Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The deployment of renewable energy in the residential sector has increasingly severe repercussions on electricity grids; for a growing share of consumers, the connection to the public grid will largely serve as a backup option, rather than being the primary source for their electricity acquisition6,7. For such consumers, the volumes of electricity consumed from the grid will be subordinate and likewise will their contribution to the financing of the grid be low in the case of volumetric tariffs8–11. These trends will inevitably lead to a reallocation of the burdens of grid-cost recovery12–14.

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
These are single-person households that consume moderate volumes of electricity (that is, 1,805 and 1,604 kWh in total during the observation period) and their current network costs in the reference scenario are low compared with the mean in our sample. At the same time, these households produce massive peak loads (see Supplementary Figs. 2 and 3). Consequently, under tariff schemes charging exclusively for measured peak demand, such as pa100, they have to pay up to € 435.40 and € 471.60 more, translating to + 422% and + 499%, respectively.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We check how many households in the sample also tend to have increasing costs under some of the scenarios while experience cost savings in others. We find that 321 households face lower costs in scenario e100 and higher costs in scenario pa100, which means that nearly 40% of the households consume relatively moderate volumes of energy in total, but at the same time frequently produce significant peak loads. This example demonstrates that a different weighting of the volumetric, peak and fixed components can have strongly diametrical effects on the network expenditures of individual households.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The regression results shown in Table 2 suggest that the number of residents of a household (Nr_persons), the living space (Square), whether the dwelling is in a rural or an urban environment (Rural) or whether the dwelling is a single-family house (House), are associated with lower network costs under scenarios with a fixed charge compared with the reference scenario, and higher costs in the fully energy-based scenario e100. This is explained by the fact that these households (ceteris paribus) consume higher volumes of electricity and thereby benefit from tariffs, which put only subordinate weight on the number of consumed units. Interestingly, almost the same household characteristics (with exception of a rural versus urban environment and living space) are related to lower network costs in scenarios emphasizing measured peak demand (pa100, pm100, pm50/e50, and pa50/e50), providing evidence that households with more residents and households situated in a single-family house tend to produce fewer peak loads, ceteris paribus.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The regression output provides evidence that the log of the monthly net income (Logincome) of a household is significant (at different levels) for all scenarios introducing a charge for measured peak demand, but it is not significant for the remaining three scenarios. A respective negative coefficient of income means that households with a higher income are associated with lower peak loads compared with households with the same characteristics but less income, ceteris paribus. As our regression controls for a number of household characteristics and appliances, this effect cannot stem from the disproportionate equipment of wealthier households with these observed amenities per se, but instead could be from (1) households with lower incomes having load-intensive amenities not observed in our sample, which higher-income households do not have, (2) among those households having the same amenities, wealthier households having more modern and thereby less load-intensive amenities, or (3) wealthier households utilizing their amenities in a less load-intensive way, for example, using their sauna differently.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Investigating data on 765 households in Austria, we find that the change in network charges, depending on the scenarios applied, can (in extreme cases) reach a decrease of 50% or an increase of 500% compared with the status quo. This demonstrates that some of the tested tariff scenarios may have a disruptive impact on some households’ budgets if implemented from one accounting period to the next. We find it important to highlight the potentially low predictability for households of their annual network costs under tariffs emphasizing peak charges (per measured kW).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Household-level data was gathered in two surveys among residential electricity customers, conducted between April 2010 and March 2011 in the region of Upper Austria, Austria. In the first survey, we contacted more than 10,000 households via mail and asked them to allow us to collect their 15-minute electricity load profiles. We recruited 973 households for participation, all of which gave their distribution grid operator written permission to send us the households’ individual 15-minute electricity load profiles measured by smart meter, for the full period of our survey. In total, we collected 35,040 electricity load values for every household.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
