOCX Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) spending database (OECD 2021). ...

    Options:
    A. Also following Kuitto (2016), we measured social protection spending as a percentage of GDP of total cash transfers spending on incapacity, old age, survivors, unemployment, and other social exclusion spending, taken from the SOCX database (OECD 2021).
B. However, we also included service spending on health care and housing in this category, also taken from the SOCX database, due to its effects on poverty and inequality and thus effects on a minimum standard of living (Esping-Andersen and Myles 2009).
C. We present the disaggregation of each policy paradigm in Table 1.
D. Controls in this analysis included confounders not on the causal pathway between individual SES and depression, such as age and gender (Mirowsky and Ross 2003) and father's educational status, to incorporate the intergenerational transmission of SES.
E. At the country level, we controlled for economic development as measured by GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity (divided by 1,000) in con- stant 2011 international dollars taken from the World Bank (2021) and income inequality, as measured by the GINI coefficient for household market income, ranging from 0 to 1 where 1 equals complete inequality (Solt 2019).

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Medical uncertainty has interested sociologists for decades (Fox 1957, 1980; Gerrity, DeVellis, and Light 1992; Mackintosh and Armstrong 2020). Uncertainty refers to the unknown in medical practice and is significant due to its role in medical knowledge, diagnosis, and decision-making (Fox 2000; Jenkins, Jessen, and Steffen 2005). ...

    Options:
    A. Uncertainty has various sources, such as the inherent limits of what is knowable in medicine (Atkinson 1984).
B. Clinical experience, standardization, guidelines, and technology can alleviate some aspects of uncertainty but introduces others (e.g., Rapp 2004; Rothman 1993).
C. Sociological research has primarily focused on the sources of medical uncertainty and how professionals and patients experience and manage it (Dumit 2006; Jutel 2009; Littlejohn and Kimport 2017).
D. The political context of care includes (1) cultural politicization, such as stigma; (2) the legal, regulatory, and policy contexts; and (3) the economic organization of health care.
E. We focus on how an influx of laws and regulations that are often unclear and incongruent with evidence-based medicine necessitate and complicate the interpretive work of institutions and providers.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Uncertainty characterizes various aspects of reproduction. Prenatal screening may entail diagnostic uncertainty regarding the implications for the pregnant person and fetus (Markens, Browner, and Preloran 2003; Rapp 2004; Rothman 1993). ...

    Options:
    A. For those who want to avoid pregnancy, there is consideration of contraceptive method, risk, and side effects (Geampana 2019).
B. A study of contraceptive counseling found that how clinicians communicate uncertain side effects impacts patient decision-making and autonomy and has health consequences (Littlejohn and Kimport 2017).
C. Changes in the organization of medicine also contribute to uncertainty.
D. Following the corporatization of hospitals, Morris (2014) found that greater economic pressures combined with fear of obstetric malpractice suits fueled the rise in caesarian sections in the United States, limiting organizational and professional risk at the expense of patients' well-being.
E. We focus on how an influx of laws and regulations that are often unclear and incongruent with evidence-based medicine necessitate and complicate the interpretive work of institutions and providers.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    We conducted focus groups with prenatal genetic counselors and ob-gyns employed in a variety of Ohio hospital settings (e.g., private, public, academic, religious). Focus groups are a useful method for exploratory research that enables respondents with similar characteristics, such as profession, to engage in conversation. ...

    Options:
    A. Participants who were unable to attend focus groups shared their experiences in individual, semistructured interviews.
B. The University of Cincinnati's Institutional Review Board approved this study.
C. Participants were recruited through professional society memberships and listservs, advocacy groups, university-affiliated hospitals, and snowball sampling.
D. Participants were eligible if they were ob-gyns or genetic counselors who worked in Ohio for at least six months between 2010 and 2020.
E. We excluded providers working in dedicated abortion clinics because the impact of abortion reg- ulations on those who work in abortion clinics has been well documented.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Women have long been targeted as a special population in law and drug policy and are often subject to distinct forms of coercive disciplining for their substance use (Campbell 2002). Pregnant substance users are uniquely exposed to competing medical and legal responses while receiving pregnancy-related health care. ...

