Question:
You are given the full text of a scientific research paper.

    Identify and summarize the **policy problem** that this research addresses. Your response should:
    - Clearly state the societal, environmental, or strategic issue motivating the study
    - Be written in accessible, policy-brief style sentences
    - Focus on the core challenge the research aims to solve
    - Avoid excessive detail or technical jargon unless necessary for clarity

    Write a short paragraph suitable for inclusion under the “Policy Problem” section of a policy brief.

    Scientific Research Paper:
    Articles
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-021-00942-2
1Crawford School of Public Policy, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia. 2Zero-Carbon Energy for the Asia-Pacific
Grand Challenge, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia. 3Research School of Population Health, Australian
National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia. 4Centre for Aboriginal Economic Policy Research (CAEPR), Australian National
University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia. 5School of Regulation and Global Governance (RegNet), Australian National University,
Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia. 6Tangentyere Council Aboriginal Corporation, Alice Springs, Northern Territory, Australia. 7Julalikari
Council Aboriginal Corporation, Tennant Creek, Northern Territory, Australia. ✉e-mail: michael.klerck@tangentyere.org.au
I
ndigenous communities in remote Australia face temperature
extremes that can increase their use of electricity and amplify their
risk of being disconnected. Energy is a necessary resource for work,
education, participation in social life and for maintaining healthy liv-
ing practices at home1–6. Energy insecurity remains a pressing issue
globally, including in countries with an abundance of wealth and
resources4,7–10. It can be defined as ‘an inability to meet basic household
energy needs’5 and is broadly synonymous with the concept of energy
poverty11–13. Insufficient access to energy has been linked to poor
health (both mental and physical) as energy is required to maintain
essential services, including food security, lighting, essential medical
equipment and thermal comfort/safety during extreme weather4,5,14–22.
There is a need to better understand the extent of energy insecu-
rity experienced by Australia’s remote Indigenous communities, in
particular the role that temperature plays in shaping energy insecu-
rity. The vulnerabilities associated with energy insecurity vary spa-
tially on the basis of underlying characteristics, which can be highly
regionalized and locally specific23. Socio-economic, demographic
and behavioural factors, as well as occupancy and structural char-
acteristics (including the size, type and quality of housing stock and
appliances), are all key drivers of energy consumption; while the
prevailing temperature can affect the security of electricity supply
due to the cost of heating or cooling24,25.
Temperature extremes are likely to act as a risk multiplier, wors-
ening energy insecurity for those at greatest risk as ‘vulnerable
households typically live in poorer quality housing, and have least
resource or opportunity to invest in improvements to its efficiency
and heating technology’6. The importance of access to energy has
prompted governments worldwide to implement policies maintain-
ing this access, many with special attention to reducing the health
effects of heat and cold7,26,27.
The climate of the Northern Territory (NT) ranges from equato-
rial and tropical regions in the north to hot dry grassland regions
in Central Australia (Fig. 1a). Remote Indigenous communities in
the NT are mostly off-grid and unregulated by the guidelines of the
Australian Energy Regulator28. In a situation unusual in Australia,
remote living residents prepay for access to electricity and regularly
experience disconnection on non-payment. Distant from Australia’s
urban centres and major electricity grids, these communities have
long relied on diesel and gas-fired generators. In recent years, there
has been incremental integration of renewable energy into these
isolated, high-cost electricity networks.
Australia’s remote Indigenous communities face some of the
highest temperatures nationally and are vulnerable to the effects of
a warming climate (Fig. 1b–d)29. Exposure to extreme temperatures
has been associated with a range of adverse health outcomes and
death22,30–33. In the three hottest climate zones in Australia, between
4.5 and 9.1% of all deaths were associated with heat-related mortal-
ity, which is an estimate that is much higher than in other Australian
regions (2% nationally)31. The challenge of maintaining thermal
comfort and safety during temperature extremes is a pressing issue
for author N.F.J.: “We can’t do anything about climate change except
turn the power up, but it costs a lot too, don’t forget that. Electricity,
you’re using more power when you turn that air conditioner up!.”
Temperatures over 35 °C, and even over 40 °C, are increasingly com-
mon in the NT as the climate changes (Fig. 1d). There is a need
to better understand how extreme temperatures already shape the
experience of energy insecurity in remote Indigenous communities.
Because of the health implications of energy disconnection
and the subsequent loss of essential services, there are questions
around how strongly disconnection events relate to temperature
and whether disconnections occur more frequently during extreme
Energy insecurity during temperature extremes in
remote Australia
Thomas Longden   1,2, Simon Quilty   3, Brad Riley   2,4, Lee V. White   2,5, Michael Klerck   4,6 ✉,
Vanessa Napaltjari Davis   6 and Norman Frank Jupurrurla   7
Indigenous communities in remote Australia face dangerous temperature extremes. These extremes are associated with
increased risk of mortality and ill health. For many households, temperature extremes increase both their reliance on those
services that energy provides, and the risk of those services being disconnected. Poor quality housing, low incomes, poor health
and energy insecurity associated with prepayment all exacerbate the risk of temperature-related harm. Here we use daily smart
meter data for 3,300 households and regression analysis to assess the relationship between temperature, electricity use and
disconnection in 28 remote communities. We find that nearly all households (91%) experienced a disconnection from electric-
ity during the 2018–2019 financial year. Almost three quarters of households (74%) were disconnected more than ten times.
Households with high electricity use located in the central climate zones had a one in three chance of a same-day disconnection
on very hot or very cold days. A broad suite of interrelated policy responses is required to reduce the frequency, duration and
negative effects of disconnection from electricity for remote-living Indigenous residents.
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43

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temperatures. In this paper, we assess the relationship between tem-
perature, electricity use and disconnection using daily smart meter
data for 28 remote Indigenous communities in the NT, all of which
are using prepayment metering. We then present how many discon-
nection events occur during example temperatures to indicate the
extent and severity of energy insecurity attributable to temperature
extremes. Quantification of energy insecurity and how it is related
to temperature thresholds could support future policy responses.
Energy injustice and a history of policy exceptionalism
Similar to Indigenous peoples worldwide, communities in the
remote NT have long been at greater risk across the three dimen-
sions of energy injustice. Energy justice is concerned with the dis-
tribution of costs, benefits and risks in energy transitions and is a
principle that arises from theories of distributional justice2,6,9,34–37.