In the second survey, the same households were offered € 10 if they provided us with additional information about their socio-economic characteristics (income and composition of the household) and further information about their electric appliances. The final dataset includes 765 observations (which we refer to as ‘full sample’), for 406 of which we have additional information about the household’s income (henceforth called ‘subsample’). Details are provided in Supplementary Note 1 as well as Supplementary Tables 1 and 2.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
In our study, tariff scenarios are exclusively designed to cover the range of potential network tariffs based on the candidate tariff components discussed above, to allow comparisons of the effects of these schemes on household expenditures. Technically, we follow the ultimate quantitative paradigm for designing network tariffs, which is to first determine the overall quantity of costs that shall be recovered and then to define a distribution key by putting weights on the candidate tariff components. According to this practice, and by treating our sample as if it was a tariff zone on its own, we first assess the sum of network charges to be paid by our full sample in the Austrian tariff scheme as it was in force in 2016, which we refer to as ‘reference scenario’ henceforth, resulting in total charges of € 136,209.10.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The quantity of interest in our analyses is defined as the percentage by which the network costs differ between the reference scenario and the alternative scenarios, and we refer to this quantity by: Δ = (Ci,j − Ci,r) / Ci,r × 100. To investigate which household characteristics are associated with cost savings or incremental costs under the different alternative scenarios, we estimate Δi,j with a linear regression model. Thereby we consider that Δi,j is a function of household-level characteristics … such that: Δi,j = β1,j x1,i + … + βk,j xk,i + εi,j.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
First, we designed one respective tariff scenario recovering the network costs through only one of the three components—volume, fixed charge and measured peak load (average and maximum). Scenario f100 is a 100% fixed charge. Thereby, f100 represents a flat charge for all households, which is € 136,209.10 / 765 households = € 178.05 per household per year for the full sample in our study. Scenario pa100 represents a scheme charging for measured peak load only.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We find it important to highlight the potentially low predictability for households of their annual network costs under tariffs emphasizing peak charges (per measured kW). Considering, for example, tariff scenario pm100, where household network charges are defined by the highest load during one out of 35,040 quarters of an hour, significantly increased network costs from one year to the other can arise from one unusually coincidental use of appliances. The high level of sensitivity in household electricity costs to small lapses on the part of the household when measured peak-demand charges are used makes it necessary to apply such tariffs thoughtfully, following careful research.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Under volumetric network tariffs, every reduction of the units of consumed energy results in an under-recovery of network costs. This can either be compensated by increasing the price for the unit of consumed energy, or by decoupling the revenues from network tariffs from consumed volumes. Looking at the socio-demographic characteristics of the households in the sample, we see that tariffs combining measured peak-demand and volumetric components could provide a new balance for the distribution of network costs— as these tariffs are cost reflective and, due to the peak-load charge, they signal the consumer to decrease overall consumption while not penalizing any specific group of consumers.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Acknowledgements
This research was done as a part of PEAKapp project that has received funding under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme, grant agreement No. 695945 (http://www.peakapp.eu/). A.K. received additional funding from the Austrian Ministry for Transport, Innovation and Technology (No. 848114). D.E. and C.F. gratefully acknowledge the financial support by the Austrian Federal Ministry of Science, Research and Economy, the Austrian National Foundation for Research, Technology and Development and the Federal State of Salzburg. This research was enriched through discussions about international network regulation with B. Mountain, R. Muruais, J. Cohen and D. Pezenka.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Author contributions
A.K. and J.R. were primarily responsible for the creation and implementation of the survey instrument. D.E. and C.F. were primarily responsible for the creation and management of the dataset, including load profiles. V.A. and J.R. mainly contributed to data analysis. All authors contributed to the writing of the paper with V.A., A.K. and J.R. as the primary authors.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
However, the speed at which prices have fallen has prompted suspicion that these prices are attained only via hidden government subsidies; that they are not intended to make money at all but are a consequence of a ‘race to the bottom’ driven by the PPA auction model; or are ‘loss leaders’, strategic moves by large forward-looking companies seeking to establish a foothold in a young industry poised to grow11–13. Despite these concerns, low-priced PV projects have spread across the world in the intervening two years14–16. Understanding the extent to which these prices are real, sustainable and reproducible is critical for setting energy strategies to encourage the continued rapid PV deployment that will be needed over the next decade and beyond to achieve energy system decarbonization at the rate required by climate agreement targets17.