    Options:
    A. Despite recent, louder prescriptions to treat addiction as a disease (Pew Research Center 2014), pregnant and postpartum substance users continue to experience extraclinical interventions such as criminal prosecution and child welfare interventions (Paltrow and Flavin 2013).
B. State mandatory reporting laws and child abuse statutes that codify substance use during pregnancy as child maltreatment create a statutory environment that empowers practitioners to investigate their patients for suspected illegal activity.
C. Recent estimates indicate that tens of thousands of women a year are subject to child welfare investigations after medical staff identify and report them to the state for prenatal substance use (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 2021).
D. Expanding current understandings of the relationship between medicalization and criminalization processes, this study reveals the mechanisms that enable medical providers to engage in investigatory work in the clinic. I also discuss the consequences of medico-legal hybridity, whereby criminal-legal logics get taken up in medical practice in such a way that medical routines, practices, and interactions become a form of criminalization.
E. Despite media coverage and numerous legal commentaries on the topic of the criminalization of pregnant substance users, there are few empirical accounts of this process.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Although the policy and legal landscape encourage providers to assume an active role in detecting and reporting patients on behalf of the state, the uptake of legal tasks in medicine cannot solely be understood as driven by “law from on high”. The penetration of law into medicine is uneven and contingent on institutional arrangements and professional prerogatives (Heimer 1999). ...

    Options:
    A. There are myriad reasons that clinicians may be reluctant to report suspected child abuse, including a lack of knowledge of state laws, concerns about patient retention, and previous poor interactions with child protective services.
B. On the other hand, maternal and newborn care providers may be particularly receptive to prenatal drug use laws and perceive the state as a useful partner in managing “difficult” patients (Abel and Kruger 2002; Heimer 1999).
C. Law empowers and informs medical practices, but it is not wholly determinative. In most setings (barring settings with universal testing protocol), provider discretion determines whether patients will be tested and reported to the state.
D. The state of Illinois, where this study was conducted, classifies evidence of a controlled substance in the blood, urine, or meconium (first stool) of a newborn infant as child neglect (Illinois Abused and Neglected Child Act 1975).
E. Federal and state laws establish a baseline for state intervention at birth, but drug testing and reporting practices vary drastically not only by state but within states, municipalities, and hospitals.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    These data were derived from a larger qualitative study examining multisystem collaboration in response to perinatal substance use in Chicago, Illinois, and included in-depth interviews with frontline workers and stakeholders (N = 71) and interviews with local women who had experienced child welfare interventions at the birth of their chil- dren (N = 28). Although these data informed this analysis, the findings presented here are a subset of in-depth qualitative interviews conducted with 30 medical providers in the Chicago area. ...

    Options:
    A. To recruit medical professionals who had knowledge of institutional responses to perinatal substance use, I employed a purposive sampling and snowball approach.
B. I selected five hospitals in the Chicago area as recruitment sites.
C. These sites were selected because they served distinct patient populations (in terms of race-ethnicity and class status) and included one safety net hospital, one teaching hospital, two private hospitals, and one small community hospital.
D. Each hospital had publicly available contact information for their obstetric and neonatal physicians.
E. I sent emails to providers whose contact information was accessible (N = 116) to invite them to participate in an interview about their “observations and experiences working with” substance-using patients.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    For more than a century, governments have designed policies intended to address drug use, dependence, and mortality (Musto 1999). Through what Foucault (1991) termed governmentality, policies may induce institutions to foster individual-level behavioral choices that cohere with the aims of the government. ...

    Options:
    A. Throughout the twentieth century, governmental policy regarding drug supply increasingly focused on the criminal justice system (MacCoun and Reuter 2001).
B. By relying on policies that define certain drugs as illicit, there is a natural reliance by the state on the criminal justice system to curb supply.
C. Surveillance systems that induce self-governing behavior rather than direct coercion are more efficient because they reduce the resources required to align behavior with governmental aims (Foucault 1995).
D. In this regard, coercion may occur not only through explicit mandates but also in implicit forms that give the appearance of choice as well.
E. Surveillance systems within the scope of the health care system may appear, at face value, to be less coercive.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    In response to problems emerging from these patterns of substance use, state-level governments implemented various policy measures to combat escalating trends in abuse, dependence, and overdose. Within the United States, drug policies operate in a multilevel manner. ...