Distributional injustices in energy systems can be produced by
systemic inequalities that arise from ongoing procedural injustices
(which is a concept rooted in the failure to accord some groups of
people equal rights and respect)38 and recognition injustices (when
certain groups face a lack of cultural respect and are excluded from
decision-making)39. Procedural injustices extend to differences in
legal rights; distributional injustices are reflected in differences in
the quality of housing that affects energy use; and injustices in rec-
ognition include a lack of acknowledgement of the unique needs
of specific communities, including those associated with energy
access, use and practices16. Some groups, such as remote Australian
Indigenous communities, consistently have less access to energy
efficient housing, less ability to shape the electricity systems that
they are connected to and less ability to pay for higher electricity
costs that may result from certain systems6,9. These aspects tend to
be intertwined.
For author V.N.D., who works on issues related to energy, hous-
ing and social justice in Central Australia, maintaining access to
electricity during temperature extremes represents a complex suite
of interrelated challenges: “Older houses had solar hot water and
pot belly stoves for the winter. We could collect wood and the sun
heated the water. The new houses built by the Government since the
Intervention (in 2007) have electric hot water heaters and no pot
belly stoves. When the old houses were upgraded, pot belly stoves
were removed. Our houses don’t have heating anymore. Most resi-
dents don’t have much money, so residents buy cheap fan heaters
and air-cons. The problem with these is that they are expensive to
run. Our houses have become expensive to heat and expensive to
cool and we run out of money for electricity. When the power goes
off it is bad for our health, the food gets spoiled, we can’t wash our
clothes and we can’t wash our kids.”
Residents of remote communities live in extremely challenging
socio-economic circumstances and in housing that can be extremely
a
b
c
d
NT
NT
NT
NT
Climate classification of Australia
Projection: Lambert conformal with
standard parallels 10° S, 40° S.
Based on a modified Koeppen
classification system and
on a standard 30-year
climatology (1961–1990)
Commonweath of Australia, 2005
Lowest minimum temperature
1 July 2018 to 30 June 2019
Australian Bureau of Meteorology
Highest maximum temperature
1 July 2018 to 30 June 2019
Australian Bureau of Meteorology
Maximum temperature anomalies
(1961–1990 climate)
1 July 2018 to 30 June 2019
Australian Bureau of Meteorology
3.0 °C
2.5 °C
2.0 °C
1.5 °C
1.0 °C
0.5 °C
0 °C
–0.5 °C
–1.0 °C
–1.5 °C
–2.0 °C
–2.5 °C
–3.0 °C
45 °C
42 °C
39 °C
36 °C
33 °C
30 °C
27 °C
24 °C
21 °C
18 °C
15 °C
12 °C
9 °C
6 °C
3 °C
0 °C
–3 °C
–6 °C
45 °C
42 °C
39 °C
36 °C
33 °C
30 °C
27 °C
24 °C
21 °C
18 °C
15 °C
12 °C
9 °C
6 °C
3 °C
0 °C
–3 °C
–6 °C
Climate classes
Equatorial
Tropical
Subtropical
Desert
Grassland
Temperate
Rainforest (monsoonal)
Rainforest (monsoonal)
Rainforest (persistently wet)
Savannah
Savannah
No dry season
Distinctly dry summer
Distinctly dry winter
Moderately dry winter
Hot (persistently dry)
Hot (persistently dry)
Warm (persistently dry)
Warm (persistently dry)
Warm (summer drought)
No dry season (hot summer)
Moderately dry winter
(hot summer)
Distinctly dry (and hot)
summer
No dry season
(warm summer)
Moderately dry winter
(warm summer)
Distinctly dry (and warm)
summer
No dry season
(mild summer
Distinctly dry (and mild)
summer
No dry season
(cool summer)
Hot (summer drought)
Hot (summer drought)
Hot (winter drought)
Hot (winter drought)
©
Fig. 1 | NT compared with other Australian regions. a, Climate zones. b, Highest maximum temperatures. c, Lowest minimum temperatures. d, The
12-monthly mean maximum temperature anomaly for Australia compared with 1961 to 1990. Panels reproduced with permission from the Australian
Government Bureau of Meteorology under Creative Commons license CC-BY 3.0 AU: a, ref. 73; b, ref. 72; c, ref. 74; d, ref. 75.
Nature Energy | VOL 7 | January 2022 | 43–54 | www.nature.com/natureenergy
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crowded (see Supplementary Table 1 for example statistics from the
2016 census). Housing quality is often poor across these remote
communities. Approximately half of Indigenous households
in the NT fall below the poverty line. The National Indigenous
Reform Agreement (Closing the Gap), the core of the Australian
Government’s agenda to address social and health inequities
facing Indigenous Australians, identifies ‘healthy homes’ as a key
priority for healthy living practices40,41. Nine priorities are identified,
with six pertaining to electricity systems, which are power connec-
tion, electrical safety, heating for showering, facilities to wash chil-
dren, laundry facilities and facilities to store food and prepare food
(including refrigeration)41.
Moreover, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples have
experienced frequent changes in the policy environment regulat-
ing their lives and lands, via a non-Indigenous regime of law. Many
communities in the NT have been subject to frequent changes in
regulatory practices for electricity and regressive changes in pro-
cedural and recognition justice aspects, such as cycles of gain then
subsequent loss of representation in governing bodies37. Some of
this complex regulatory and legislative history is summarized in
a non-exhaustive timeline of key developments in policy affecting
Indigenous peoples in the Territory between 1967 and 2021 (Fig. 2).
This includes the unilateral introduction of a ‘user-pays’ model for
energy provision in 1992. Author and Warumungu elder N.F.J. has
lived experience of these deep structural imbalances that impact,
too-often detrimentally, on the lives and livelihoods of Indigenous
communities in the NT: “I reckon the Government doesn’t want
to listen to Wumpurrarni (Indigenous) people because I reckon
they’ve had enough and they’re just ignoring us now, they think we
get everything for free but we struggle for that. Policy is like a bible,
for Government, it tells them how they run things, how they can do
things. If they don’t have a policy, they don’t know how things run.
And if they have a policy they can jam you and that’s what happens
to us, they jam us all the time.”