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The past few years have seen the rise of large-scale, low-priced solar energy projects around the world. Oil-producing countries in the Middle East, in particularly the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia, have become unexpected leaders in this movement with record-low power purchase agreement prices, below 3¢ kWh−1, for a number of new photovoltaic installations, beating the cost of fossil fuel generation. In this Analysis, we bring together technical, economic and financial information from global and local sources to study whether these prices can be replicated elsewhere and further reduced. We find that hardware costs, cost of labour, favourable cost of capital, low taxes and low, but positive, profit margins contribute to the reduction in costs. Reduced hardware prices contributed the most and also led to further reduction in cost of capital. We demonstrate how similar costs can be and have been achieved in other markets.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
These include forward-bidding of expected lower future hardware prices, which up to this point have been borne out; low construction and operation and maintenance (O&M) labour costs that are typical of the Gulf region; scaling up the plants from the 10–100 MW level that was prevalent until recently to the gigawatt scale; extended PPA term to 25 years (relative to the then-standard 20 years18); and favourable financial terms. Moreover, it appears that developers did not have to account for land costs that could be around US$5,000 per acre in the United States19. The vertically integrated state-owned utilities are also involved as partners, expected to take majority ownership of the venture on completion.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Implementing the full set of assumptions laid out in the second column of Table 2, we find that LCOE below 3¢ kWh−1 is achieved naturally without further manipulation as shown in Fig. 3. This reduction is driven by the combined impact of low cost of financing and reduced capital expenditures, shown in Fig. 4. We note that there is the possibility of relaxing some of the assumptions while still achieving the price target.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We have shown here that, at least up to the level of about 3¢ kWh−1, recently observed low solar electricity prices can be profitably realized under reasonable assumptions for the region. The key questions remaining are whether these conditions are sustainable, and how these low prices may be replicated in other markets. The contribution of declining hardware prices, while not solely responsible for the record bids, is nonetheless important.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Project financing packages can be fairly complex but can be outlined as featuring high debt-to-equity ratios (70–80%), low interest rates (reported starting values for interest range between 120 and 180 basis points over the London Interbank rate (LIBOR)) and significant opportunities for refinancing over the project lifetime21. The establishment of these terms by the consortium of local banks that financed Dubai’s 200 MW project in 2015 certainly provided encouragement for international consortia to offer comparable packages for the subsequent, larger projects. In contrast, utility-scale PV projects being developed at the same time in the United States could expect debt ratios in the range of 40–60%, with interest rates of 4–5%, and return on equity expectations around 10%22,23.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
To investigate the system configurations and cost structures required to reach 3¢ kWh−1, we first establish a baseline system price and LCOE breakdown for 2016, just before Dubai’s Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum (MBR) phase III announcement, based on a number of sources5,23–26, shown in Fig. 2. CapEx depends heavily on the price of hardware, which accounts for the majority of the total installed cost, with construction labour being the second-largest contributor. CapEx represents about 50% of the LCOE in the baseline model, with operation and maintenance (O&M) and financing costs representing the balance.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We subsequently chart a reasonable path to a sub-3¢ kWh−1 LCOE by applying a series of successive cost reductions, each justified on the basis of a collection of publicly available industry statistics and local knowledge. The full set of model inputs is listed in Table 2. The key assumptions are listed below.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Bottom-up cost and performance modelling. In the investigation of recent low-priced PV bids and PPAs, public announcements regarding, for example, financing terms, provide a window into some of the mechanisms by which these projects probably achieved their low prices. However, significant uncertainty remains, not the least of which surrounds the actual costs of these projects, for which there are conflicting reports21,33,34. To circumvent this challenge, we adopted a bottom-up modelling approach, quantifying cost components based on a range of industry reports and analysis to build up a model of how these prices could be achieved under realistic global and local conditions.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
This allows us to look at the relative impact of the many factors that contribute to the ultimate cost of producing electricity. Performance modelling was performed in System Advisor Model (SAM) for a plant designed to match the known specifications of Dubai’s MBR solar park, phase 3, the first of the sub-3¢ kWh−1 projects. The ‘baseline’ model scaled down the MBR model to 100 MWac while retaining the same assumptions about hardware costs.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
LCOE was calculated in a spreadsheet (available on request) as:
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=