    Options:
    A. Whereas federal-level policies intervene on the international drug trade, including heroin and illicitly manufactured fentanyl, PDMPs represent actions taken at the U.S. state level to curb pharmaceutical drugs acquired within the context of the medical system.
B. Although modest within the larger umbrella of U.S. drug control, PDMPs nonetheless directly target medicalized substances recognized as fueling the overdose crisis.
C. Evaluation of such policies and the distinctions in how they are implemented remains imperative to identify efficacious solutions to reduce overdose mortality and other substance abuse problems.
D. We focus on the implementation of PDMPs—given their role in surveillance, long history, wide coverage, and application to several classes of substances (Gugelmann and Perrone 2011)—in shifting overdose mortality while accounting for the broader policy context by considering the passage of other relevant policies over the period of observation.
E. Surveillance systems within the scope of the health care system may appear, at face value, to be less coercive.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Of policies that have been passed, PDMPs most directly address the state's interest in controlling drug supply because they create a system of surveillance advantageous to the state in its universal application across all controlled substance prescriptions. Other policies enacted, such as enhanced naloxone access and Good Samaritan laws, require individual-level action, which may depend on varying individual and community resources, and are not subject to the same level of governmental oversight in their use. ...

    Options:
    A. In some ways, these policies release a certain level of governmental control.
B. By absolving users of responsibility should they call state actors such as first responders, Good Samaritan laws prevent scrutiny by the criminal justice system (Haegerich et al. 2014)—albeit in ways that may yield better mortality outcomes.
C. By reducing the need for hospital admission after use of an overdose reversal drug, naloxone access laws (Davis and Carr 2017) curtail surveillance by the health system.
D. Notably, these policies create a mechanism whereby the state can intervene only on adverse outcomes rather than patterns of drug consumption more generally.
E. Importantly, surveillance-driven constraints may require time to shift self-governance in a manner that produces measurable results.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    The COVID-19 pandemic has been one of the most disruptive world events in modern times in terms of health and fundamentally reshaping the economy and people's social lives. Moreover, this impact has not been equally shared. ...

    Options:
    A. Some people, because of existing social and economic resources, have been better able to shield themselves from transmission of the disease and the various negative consequences reverberating from the pandemic.
B. In particular, Black, Latino, and Native American populations in the United States have experienced higher rates of infection and, when infected, have been more likely to experience severe disease and death (Millett et al. 2020; Peek et al. 2021; Ramos and Zamudio 2020).
C. Other work has shown how the effects of the pandemic are also spaced and placed, with poor and minority neighborhoods suffering disproportionately from the disease and having limited access to care sites and testing locations.
D. On December 11, 2020, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration issued the first emergency use authorization for the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine for COVID-19 in individuals 16 years of age and older in the United States.
E. Eight days later, a second vaccine, Moderna, was approved for use in individuals ages 18 and older.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    This work provides some initial evidence for a disparity by racial-ethnic residential segregation in health care service provision. In this analysis, we aim to extend this literature to examine how this lack of adequate health care provision relates to the COVID-19 pandemic and the early rollout of the vaccine. ...

    Options:
    A. There may be myriad reasons that affect where and how people choose to procure provider services, with physical proximity/convenience being only one of them that may be important to people of limited means, who lack of access to transportation or are elderly/homebound and may find travel difficult.
B. Distance from providers does not create an impenetrable barrier to access (in this case, vaccine access), but it can increase the “friction of distance,” which may be difficult to over- come absent other kinds of individual or household resources (Tobler 1970).
C. Therefore, with this analysis, we are not assuming that people can only or will only seek vaccine access within their local communities but, rather, that having access in close proximity would facilitate their ability to get it, especially for those who are more vulnerable.
D. Some limited work has also linked the distribution of health care locations to health and health care outcomes.
E. For example, Dai (2010), in a study of Detroit area neighborhoods, found that Black residents of segregated neighborhoods had fewer facilities that provided mammography services and consequently had higher rates of late-stage breast cancer diagnosis.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    To examine the association between racial-ethnic minority clustering and the vaccine rollout, we combined several sources of area-level data measured at the ZIP (Zone Improvement Plan) area unit of analysis (N = 431). First, for data on vaccine allocations, we used data from the Texas Department of State Health Services. ...