Limited protections and prepaying for power in the
remote NT
Prepayment for electricity is uncommon in urban Australia. It is
heavily regulated in most jurisdictions on the basis of concerns for
wellbeing42–45. It remains disproportionately common in small and
widely dispersed remote communities across the NT, Queensland,
Western Australia and South Australia. In the NT prepayment is
not limited to urban town camps and remote communities. It is also
used in urban and regional settings, including Darwin, Palmerston,
Nhulunbuy, Katherine, Tennant Creek and Alice Springs. Many of
these communities have prepaid electricity services as their only
option for service provision46. There is considerable variation in
the operation of services and available protections for prepayment
consumers subnationally. As an example, in other parts of Australia
where consumers are protected by the Australian Energy Regulator
guidelines, people cannot be disconnected from electricity when life
support medical equipment is being used43. This protection is not
comprehensively applied in remote NT communities47,48.
In previous international studies, rates of disconnection among
prepayment households ranged from 10% to 53% for the UK,
Germany and New Zealand49–52. Prepayment disconnection num-
bers for Australia are not systematically collected or reported by
regulators or providers and estimates are scarce. Previous analysis
in the NT found prepayment disconnection rates between 59%
and 91% (ref. 53). In comparison, the rate of ‘raised disconnec-
tions’ for postpayment households in other Australian regions
that are most at risk of disconnection ranged from 3% to 30% with
large variation in disconnection rates associated with local and
regional socio-economic characteristics and whether smart meters
were commonly used54. The St Vincent de Paul Society and Alviss
Consulting report defines a ‘raised disconnection’ as the case when
a ‘retailer raises a service order with the relevant network busi-
ness’. These raised disconnections may be rejected, cancelled or
completed. They may be rejected on the basis of an invalid address
or when disconnection is prohibited for medical reasons. And the
disconnection request can be cancelled by the retailer when the
payment issue has been resolved. This can be a full payment or the
establishment of a payment plan54. These rates of disconnections are
the higher end of estimates as they are those that were found for the
top 30 postcode regions from four Australian areas (that is, New
South Wales, Victoria, South East Queensland and South Australia).
Across the eastern (and most populous) parts of Australia, the rate
of completed disconnections for postpayment households was 1%
(ref. 55).
While data are scarce, issues with prepayment and disconnection
in other regions of Australia have been noted by key organizations,
including the Essential Services Commission of South Australia44,
Energy and Water Ombudsman New South Wales45, the Queensland
Council of Social Service56 and Bushlight46. The last two raised these
concerns specifically in relation to remote Indigenous communities.
Disconnection as an indicator of energy insecurity
While energy insecurity describes more than disconnection rates
alone, having an electricity connection is the first part of being
able to access electricity to meet household energy needs. Here we
assess disconnection rates as a proxy for energy insecurity, while
noting that other factors also contribute to the disconnection rates
observed. This may include housing design, construction and insu-
lation; sociodemographic factors such as income and health; and
entrenched regulatory structures.
When the households in our dataset run out of credit, they face
immediate disconnection between 10:00 and 14:00. Outside these
hours, credit is extended and the accumulated debt is automatically
deducted from the subsequent purchase of energy credit. Energy
services are not recommenced until the accrued debt is paid57.
For the houses in our study with complete data for the 2018–
2019 financial year (July 2018 to June 2019), 91% of households
experienced a disconnection. Most disconnections were same-day
disconnections (92% of the total) where the meter was reconnected
when credit was restored on the same day. A total of 71% of house-
holds experienced a same-day disconnection more than ten times in
a 12-month period. These rates of disconnection are much higher
than Australian and international examples (mentioned above). On
average, a same-day disconnection lasted for almost 3 h. Multi-day
disconnections were less common (0.9% of days), but two thirds
of households experienced this type of disconnection, which lasted
overnight or longer. Of all households, 7% experienced a multi-day
disconnection more than ten times in 1 year. These disconnections
could last for many days (the all-region average was almost 4 days).
Table 1 shows how these disconnections differed by climate zones.
Electricity use during temperature extremes
To confirm our expectation that temperature affects electricity use,
we used linear regression with panel-corrected standard errors to
provide estimates for seven daily temperature ranges. These tem-
perature ranges are specified in the regressions as the daily aver-
age temperature for the same day as electricity use and the daily
average temperature for the 2 days before. We estimate these regres-
sions for all climate regions pooled together, and for each climate
region separately. The regressions were also estimated for all houses
and then re-estimated for different levels of the average daily use of
electricity. Our data did not include any information on household
characteristics, so we have used the average level of daily electricity
use to group the households. Determinants of the average daily load
include occupancy and the use of appliances. For more information,
refer to the methods section for more details on the grouping of
households with high/low electricity use.
Nature Energy | VOL 7 | January 2022 | 43–54 | www.nature.com/natureenergy
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Referendum
Nationwide referendum in which
Australians voted to amend the
constitution to count Aboriginal
and Torres Strait Islander peoples
in the national census, granting full
rights as citizens and compelling
the Commonwealth Government to
take action in Aboriginal affairs.
Northern Territory (Self-
Government) Act 1978
Northern Territory Government
formed with the granting of self-
government.
Northern Territory Electricity
Commission established.
The Northern Territory ‘Intervention’
A complex range of measures enacted
through the Northern Territory National
Emergency Response Act 2007. The
intervention effected changes to welfare
payments, education, employment and
health services in remote NT communities.
Compulsorily acquired five-year leases over
70 communities, implemented universal
welfare quarantining and removed the
legislative protection of the Racial
Discrimination Act (Cwlth) 1975 in relation
to these changes.
Commonwealth Aboriginal
Land Rights (Northern
Territory) Act 1976
In 1976, the Commonwealth
passed through parliament
land rights legislation over
the Northern Territory,
beginning the process of
recognizing the continued
collective ownership of
‘Country’ by Aboriginal
Traditional Owners.
Indigenous Essential Services (IES)
In 2003, Power and Water
Corporation established IES Pty Ltd.
A not-for-profit entity, IES is
responsible for the delivery of
essential services to remote
communities.
1976
Power and Water Authority
(PAWA)
Northern Territory Electricity
Commission and Water
Authority amalgamate to form
Power and Water Authority
(PAWA). By 1987, Northern
Territory Government indicates
its intention to begin charging for
electricity on remote communities.
Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander Commission
(ATSIC) (1990–2004)
The first national
representative body to give
Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander Australians
decision-making capacities.
ATSIC was established in
1990 replacing DAA. ATSIC
was abolished in 2004.
Manymak energy efficiency programme
‘Dharray Manymakkung Pawaw Ga Gapuw’
means ‘looking after power and water’ in
the East Arnhem Land language of
Djampbarrpuyngu. Energy efficiency
programme ran in six communities between
2013 and 2015 assisting households in energy
efficiency practices.