+
=
+
C
LCOE
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O
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i
N
E
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1 (1
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using the annual energy yield calculated by SAM and discounting by the weighted average cost of capital. Performance modelling of the UAE plant (3¢ kWh−1) uses International Weather for Energy Calculations weather data for Abu Dhabi; modelling for Sakaka (see Supplementary Note 1) used Photovoltaic Geographical Information System weather data (http://re.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pvgis/, retrieved June 2018) for Al Jouf airport (coordinates 23.694° N, 40.088° E, a few kilometres from the solar park site). The model was implemented in SAM 2014.1.14, based on the known or presumed specifications of Dubai’s MBR phase 3, including large (310 Wp) CS6X modules from Canadian Solar, 5000 W inverters from GE, an inverter loading ratio of 1.3 and single-axis tracking.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
There seem to be two areas where direct actions by government have made a significant difference. The first is in the removal of some indirect costs, which may be criticized as not applicable to other markets. As a counterargument, we note the recent spate of sub-3¢ kWh−1 PPAs in the southwestern United States, which seem to have achieved many of the same savings by building along the transmission infrastructure of soon-to-be decommissioned coal-fired plants.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We wish to emphasize that government policy remains an important element to remove barriers to PV deployment, chief among which is the need for access to cheap financing. As global interest rates are expected to rise, it becomes more critical for solar projects to be able to prove themselves as low risk to achieve favourable financing packages. The clear commitment to renewable energy as state policy (as well as the involvement of large public or semi-public companies in the development of PV projects) was certainly a factor in providing the necessary degree of confidence that allowed banks to overcome their historical aversion to renewable energy projects32 and begin lending at low rates in the Gulf.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We note the valuable contribution of our colleagues with whom we have discussed this work, in particular I. Almansouri and A. Tuomiranta. We thank M. Kissamitaki for designing the figures.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Author contributions
M.C. conceived and proposed this analysis, which was further elaborated in collaboration with S.S. and H.A. H.A. carried out the analysis and drafted the manuscript in consultation with M.C. and M.S. S.S. provided insights into the financial aspects of the projects and M.S. provided a utility company perspective on the project development process.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
One of the most cost-effective ways to reduce carbon emissions is by eliminating fossil fuel subsidies1,2. These subsidies boost the consumption of fossil fuels and, hence, slow the transition to renewable energy3; increase road traffic, air pollution and road fatalities, all of which damage public health4,5; and can have a crippling impact on government revenues6. Yet, they are also difficult to abolish.

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We have three broad findings. First, since 2016 there has been a notable increase in the frequency of reforms. From 2000 to 2015, the countries in our sample collectively initiated an average of 0.24 price reforms per country year; from 2016 to 2023, they initiated about 0.38 reforms per country year, a 58% increase. There was also a sharp rise in fixity reforms, which we regard as more ambitious than price reforms.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Second, reforms were already fragile in the pre-2016 period, and grew even more fragile after 2015. From 2000 to 2015, only 45% of all subsidy reforms survived at least 12 months and only 22% survived for 36 months; from 2016 to 2023, 30% survived for 12 months and only 9% lasted 36 months. Ambitious reforms were especially fragile.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Finally, subsidies per litre of gasoline rose substantially in 12 countries in our sample and changed little in the other 9. On average, the value of the per-litre subsidy in our sample rose 65.1% over these 8 years, equivalent to an annual increase of 6.5%.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Subsidy reforms tend to be short-lived, and reforms failed more quickly after 2016. From 2000 to 2015, 45% of all reforms survived for 12 months, and 22% survived for at least 36 months; from 2016 to 2023, only 30% survived for 12 months, and 9% survived for at least 36 months (Fig. 1).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
From 2000 to 2015, the countries in our sample adopted an average of 0.24 reforms per year per country; from 2016 to 2023, the reform rate rose to 0.38 per year, an increase of more than 50% (Table 2). There were more reforms in 2015 and in 2016 than in any other year.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
To better measure government policy reforms, we adopt a novel approach. Like other scholars, we focus on consumer subsidies for gasoline, which can be calculated using the widely accepted price gap method14. We begin by calculating the average implicit gasoline tax or subsidy for all countries from 2003 to 2015, using the Ross–Hazlett–Mahdavi dataset15. We then take as our sample those countries that, on average, were net subsidizers during this 13-year period. These 21 countries account for 97% of all gasoline subsidies in the 2003–2015 period.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