    Options:
    A. Since the first shipment of the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine on December 14, 2020, the state of Texas has released information on a weekly basis on the location and quantity of doses allocated across the state by county.
B. We collected these data each week for the first 10 weeks of the vaccine rollout (December 14, 2020, to February 15, 2021).
C. However, we decided to exclude the first week from our analysis because these allocations went only to major hospital sites and were exclusively distributed to first-tier health care workers under Texas's Phase 1A of the vaccine distribution.
D. We chose these weeks for several reasons. We wanted to focus on the early vaccine rollout when supplies were limited and access was difficult to examine which areas got early access to this privilege.
E. In the subsequent week (Week 11 of the rollout), most of the state of Texas experienced a catastrophic winter storm that affected vaccine distributions both in terms of the ability to make shipments to vaccine sites and the ability to keep those doses properly chilled because of widespread power outages.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    The connections between education and health are one of the most widely studied and empirically robust in the field of medical sociology (Adler et al. 1994; Conti, Heckman, and Urzua 2010). Education has been associated with assorted morbidities, mortality risk, disability, general health, mental health, and an array of health-related behaviors linked to various health outcomes (Adams 2002; Arendt 2005; Cutler and Lleras-Muney 2010; Lleras-Muney 2005; Turner and Lloyd 1999). ...

    Options:
    A. One important question about the links between education and health that remains unanswered, however, is whether these links are robust for individuals who pursued schooling at a stage of the life course when education has normatively been completed (as reflected in formal definitions of nontraditional students, as well as institutional expectations and structures): prior to having children (Macmillan 2005; Marini1984).
B. This question is also relevant to current public health policy given that scholars from across disciplines have argued that one of the most powerful policy levers for reducing population-level health disparities is promoting higher education (Frieden 2010; Hahn and Truman 2015).
C. It remains unknown, however, whether promoting mothers' school reentry can remediate these issues.
D. This uncertainty is further underscored by a key tenet of the life course perspective (Elder 1984), which suggests that out-of-sequence life course progressions can create challenges and conditions that undermine the efficacy of individuals in their roles and statuses (Pearlin et al. 2005) and reduce the rewards and resources that such roles and statues are supposed to generate (Furstenberg 2005; also see Hogan 1978 for a key theoretical contribution).
E. Thus, this question also raises the broader theoretical issue of whether out-of-sequence schooling creates challenges that diminish the well-documented returns to higher education (e.g., better labor market opportunities, wider social networks, increased cog- nitive skills; Mirowsky and Ross 2003; Zajacova and Lawrence 2018) for women with children.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Several factors explain the large number of mothers pursuing postsecondary schooling. The first are demographic factors. ...

    Options:
    A. Increases in mothers' labor force participation, decreases in men's labor force participation, and changes in family structure, including the rise in nonmarital fertility and greater union instability, have brought about a rise in the share of women who are unmarried parents and the sole or primary breadwinners (Bianchi, Robinson, and Milkie 2006).
B. Thus, greater education is also needed for women to access stable work and adequate wages (Kalleberg 2011).
C. Third, there has been an expansion of the higher education system—which includes a rise in for-profit schools, which have targeted their recruitment efforts at lower-income mothers (Cottom 2017)—as well as federal student aid programs over the past few decades.
D. These factors have made it easier for adults with fewer resources (e.g., mothers with lower levels of education) to return to school (Rosenbaum 2001).
E. Outside of these largescale factors, disadvantaged mothers, who are often their children's sole caregiver, also report returning to school in a renewed effort to improve their children's opportunities for mobility (Edin and Kefalas 2011; Katz 2013).

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Mothers' health reflected four domains. Overall health was based on a measure of self-reported health in which respondents described their health on a scale ranging from 1 (poor health) to 5 (excellent health). ...

    Options:
    A. Global mental health was captured by mothers' reports of whether they felt sad, depressed, or anxious for a two-week period over the past year (1 = yes, 0 = no).
B. Unfortunately, the FFCW did not include more nuanced measures like depressive symptomatology based on the Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scale.
C. It did include an indicator of depression based on the Composite International Diagnostic Indicator-Short Form (CIDI-SF), but the CIDI-SF is a fairly specific tool designed to capture one's probability of meeting clinical levels of depression.
D. The global indicator used here is seen as a less restrictive measure that taps a wider range of mental health struggles.
E. Parenting stress, which was based on the average of mothers' responses (on a scale of 1 to 4 tapping different levels of agreement) to four questions (e.g., I often feel tired, worn out, or exhausted from raising a family), was a shortened version of the original Parenting Stress Index (see Abidin 1983), as used in other national studies (e.g., the Panel Study of Income Dynamics).