Mabo versus Queensland (No. 2) 1992
The landmark Australian high court ruling of Mabo versus
Queensland (No. 2) overturned the fiction of ‘terra nullius’
(a land ‘belonging to no-one’) and recognized the fact that
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples had lived in
Australia for thousands of years, enjoying rights to lands
according to their own laws and customs. It ruled that
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander property rights,
termed ‘native title’, could survive colonial annexation.
Native Title Act (Cwlth) 1993
Native Title was introduced as a result of the
Mabo decision (1992). Native Title is the
recognition that Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander peoples have rights and interests to
land and waters according to their traditional
law and customs as set out in Australian law.
Native Title is governed by the Native Title Act
(Cwlth) 1993.
United Nations Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous
Peoples (2007) (UNDRIP)
On 3 April 2009, Australia reversed its initial (2007)
opposition, to express support for the United Nations
Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.
Study period
January 2018–
July 2019.
Uluru Statement from the Heart
On 26 May 2017, delegates
from the First Nations National
Constitutional Convention
called for the establishment of a
‘First Nations Voice’ to be
enshrined in the Constitution.
Seeks a Makarrata Commission
to supervise agreement making
between governments and First
Nations and ‘truth-telling’ of
Australia’s shared history.
Government issued a statement
rejecting the Uluru Statement
from the Heart on the 26
October 2017.
Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (Cwlth)
(RDA)
Making racial discrimination in certain
contexts illegal in Australia, overriding
state and territory legislation to the extent
of any inconsistency.
1967
1975
1990
1992
2007
1978
2009
2017
1986
The introduction of ‘user-pays’ model
in NT remote communities
Domestic residential users in remote
Aboriginal communities begin paying
for power 1 January 1992.
Incremental introduction of token and
card prepayment metering.
1992
Indigenous Community
Engineering Guidelines
(ICEG)
Unregulated by the
Utilities Commission, the
utility reports on minimum
service levels as outlined in
the ICEG.
Power and Water
Corporation (PWC)
1 July 2002
became the first
government-owned
corporation in the
Territory, replacing
PAWA as the
responsible
electricity provider for
remote communities.
Solar Energy Transformation Program
(SETuP) is one of the largest isolated off-grid
solar programmes in remote communities,
integrating 10 MW of solar photovoltaics in 25
communities.
Rollout of ‘smart’ prepayment metering to
replace token prepayment.
2002
2003
2014
2015
2018
2020
Closing the Gap in partnership
27 July 2020 the Australian
Government committed to the National
Agreement on Closing the Gap in
Indigenous health inequality (in
partnership) through: shared decision-
making, building the community
controlled sector, transforming
government organizations and shared
access to data and information at a
regional level.
Office of Aboriginal Affairs
(OAA) 1967–1972
Department of Aboriginal
affairs (DAA) 1972–1990
Office of Indigenous Policy
Coordination (OIPC) 2004–2011
Families, and Housing, Community
Services and Indigenous Affairs
(FaHCSIA) 2006–2014
Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander
Commission
(ATSIC)1990–2004
Department
of Prime
Minister and
Cabinet
(DPM&C)
2014–present
National
Indigenous
Australians
Agency
(NIAA) 2019–
present
Fig. 2 | Timeline of the complex history of Indigenous policy in Australia. Key developments in Indigenous policy, including remote community energy
policy, between 1967 and 2021. Boxes at the bottom are the federal departments or agencies responsible for Indigenous policy.
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The regression estimates confirm that electricity use differs
notably by temperature, climate zone and month (Fig. 3). Estimates
for temperature-related increases in electricity use are shown in
Fig. 3, with the number of days that these temperatures occurred
and the estimates for the monthly change in electricity use (with-
out the daily temperature effect). These estimates for temperature
and monthly effects should be interpreted in relation to the refer-
ence temperature range (daily average temperatures between 20°C
and 25 °C).
Given that the climate across the northern half of the NT is
characterized by tropical heat (and mild cool nights only during
a short winter season), daily electricity use was on average higher
in the hottest periods of the year (November to March). This sea-
sonal increase in electricity consumption was most pronounced in
high-use households, which also experienced a reciprocal reduc-
tion in monthly electricity consumption in the cooler months. As
expected in the NT, which generally has a prevailing hot climate,
household energy expenditure is greatest during hotter weather due
to the need for cooling.
Beyond seasonal effects, the need for heating and cooling can
influence the daily use of electricity. The hot persistently dry
grassland climate zone is the region that predominantly deter-
mines the all-regions result (Fig. 3b). It is the combination of the
Central Australian climate zones shown in Fig. 1a. For this climate
zone, which unlike the other regions experiences cold nights, the
households with the highest electricity use (top tenth percentile of
average daily load) increased their electricity use by 30 kWh (on
average) on the coldest of nights (between 0°C and 10 °C). The
average increase was 17 kWh across all houses in this climate zone.
Extremely hot days with average temperatures between 30°C and
40 °C corresponded to a 16–19 kWh increase (on average) for the
households with the highest electricity use. When considering all
houses, the average increase was 6–8 kWh.
Disconnection during temperature extremes
To assess the question of whether temperature influences the prob-
ability of disconnection, we used random-effects probit regressions
to estimate the probability of same-day and multi-day disconnec-
tions. Figure 4 shows the estimates for temperature-related increases
in the probability of a same-day disconnection, which includes daily
estimates and the estimates for the monthly change in disconnec-
tions (without the daily temperature effect). The estimates are inter-
preted in relation to a reference temperature range (daily average
temperatures between 20°C and 25 °C). These estimates are also
re-estimated by the level of electricity use and climate zones.