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Researchers have established the presence of bias in American health care with considerable work focusing on provider bias within the clinical encounter. Indeed, medical providers demonstrate bias on par with the general population, even among those who self-identify as holding nondiscriminatory beliefs (Burgess et al. 2007; van Ryn and Fu 2003; Zestcott, Blair, and Stone 2016). ...

    Options:
    A. Understanding such bias is important because it contributes to the profound health disparities seen in the United States.
B. By exploring this process, we demonstrate the ways that various provider approaches to reduce bias reflect and reproduce this inequality in care.
C. Elucidating these coping strategies simultaneously reveals not only providers' individually held biases but also the social forces that engender such discrimination and disparities within their clinical encounters.
D. However, few, if any, are evidence based, and most address provider- held biases while neglecting the structural nature of the inequality that informs such exchanges (Metzl and Hansen 2014; Zestcott et al. 2016).
E. Moreover, because little is known about how providers man- age this bias within their patient interactions, rec- ommendations for improving these encounters may inevitably fall short.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Indeed, medicine is a racialized system where one's health status is predetermined by and predicated on other racialized structures, such as education, economic policy, and the law (Bonilla-Silva and Baiocchi 2001). These structures are also gendered and classed in ways that are often invisible to providers. ...

    Options:
    A. This inequality has been found to limit access to resources and health care, ultimately affecting what needs patients present with and how providers then perceive these patients (see Spencer and Grace 2016).
B. Importantly, institutionalized norms and practices of predominantly white, Western nations manifest in these structures, where assumptions and stigma about individual patients are not produced in individual encounters but are, instead, enacted and normalized within these exchanges (Carmichael 2003).
C. Doing so supports necessary, multilevel interventions to address both provider biases and broader health care inequity.
D. Indeed, how providers manage bias within their care helps to reveal these often insidious biases and elucidates the social forces that engender them within patient provider interactions.
E. Moreover, because little is known about how providers man- age this bias within their patient interactions, recommendations for improving these encounters may inevitably fall short.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Providers frequently evade claims of bias in their care by utilizing data, especially around pregnancy risk, to rationalize their differential contraceptive counseling. These data function to produce and reinforce biases about patients that then inform provider practices. ...

    Options:
    A. Scientific arguments have long been used to encourage and validate eugenicist beliefs about who should reproduce, especially regarding women of color (Roberts 1997).
B. In its more modern and implicit form, such claims hinge on references to aggregated data about contraceptive efficacy and women most at risk for unintended pregnancies.
C. These data prompt providers to anticipate certain patient risks and contraceptive needs.
D. Indeed, how providers manage bias within their care helps to reveal these often insidious biases and elucidates the social forces that engender them within patient provider interactions.
E. Kathleen, a white nurse midwife, explains.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Mass incarceration has increasingly been recognized as a pressing public health challenge. Nearly 6.5 million adults—1 in 40—are under correctional supervision in the United States (Maruschak and Minton 2020). ...

    Options:
    A. More than 2.1 million are currently serving sentences in prisons and jails.
B. An additional 4.9 million individuals in the population were formerly imprisoned (Shannon et al. 2017).
C. This decades-long expansion of the penal system has occurred without the structures in place to facilitate reintegration.
D. Although the policies of mass incarceration have been far-reaching, their imprint has been concentrated among marginalized groups.
E. The deleterious effects of incarceration for individual well-being have been the subject of a growing body of interdisciplinary research at the intersection of medicine and the social sciences.

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Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    First, selection bias and confounding threaten the validity of causal estimates of the effects of incarceration exposure on health. Because adverse physi- cal health conditions and criminal justice contact share many common correlates—social class, childhood adversities, and self-control—it is plausible that preexisting risk factors confound the effects of incarceration exposure on health outcomes (Schnittker, Massoglia, and Uggen 2012). ...

    Options:
    A. Any unique effect attributable to incarceration might instead result from the endowments that individuals bring to prison.
B. This possibility requires adjustments for preexisting confounds, including adverse child- hood experiences and childhood disadvantage, which are reliable determinants of adult morbidity and mortality (Miller et al. 2011).
C. Due to preexisting tendencies to have poor health and to engage in behaviors that result in confinement, it is also necessary for observational research to adjust for selec- tion effects (Massoglia and Pridemore 2015).
D. Prospective longitudinal data are a powerful tool in this regard because they allow for the implementa- tion of pretreatment (i.e., incarceration) measures.
E. As noted earlier, these experiences are not uncommon based on survey and qualitative accounts.

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Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    We tested hypotheses for the current study by employing data from the Family and Community Health Study (FACHS). FACHS is designed to investigate the factors associated with the health and well-being of African American adults (see Lei et al. 2018; Simons et al. 2019). ...

    Options:
    A. The FACHS sampling strategy includes African American families with a child who was in fifth grade at the time of recruitment.
B. Families were intentionally recruited from neighborhoods that varied on demographic and economic characteristics based on 1990 census data.
C. Households were then contacted until the required number of households were recruited (84% response rate).
D. For 259 census block groups (115 in Georgia and 144 in Iowa), households were randomly selected from rosters of fifth graders in the public school system.
E. The data for the first wave of FACHS were collected in 1997 and 1998 (for a description of FACHS waves, see Appendix A in the online version of the article).

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Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    The mental health of racial-ethnic minorities sometimes presents a paradox. Despite expectations to the contrary, minorities report mental health that is either somewhat better or no worse than that of the non-Hispanic white population (Williams and Earl 2007). ...

    Options:
    A. The 12-month prevalence of most psychiatric disorders tends to be lower among minorities (Breslau et al. 2005; Miranda et al. 2008; Vilsaint et al. 2019), including for depression (Hasin et al. 2018).
B. Other patterns are consistent with this observation.
C. Death rates from suicide among non-Hispanic whites are two to three times higher than among blacks, Asians, and Latinos (Miranda et al. 2008).
D. Hispanics, too, tend to report a lower prevalence of psychiatric disorders (Breslau et al. 2005), and among Asian populations, the prevalence of psychiatric disorders is especially low (Takeuchi et al. 2007).
E. Differences of this sort confound easy explanations.

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Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Although this research is revealing, it only deepens the paradox of minority mental health. In effect, it shows that once stress is measured more comprehensively, racial-ethnic minorities report even more stress than the white population. ...

    Options:
    A. In this light, some scholars have shifted their focus from documenting risks to uncovering protective factors among minorities.
B. A variety of factors have been put forward.
C. Much of this work has focused on social support and religious involvement, and both are demonstrably important for coping with stress (Brody et al. 2006; Ellison et al. 2008).
D. In a similar vein, though positing something more novel, Keyes (2009) pointed to the possibility that blacks are better able to create positive meaning from negative events.
E. A somewhat smaller literature has taken a different tact and attempted to identify risk factors that are more common among whites.

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Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    The MEPS survey includes the Kessler K6, a well validated instrument assessing nonspecific psychological distress (Kessler et al. 2003). The K6 was not fielded in every round: In each calendar year, respondents in the first year of their panel were given the K6 in the second round of interviews, and respondents in the final year of their panel were given the K6 in the fourth round. ...

    Options:
    A. The K6 asks about the frequency of six symptoms in the past 30 days.
B. Respondents were asked: “how often did you feel so sad that nothing could cheer you up; nervous; restless or fidgety; hopeless; that everything was an effort; and worthless,” with response categories ranging from none of the time (0) to all of the time (4).
C. The six items were combined to create a summary measure with scores ranging from 0 to 24.
D. In addition to a continuous score, some models employed a categorical measure of significant distress, based on a threshold score of 13 or higher, as used in previous studies (Reeves et al. 2011).
E. Among the most valuable features of MEPS is its collection of detailed medication use.

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Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Childhood diagnoses of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have increased 41% in the United States over the past decade alone, with 6.4 million (11%) American children ages 4 to 17 having been diagnosed as of 2016 (Xu et al. 2018). ADHD is today's most commonly diagnosed childhood mental health disorder, surpassing anxiety, depression, oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder, and autism spectrum disorders (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2019). ...