The probability of a same-day disconnection occurring on any
given day (except during weekends and public holidays when dis-
connection is prohibited) is high (0.04–0.06) and increases on the
first day that credit can expire, predominantly the next business day
(approximately 0.19). This is captured in our results, with a large
Table 1 | Disconnection rates by climate zone between July 2018 and June 2019 (n = 1,045,725)
Equatorial climate
zone (most northern)
Coastal tropical
climate zone
Savannah tropical
climate zone
Hot persistently dry
grassland climate
zone (most southern)
All regions
Same-day disconnections
Percentage of households experiencing a
same-day disconnection at least once
85
94
90
90
89
Percentage of households experiencing a
same-day disconnection at least ten times
60
77
75
75
71
Percentage of days in the sample with a
disconnection
7
11
11
10
10
Average length of disconnection (hours)
2.92
2.89
2.69
2.19
2.67
Multi-day disconnections
Percentage of households experiencing
multi-day disconnection at least once
47
68
71
83
66
Percentage of households experiencing
multi-day disconnection at least ten times
2
4
9
16
7
Percentage of days in the sample with a
disconnection
<1
1
1
2
1
Average length of disconnection (hours)
102.23
87.82
73.29
125.49
98.48
Any type of disconnection
Percentage of households experiencing any
type of disconnection at least once
87
95
91
92
91
Percentage of households experiencing any
type of disconnection at least ten times
63
80
78
78
74
Percentage of days in the sample with a
disconnection
7
11
12
12
10
Average length of disconnection (hours)
8.60
8.46
8.39
17.66
10.62
Daily electricity use and expenditure
Daily electricity use (kWh) (s.d.)
21.25 (16.46)
23.29 (15.24)
25.73 (16.86)
26.95 (22.05)
24.13 (17.75)
Daily expenditure (AUD$) (s.d.)
6.09 (4.71)
6.67 (4.37)
7.37 (4.83)
7.72 (6.31)
6.91 (5.08)
Count of observations for balanced panel for
2018–2019 financial year
306,600
229,585
296,380
213,160
1,045,725
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a
b
Selected regression estimates by level of avergae daily load (ADL) (with 95% CI in grey)
30
20
10
0
0
–20
–10
0
10
400
800
1,200
0–10
Daily electricity use (kWh)
Daily electricity use (kWh)
–20
–10
0
10
Daily electricity use (kWh)
0
25
50
75
100
0
10
20
30
Daily electricity use (kWh)
Number of observations
(thousands)
Number of observations
(thousands)
10–15
All houses
High ADL (90–100%)
Low ADL (0–10%)
Selected regression estimates by level of avergae daily load (ADL) (with 95% CI in grey)
All houses
High ADL (90–100%)
Low ADL (0–10%)
15–20
20–25
25–30
30–35
35–40
High
All
Low
High
All
Low
High
All
Low
High
All
Low
Daily average temperature (°C)
0–10
10–15
15–20
20–25
25–30
30–35
35–40
Daily average temperature (°C)
0–10
10–15
15–20
20–25
25–30
30–35
35–40
Daily average temperature (°C)
0–10
10–15
15–20
20–25
25–30
30–35
35–40
Daily average temperature (°C)
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
January
February
March
April
May
Month
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
January
February
March
April
May
Month
Fig. 3 | Daily electricity use by temperature and month. a, All regions. b, Hot persistently dry grassland climate zone. These are the coefficient estimates and
95% confidence intervals from multiple regressions for a sample with 1,674,786 daily observations across 3,300 houses. Regressions were grouped by percen
tile of electricity use (that is, average daily load) and climate zones. Estimates for all houses, low-electricity-use households and high-electricity-use households
are shown here (Supplementary Tables 2–6 have all of the electricity use estimates). Temperature bins are specified using daily average temperatures (in °C).
Temperature-based estimates are for a three-day period (that is, temperature on the day of electricity use and the two days before). Temperature estimates are
interpreted using 20–25 °C as the reference temperature range. Monthly estimates are interpreted using April as the reference month.
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increase in disconnections occurring on Monday and the day after a
public holiday (Fig. 4). There is a significant relationship with tem-
perature that is most notable for the households with the highest
electricity use in the two southern climate zones.
For the full sample, there was a one in seventeen chance (prob-
ability of 0.06) of a same-day disconnection occurring on moder-
ate days with average temperatures between 20°C and 25 °C. This
increased to a one in eleven chance (probability of 0.9) on hot days
with average temperatures between 35°C and 40 °C. A series of cold
nights had a significant effect with an almost one in six chance
(probability of 0.18) of a same-day disconnection occurring on cold
days with average temperatures between 0°C and 10 °C.
The households with the highest electricity use had a much
greater probability of same-day disconnection. For this group, there
was almost a one in seven chance (a probability of 0.15) of experi-
encing a same-day disconnection on moderate days with average
temperatures between 20°C and 25 °C. This increased to one in
three (probability of 0.35–0.39) for the coldest temperatures (0°C
to 15 °C) and one in four (probability of 0.24 to 0.27) for the hottest
temperatures (30°C to 40 °C).
Climate zones also influenced the probability of a same-day dis-
connection occurring (Fig. 4b and Supplementary Information).
For households with the highest electricity use in the southern-most
climate zone (that is, hot persistently dry grasslands shown in Fig.
4b), a one in seven chance (probability of 0.14) of same-day discon-
nection for temperatures between 20°C and 25 °C, increased to one
in three (probability of 0.31) for the coldest temperatures (0°C to
10 °C) and one in four (probability of 0.23) for the hottest tempera-
tures (30°C to 40 °C). For the households with the highest electric-
ity use in the savannah tropical climate zone, there was a one in
four chance (probability of 0.23) of disconnection for temperatures
between 20°C and 25 °C, which increased to one in three (probabil-
ity of 0.37 to 0.39) for the hottest temperatures (3°C to 40 °C).
Only a weak relationship between temperature and multi-day
disconnections was found. The estimation results are provided in
Supplementary Table 12. While rarer (approximately one-tenth as
common), multi-day disconnection events lasted for an average of
4 days (Table 2).
Number of disconnections during temperature extremes
Temperature-related disconnections are driven by an increased
need for electricity to maintain thermal comfort and safety during
extreme temperatures. We now focus on the proportion of discon-
nections that occurred during hot and cold temperatures for two
reasons. First, these are critical events where expenditure on energy
has increased due to cooling/heating, leading to a disconnection that
compromises the other functioning of the home, including refrig-
eration, lighting and life support medical equipment (for example,
oxygen concentrators, sleep apnoea machines, home renal dialysis
equipment). Second, there is a concern about the impact on health.
Protections internationally include several examples of restricting
disconnection for vulnerable customers, including on the basis of
health risks and outdoor temperatures7,26,48. These protections can
include disconnection prohibitions based on the time of year (for
example, no disconnections during winter months in cold climates),
on reaching specific temperature thresholds, and on declarations of
extreme weather events (for example, no disconnections during a
declared heat wave event)26. Using example temperature thresholds
to determine the number of temperature-related disconnections,
we find that over 49,000 incidences of disconnection (29% of dis-
connections) occurred during hot and cold temperature extremes
(Table 2). We examine both 35°C and 40 °C as the threshold for
extreme heat.