    Options:
    A. Without proper treatment, ADHD can lead to more behavior problems, poorer social relationships, and lower academic performance (Hinshaw and Scheffler 2014).
B. However, the effect of an ADHD diagnosis may not be uniformly positive (Owens and Jackson 2017).
C. Situating ADHD within the broader literature on negative stereotypes surrounding children with disabilities (Pescosolido et al. 2008), diagnosed children may experience negative feelings of being unlike their peers (Hinshaw 2005) and increased scrutiny and lower expectations from teachers (Eisenberg and Schneider 2007).
D. Rates of childhood ADHD diagnoses are high across social class groups, ranging from 13% among children from families earning below the federal poverty level to 10% of those earning 1 to 3.9 times the poverty level and 9% of those earning at least 4 times the poverty level (Xu et al. 2018).
E. In spite of relatively high rates of diagnosis across social class groups, our understanding of the relationship between social class privilege and diagnosed children's well-being remains limited.

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Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    In addition to being better positioned to intervene at school, high-SES parents have greater knowledge of the behaviors and skills rewarded in schools and are more likely to support development of these skills through a style of parenting at home known as “concerted cultivation” (Lareau 2003). Concerted cultivation is oriented around fostering children's talents and ability to navigate social institutions through participation in organized activities, including education-enhancing activities like tutoring. ...

    Options:
    A. Together, early detection, greater medication adherence and social support, and less stigma in high-SES compared to low-SES communities may lead to even greater positive effects of diagnosis for children from more advantaged than less advantaged backgrounds.
B. Mental health diagnoses can also instigate negative social and psychological processes.
C. Literature focusing especially on labeling and stigma helps to explain potential negative consequences associated with diagnosis (Goffman 1963; Scheff 1974).
D. Negative social feedback from teachers and peers may even further exacerbate negative diag- nostic effects on the child, especially when future school behaviors are rated by teachers (Rist 1977).
E. The child may experience a sense of inadequacy or low self-esteem based in beliefs that they have less academic ability than their peers, or that their teachers and parents do not believe they can succeed at a high level (Eisenberg and Schneider 2007).

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Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    The rise in ADHD diagnoses is driven by an assumption about diagnosis' positive behavioral effects, but an ADHD diagnosis might instead instigate negative social feedback from teachers and peers. Its status as an “invisible disability” may lead diagnosed children and family members to internalize a sense of culpability for the child's difficulties, which is consistent with experiences of labeling and stigma. ...

    Options:
    A. For children from high-SES backgrounds in particular, parents' ability to activate social capital for school intervention (Lareau 1987) and reflect school values in their home environment (Lareau 2003) combined with fewer other negative exposures may further magnify diagnosed children's sense of being “disabled” and unable to meet high academic expectations.
B. The benefits of proper medication discussed previously may help effectively manage symptoms, and children from high-SES families may have greater medication access or adherence.
C. However, greater medication access and adherence may also lead high-SES children to be more likely to experience negative side-effects of treatment or polypharmacy.
D. The y-axis displays expected differences in the future school behaviors of diagnosed vs. otherwise comparable undiagnosed children.
E. Positive bars represent better future teacher-rated school behaviors among diagnosed compared to undiagnosed children, while negative bars represent poorer future behaviors, and the dotted line represents no difference between diagnosed and undiagnosed children.

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Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    An abundance of evidence indicates that the drug overdose epidemic in the United States is a national public health emergency (Gomes et al. 2018; Hedegaard, Miniño, and Warner 2018; Kariisa et al. 2019). In 2017, 70,237 drug overdose deaths occurred in the United States, with opioids involved in 67.8% of these fatal poisonings (Scholl et al. 2019). ...

    Options:
    A. The U.S. drug-related mortality rate (age-adjusted) increased from 6.1 per 100,000 people in 1999 to 21.7 in 2017 (Hedegaard et al. 2018).
B. From 1999 to 2006, the average annual increase in the drug-related mortality rate was 10%, and that rate has risen over time.
C. From 2006 to 2014, the average increase was 3%, which subsequently jumped to 16% from 2014 to 2017 (Hedegaard et al. 2018).
D. Three-fourths of the cocaine-involved deaths and one-half of the psychostimulant- involved deaths also included an opioid.
E. Since 2013, drug overdoses involving cocaine and psychostimulants have increased across all demographic groups and U.S. census regions (Kariisa et al. 2019).