Discussion
We begin to address the need to better understand how temperature
affects energy insecurity in Australia’s remote communities by exam-
ining (1) whether temperature affects electricity use, (2) whether
temperature influences the probability of disconnection and (3) the
proportion of temperature-related disconnections (that is, discon-
nections that occur during extreme temperatures). Temperature is
confirmed to effect electricity use. Correspondingly, disconnections
are more likely during extreme temperatures. We find that in the
28 remote Indigenous communities that are the focus of this study,
disconnections increase from an already high baseline of one in
seventeen during mild temperatures (20–25 °C), to a one in eleven
chance of disconnection during hot days (34–40 °C) and a one in
six chance during cold days (0–10 °C). Disconnection occurs more
frequently for households with the highest electricity use in the cen-
tral climate zones, which had a one in three chance of a same-day
disconnection on very hot or very cold days. This indicates that
households are having trouble cooling/heating their homes, which
in turn compromises access to other essential services including
refrigeration, lighting and essential medical devices. While the level
of energy service that is viewed as ‘essential’ can vary over time and
with changing social norms58, a complete loss of access to energy
services constitutes a level of energy insecurity that can harm well-
being2. In the financial year July 2018 to June 2019, disconnection
was experienced by 91% of households in the remote NT communi-
ties that we have data for.
There are multiple levels of energy injustice in remote
Indigenous Australia, and the effects of climate change will exac-
erbate pre-existing energy insecurity and subsequent effects on
health and wellbeing. In considering how to address these issues, it
needs to be recognized that there is a disproportionate prevalence
of prepayment metering in remote Indigenous communities com-
pared to the rest of Australia46. There are questions about whether
prepayment is a good option for remote communities that already
face compounding distributional injustices. While some studies
find that prepayment may be preferred to the accrual of unsustain-
able debts50,51, this is only a weak endorsement of prepayment when
compared to worse options. The framing of household electricity
payment for communities needs to be extended beyond individual
fiscal responsibility to incorporate a broader economic lens that
accounts for the effects of frequent disconnection from the services
that energy provides on Indigenous wellbeing.
In considering such distributional injustices, procedural injus-
tices first need to be addressed by supporting participatory com-
munity engagement in energy policy development (for example,
increase local access to data/information and community consulta-
tions). Indigenous Australians have distinct societal values and per-
spectives of wellbeing, and for progress across all spheres of inequity
Fig. 4 | Probability of a same-day disconnection by temperature, day and month. a, All regions. b, Hot persistently dry grassland climate zone.
Coefficient estimates and 95% confidence intervals from multiple regressions for a sample with 1,674,786 daily observations across 3,300 houses are
presented above. Regressions were grouped by percentile of electricity use (that is, average daily load) and by climate zone. Estimates for all houses,
low-electricity-use households and high-electricity-use households are shown here (Supplementary Tables 7–11 have all same-day disconnection
estimates). Temperature bins are specified using daily average temperatures (in °C). Temperature-based estimates are for a three-day period (that is,
temperature on the day of disconnection and the two days before). Temperature estimates are interpreted using 20–25 °C as the reference temperature
range. Day of the week estimates are interpreted using Wednesday as the reference day. Monthly estimates are interpreted using April as the reference
month.
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and injustice faced by Indigenous communities there needs to be a
recognition of these world views in the context of the realities that
these communities face59.
The Partnership Agreement on Closing the Gap calls for the
greater sharing of, and access to, data and information to support
shared decision-making (Fig. 2)60. With respect to disconnections,
a
b
0–10
10–15
15–20
20–25
25–30
30–35
35–40
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.1
0
0
0
0
0
0
Probability
Probability
Probability
Probability
Probability
Probability
Daily average temperature (°C)
Day of the week (including public holidays)
Sun
Sat
Fri
Thu
Wed
Tue
Mon
Day after public holiday
Public holiday
June
July
August
September
October
November
Month
December
January
February
March
April
May
Selected regression estimates by level of average daily load (ADL) (with 95% CI in grey)
All houses
High ADL (90–100%)
Low ADL (0–10%)
0–10
10–15
15–20
20–25
25–30
30–35
35–40
Daily average temperature (°C)
Day of the week (including public holidays)
Sun
Sat
Fri
Thu
Wed
Tue
Mon
Day after public holiday
Public holiday
June
July
August
September
October
November
Month
December
January
February
March
April
May
Selected regression estimates by level of average daily load (ADL) (with 95% CI in grey)
All houses
Low ADL (0–10%)
High
All
Low
High
All
Low
High
All
Low
High
All
Low
High ADL (90–100%)
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a key aim will be reducing the frequency, duration and effects of
disconnection. This might include: improving the accessibility and
affordability of energy through changes to tariffs or direct access to
the benefits of renewable energy such as residential rooftop solar
on community housing; improving energy efficiency of infrastruc-
ture, buildings and appliances; and improving energy provision for
particular critical needs, for example, disconnection prohibitions or
tariff reductions during temperature extremes, protections for criti-
cal care customers and the use of protected circuits for refrigeration,
lighting and essential medical equipment.
In addition to better policy, the language around disconnection
events needs to recognize and reflect community experience. The
term ‘self-disconnection’, while in common use, is a misrepresenta-
tion as it incorrectly implies that households were making a vol-
untary choice to disconnect themselves21,50,61. The term ‘involuntary
self-disconnection’ emphasizes ‘that the household has not chosen
to cease their electricity supply’ 62.
Limitations
On considering these results there are limitations that need to
be considered. First, we were unable to identify the reasons for
multi-day disconnections. Once a disconnection occurs, whether it
becomes a multi-day disconnection will depend on a number of fac-
tors including whether residents can ‘top up’ credit, pay off ‘friendly
credit’ debt, or make other arrangements. Inter- and intraregional
mobility in remote and rural Australia is common (refs. 63–65 and
E. Ings, personal communication), which could influence the onset
and length of multi-day disconnections. Residents may choose to
temporarily relocate to the residence of kin for socio-cultural rea-
sons or because of a disconnection, and disconnection-associated
relocations may themselves exacerbate overcrowding and increase
electricity demand on households that are not yet disconnected.
Future studies should focus on the experiences of energy poverty in
these communities and further investigate these issues.
Second, we did not have information on the socio-economic and
demographic composition of households. To address this, we used
statistical approaches to control for differences across households
and estimated the effect of temperature on the basis of the usual
level of electricity use and disconnections (during moderate tem-
peratures between 20°C and 25 °C). As a result, when discussing
the estimates, we provide the likelihood of disconnections during
moderate temperatures. Electricity consumption data were used to
estimate relationships for different groups of households. There will
be additional determinants for the differences in electricity use and
disconnection, which should be investigated further.
Third, this study uses data from 3,300 smart prepayment meters
and finds that over 170,000 disconnections occurred across 28 com-
munities over a period spanning 18 months. Note that our dataset
is unbalanced due to the timing of the roll out of smart meters in
the NT. Thus, we underestimate the total number of disconnections
in the NT as there are many more households currently using pre-
payment metering than just those represented in this study53. The
vulnerability of prepayment customers is often overlooked by gov-
ernment reporting. Further research on prepayment and discon-
nection in other jurisdictions is needed, as is greater understanding
of the direct health effects of these disconnections.
Conclusions
Australia could do much better at providing protections from dis-
connection. Policymakers are beginning to consider the importance
of electricity to wellbeing in approaches that seek to limit the fre-
quency and duration of disconnection events, particularly in relation
to temperature extremes and wellbeing. In the USA, for example,
despite not having a formalized definition of energy poverty or fed-
eral level protections, many states have utility regulation policies that
protect customers from disconnection of service in certain cases,
including extreme temperatures4,26. Some state consumer protec-
tions target vulnerable groups, such as in the state of Texas where
prepayment-meter enrolment is prohibted for those diagnosed with
severe medical conditions that require electricity services to main-
tain temperatures or run devices26,66. Many European Union states
have also introduced protection from disconnection7, many with
particular focus on extreme temperatures and vulnerable groups.
In Australia, the Essential Service Commission (for Victoria)
observes that “customers who are disconnected from electricity or
gas can face significant risks to their welfare… disconnection for
Table 2 | Electricity use and disconnections by climate zones
Equatorial climate zone
(most northern)
Coastal tropical
climate zone
Savannah tropical
climate zone
Hot persistently dry
grassland climate zone
(most southern)
All regions
Percentage of disconnections above maximum temperature of 35 °C
Percentage of same-day disconnections
7
12
34
42
24
Percentage of multi-day disconnections
6
11
36
40
28
Percentage of all disconnections
7
12
34
42
25
Percentage of disconnections above maximum temperature of 40 °C
Percentage of same-day disconnections
0
0
4
18
5
Percentage of multi-day disconnections
0
0
3
18
7
Percentage of all disconnections
0
0
4
18
5
Percentage of disconnections below minimum temperature of 0 °C
Percentage of same-day disconnections
0
0
5
12
4
Percentage of multi-day disconnections
0
0
6
11
6
Percentage of all disconnections
0
0
5
12
4
Number of disconnections
Number of same-day disconnections
32,133
39,212
54,309
30,281
155,935
Number of multi-day disconnections
1,971
2,787
4,841
4,692
14,291
Number of all disconnections
34,104
41,999
59,150
34,973
170,226
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non-payment reasons should only ever be a last resort”67. Australia’s
National Energy Retail Rules require that the retailer not arrange for
the de-energization of premises having life support equipment or
during an extreme weather event68, but this is not comprehensively
applied in remote NT communities47,48.
Energy insecurity in remote Indigenous Australia remains a press-
ing issue. Access to energy has been identified as a key part of the ‘criti-
cal healthy living priorities’ for remote living Indigenous Australians3.
Ensuring access to essential services is an important prerequisite to
improving health and wellbeing outcomes69. The focus should not be
solely on electricity provision itself, but on maximizing the benefit
that households receive from their electricity use and this includes a
range of essential services, including heating and cooling.
Methods
Ethics statement. This research was conducted with ethics approval from the
Central Australian Health Research Ethics Committee Centre for Remote Health
(CA-20-3809).
Autoethnographic quotes. While this is predominantly a quantitative study, our
research methodology is based on principles of social justice where Aboriginal
people participate in setting the research agenda70 and we supplement our analysis
with insights through autoethnography71. These quotes are included by authors,
N.F.J. who is a community elder and V.N.D. who is a senior Aboriginal researcher.
This paper has more than a single authorial voice, coming as it does from multiple
perspectives. These perspectives are from researchers who work at an academic
institution (T.L., B.R. and L.V.W.), a regional hospital (S.Q.) and community-based
organizations (S.Q., M.K. and V.N.D.).
Dataset. The data used in this paper were sourced from the NT Government
owned utility Power and Water Corporation, the Australian Bureau of Meteorology
(BOM) and the Australian Bureau of Statistics. Daily electricity use data for 3,300
households with a smart prepayment meter were matched to temperature data
from the closest weather station. For cases where there were no temperature data
for that day, the next closest weather station was used (6.1% of all observations). If
that still resulted in a missing value, then the average for that climate zone was used
(0.3% of observations). Data on disconnections were provided along with the time
and date that the electricity service was discontinued and subsequently restored.
These cases of disconnection were aggregated into daily data and separated into
two variables on the basis of whether an electricity service was restored to the
household on the same day or not. Selected summary statistics for these data by
climate zones are shown in the paper in Tables 1 and 2.
The climate zones we used were sourced from the Australian BOM31. We
made some modifications to the zones mapped by BOM, which was to reclassify
all of the mainland communities that were within 20 km of the coast as a ‘coastal
tropical climate zone’ and combine the Central Australian climate zones into one
region that we called the ‘hot persistently dry grassland climate zone’. The second
modification was due to sample size and a similarity in temperatures. The other
climate zones are those prescribed by BOM, shown in Fig. 1c.
Extreme temperatures in remote communities. Those communities that we focus
on are typically exposed to extremely hot days and cold nights. Supplementary
Table 13 shows the breakdown of key temperature statistics by climate zone for
these communities. Figure 1 presents maps produced by the Australian BOM
showing how temperature differs across both Australia and the NT72. Differences
in temperature indicators vary across climate zones (shown in Fig. 1a–c). Central
Australia experiences prolonged hot daytime temperatures in summer and cold
(below zero) nights in winter. For example, the hottest day (46 °C) and coldest
night (−4 °C) in our dataset both occurred in the southern-most ‘hot persistently
dry grassland climate zone’. Northern regions of the NT experience the southern
extent of the tropical monsoon, which brings seasonal cyclonic activity and
afternoon storms. Average temperatures decrease north to south. The highest
maximum temperature (lowest minimum temperature) increases (decreases) as
you move from the north to south (Fig. 1b,c and Supplementary Table 13). The
regressions were run using daily average temperatures.