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Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    A large body of research in the social sciences suggests that inequality is a key driver of a range of health-related outcomes (see Pickett and Wilkinson 2015; Wilkinson and Pickett 2010, 2019). Recent studies that used relatively more sophisticated statistical modeling techniques have provided empirical evidence of the detrimental health impacts of macro levels of income inequality, especially reductions in country-level and U.S. state-level average life expectancy (e.g., Curran and Mahutga 2018; Hill and Jorgenson 2018; Jorgenson et al. 2020). ...

    Options:
    A. A number of studies have also observed inequality to be associated with adult and infant mortality, obesity, HIV infections, mental illness, and homicides (Buot et al. 2014; Daly 2016; Ribeiro et al. 2017; Torre and Myrskylä 2014; Wilkinson and Pickett 2010, 2019).
B. Overall, the majority of these studies suggest that inequality is harmful to human health, well-being, economies, and social cohesion.
C. Although the demand-side and the supply-side approaches underplay the role of inequality in the drug overdose epidemic, multiple theoretical perspectives that can be applied to drug use help explain why income inequality is related to various population health outcomes (Hill, Jorgenson et al. 2019; Hill and Jorgenson 2018; Jorgenson et al. 2020).
D. The psychosocial and social capital perspectives take a micro point of view to the inequality health relationship, whereas neomaterialism takes a macro perspective.
E. The psychosocial perspective suggests that the stress of relative deprivation, from the unequal distribution of income, contributes to low self-esteem, emotional distress, and risky coping behaviors, such as drug use (Wilkinson and Pickett 2010).

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Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Before group mean centering the variables, we grand mean centered all of the independent vari- ables to provide a meaningful interpretation of the intercepts. The dependent variable and indepen- dent variables were converted to natural logarithms, making them equivalent to elasticity models. ...

    Options:
    A. We logged the variables to (1) correct for skewness and (2) because we posited that the relationship between drug-related mortality and its determinants are multiplicative in nature; that is, the determinants are not independent of one another but rather, act proportionally.
B. To correct for autocorrelation, each model was estimated with an exponential covariance structure, which models an autoregressive process (Rabe-Hesketh and Skrondal 2012).
C. We also estimated robust standard errors to correct for heteroskedasticity.
D. Our dependent variable was the annual drug-related mortality rate per 100,000 people by state.
E. We obtained these data from CDC WONDER's (CDC 2018) multiple cause of death database.

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Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    The global COVID-19 pandemic presented a threat to rival the Spanish influenza pandemic, more than a hundred years before (Sly 2020). In many nations, public health measures intended to prevent the spread of the virus and “flatten the curve” in terms of the rate of transmission resulted in extreme changes to norms of social contact (Lai 2020; Morgan 2020). ...

    Options:
    A. In Canada, public gatherings were banned and citizens were urged to stay at home as much as possible (Government of Alberta 2020; Loewen 2020; Public Health Agency of Canada 2020).
B. To address these questions, we compare two national probability samples of working Canadians from the Canadian Quality of Work and Economic Life Study.
C. The first was gathered in late September 2019; the second was gathered in 2020, from March 17 to March 23, when social isolation measures were enacted in Canada.
D. We therefore contribute to the research in the sociology of mental health by examining whether public health measures intended to stop the spread of the COVID-19 virus may also have had substantial adverse consequences for public mental health in North America.
E. The primary basis of our study is in the fundamental Durkheimian insight that social integration provides a binding influence on suicide (Durkheim [1897] 1951).

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Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a scientific research paper, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Durkheimian perspectives on the consequences of societal change for social integration tend to frame these processes expansively, focusing on broad dimensions of social change and their summative integratory consequences. In the current research, though, we integrate insights from a life course perspective into the study of societal change and social integration. ...

    Options:
    A. We suggest a concept of “integratory vulnerability,” in which a life course context—and particularly cohort membership and the timing of societal events in the life course—critically differentiates individual vulnerability to disintegratory societal events.
B. We are guided to the pivotal role of integratory vulnerability by the strong emphasis of research in the life course perspective on the differentiated ramifications of large-scale economic events for individual lives (Elder 1999).
C. A key paradigmatic principle of a life course perspective is that historical events can affect people differently depending on the timing of these events in the life course (Elder, Johnson, and Crosnoe 2003).
D. Recent research exemplifies these patterns, demonstrating that the timing of the Great Recession as individuals entered the labor market had subsequent implications for individual earning capabilities (Atherwood and Sparks 2019).
E. The question of timing is especially relevant to the threat of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A