Grouping by average daily electricity use. Energy insecurity and disconnection
rates are likely to be determined by a range of factors, including the usual level
of electricity use and the inability to pay. While we do not have household data
on occupancy or income, we are able to categorize the meters into groups using
average daily electricity use. The average daily load will be a function of the types
of appliance, intensity of use and the number of residents. The percentile groupings
used are shown in Supplementary Table 14 along with the aggregate expenditure
on electricity. Note that the data are not a balanced panel due to the incremental
roll out of smart meters across communities and we excluded those meters with
less than 100 observations.
Regression analysis. To estimate the relationship between electricity use and
temperature we used linear regression with panel-corrected standard errors that
accounted for heteroscedasticity and autocorrelation. The 28 communities were
the level for the panel correction. The software that was used to estimate these
relationships was Stata MP 16.1. The ‘xtpcse’ command was used to estimate the
results shown in Fig. 3 and Supplementary Tables 2–6. We also tested for normality
in linear panel-data models using the ‘xtsktest’ command, which did not reject
the null hypothesis of normality (Chi-square statistic of 3.28–3.42 (P value of
0.18–0.19)). The ‘xtserial’ command was used to perform the Wooldridge test for
autocorrelation in panel data, which rejected the null hypothesis of no first-order
autocorrelation (F-statistic of 6,694.17 (P of 0.00)). We used random-effects probit
regressions to estimate the relationship between the probability of same-day/
multi-day disconnection and temperature. These estimates were estimated
using the ‘xtprobit’ command in Stata and we clustered the standard errors
by community to control for regional differences. The results of the same-day
disconnection estimations are shown in Fig. 4 and Supplementary Tables 7–11.
When discussing these estimates in the paper we compare them to the likelihood
of disconnection during moderate temperatures. The probabilies of disconnection
events were converted into an odds ratio (for example, 1:2) and then reported as
the chance of a disconnection (for example, one in three). Multi-day disconnection
estimates are included in Supplementary Table 12, but are not discussed in the
paper as there was no clear relationship between multi-day disconnections and
daily average temperature. Note that the regression estimates were graphed using
the ‘ggplot’ command in R.
Reporting Summary. Further information on research design is available in the
Nature Research Reporting Summary linked to this article.
Data availability
The data used in this paper are not freely available and were sourced from the data
custodians. The electricity data were sourced from Power and Water Corporation
(https://www.powerwater.com.au/) and the Australian BOM (http://www.bom.gov.
au/). We note that access to data will be a key part of local communities helping
to develop appropriate policy responses to the challenges outlined in this paper.
The Partnership Agreement on Closing the Gap calls for the greater sharing of,
and access to, data and information at a regional level noting that “disaggregated
data and information is most useful to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
organizations and communities to obtain a comprehensive picture of what is
happening in their communities and to support decision-making”60.
Code availability
The code used to estimate the regressions (in Stata MP 16.1) and create the
graphics (in R v.4.1.1) is available on request. The ‘xtpcse’ and ‘xtprobit’ commands
in Stata MP 16.1 were used for the regressions. The regression estimates were
graphed using the ‘ggplot’ command in R. Statistical tests for normality and
autocorrelation were performed in Stata MP 16.1 using the ‘xtsktest’ and ‘xtserial’.
Received: 16 April 2021; Accepted: 20 October 2021;
Published online: 16 December 2021
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Acknowledgements
We acknowledge and thank the Power and Water Corporation for providing
the electricity data. We acknowledge the Australian BOM and thank them for
providing temperature data and maps. A range of people provided useful advice that
helped to shape this paper and they include E. Ings and J. Hulcombe. We thank the
Board and staff of Tangentyere Council Aboriginal Corporation in Mparntwe
(Alice Springs) and the Board and staff of Julalikari Council Aboriginal Corporation
in Tennant Creek. Our research methodology was informed by the principles
underpinning ethical Australian Indigenous research outlined in the AIATSIS
Code of Ethics for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Research (AIATSIS 2020):
Indigenous self-determination, Indigenous leadership, impact and value, sustainability
and accountability. We acknowledge and thank colleagues at the Australian National
University. T.L., B.R. and L.V.W. thank their colleagues from the ANU Grand Challenge
Zero-Carbon Energy for the Asia-Pacific and the Institute for Climate, Energy and
Disaster Solutions.
Author contributions
All authors contributed to the conceptualization of the research. We especially note the
contributions of N.F.J. and V.N.D. in shaping our understanding of the key issues faced
by Indigenous communities in the NT. S.Q. acquired the key data, and T.L performed
the analysis. T.L., S.Q., B.R., L.V.W. and M.K. wrote the initial draft of the manuscript,
and all authors contributed to the review and revision. N.F.J. and V.N.D. were engaged
in discussions on key issues with the other members of the authorship team and their
selected quotes are provided to highlight those themes and the issues that they raised as
being the most important (refer to autoethnographic data section for more information).
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Extended data are available for this paper at https://doi.org/10.1038/
s41560-021-00942-2.
Supplementary information The online version contains supplementary material
available at https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-021-00942-2.
Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to Michael Klerck.
Peer review information Nature Energy thanks Kimberley O’Sullivan, Sangeetha
Chandrashekeran and Stefan Bouzarovski for their contribution to the peer review of
this work
Reprints and permissions information is available at www.nature.com/reprints.
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affiliations.
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Limited 2021
Nature Energy | VOL 7 | January 2022 | 43–54 | www.nature.com/natureenergy
54

    Policy Problem:

Answer: In Australia’s Northern Territory, most remote Indigenous households are provided with or elect to use prepayment electricity meters. This payment method is associated with high disconnection rates and is uncommon in other Australian urban and rural communities. These remote communities also experience some of the most extreme temperatures in Australia. Electricity use to sustain safe indoor temperatures can rapidly deplete available means, resulting in disconnection with little warning. As such, safe temperatures cannot be maintained, and households lose access to other essential services that electricity provides, such as food storage, washing and cooking. This raises the need to understand both the extent of current disconnections and the degree to which they are triggered by temperature. Without this understanding, the existence and severity of problems cannot be identified, and policy cannot be designed to mitigate current harms or prevent future ones.