All of them used government mandates to set fuel prices and kept them fixed for months or years at a time. Hence, whenever the government raised the nominal per-litre price by at least 10%—effectively reducing the subsidy for their citizens—we code it as a reform. We also measure a second type of reform, when a government transitions from fixed prices to floating, unsubsidized, market-based prices. We refer to increases in the fixed price as price reforms and shifts from fixed to floating prices as fixity reforms.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Because earlier studies suggest that many reforms are transitory16, we measure both the initiation of reforms and their duration. To measure changes, we compare the frequency and duration of reforms from the January 2000 to December 2015 period, leading up to the 2015 Paris conference, with the January 2016 to December 2023 period following the end of the conference. While the final text of the Paris Agreement did not mention subsidy reform, the December 2015 conference was a landmark in the global effort to promote climate policies17 and provides a useful cut point for our analysis.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We follow convention and define a subsidy as the difference between the price paid by consumers and the cost of bringing the fuel to market14. To measure the size of these subsidies, we use the price gap method, which compares the observed retail price of a fuel in each country with a global benchmark price, which represents the supply cost. Anytime the retail price falls below the benchmark price (for example, the cost of supplying the fuel), it denotes a subsidy for that period.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Price reform ends (or fails) if the subsidy returns to its pre-reform level, which can happen through two mechanisms: the government may lower the nominal price to its pre-reform level, the process we call backtracking; or the government may maintain the post-reform price, but its value disappears through inflation, a falling exchange rate or rising global oil prices. We refer to the latter process as erosion. A fixity reform can fail in two ways: if the government reimposes fixed prices for three or more consecutive months; or if the government interferes with the market price to restore a substantial subsidy (which we define as a subsidy exceeding 20 cents per litre in constant 2015 US dollars) for three consecutive months.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We see two plausible policy responses. The first would be for advocates to redouble their efforts, looking for novel strategies to build public support and guard reforms against pressures created by inflation, currency devaluation and oil price fluctuations. The second would be to look for less unpopular ways to reduce the cost of subsidies. Market pricing may be the first-best solution, but it is often politically out of reach.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We thank J. Cameron for her valuable research assistance. We received helpful feedback following presentations at the University of California Santa Barbara, the University of California Berkeley, the University of Notre Dame, the US Agency for International Development, the 2023 annual meeting of the American Political Science Association and the 2023 meeting of the International Political Science Association in Buenos Aires.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The authors declare no competing interests. Extended data is available for this paper at https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-025-02283-4.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
However, systematic and comparative understanding of marine-climate intervention development and deployment remains critically low22. In particular, there has been limited empirical investigation of the ‘pacing problem’23 whereby innovation outpaces governance preparedness to anticipate and responsibly manage risk across the range of novel marine-climate interventions currently active or under consideration22,24–27. Governance preparedness involves public and private institutions and actors engaged in processes of responsible rule, steerage and guidance28. Any lag in the responsiveness of governance regimes is problematic because the rapid emergence and planned upscaling of novel marine-climate interventions29 presents an array of risks for marine ecosystems30,31 and coastal societies and rightsholders22,32,33 at local, regional and climate system and climate policy scales (Table 1).

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We found an array of marine-climate interventions being proposed, trialled and deployed globally (Table 2). Practitioners’ awareness of novel marine-climate interventions varied substantially across the types and sub-types identified (Table 2). Overall, practitioners were most aware of interventions concerned with marine bioengineering and coastal and marine restoration. Awareness was highest for artificial habitat manipulation (79%, n = 332), a sub-type of marine bioengineering intervention, followed by regrowing targeted underwater species (for example, coral and kelp), a sub-type of coastal and marine restoration intervention (76%).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Oceans and seas where reported intervention activity was greatest were Australia’s tropical waters (16%), Australia’s and New Zealand’s temperate waters (15%), the North Pacific (15%) and the wider Caribbean (10%). Almost all of the interventions reported as active in Australia’s tropical waters were occurring in the Great Barrier Reef region (92%). These interventions were predominantly to support coral reef restoration, for example, through re-seeding coral, breeding of heat-resistant coral symbionts and coral reef habitat restoration and creation (6%, 4% and 2% of all reported interventions). Multiple types of interventions active within the same ocean region were reported almost without exception, with 96% of the interventions occurring in the same ocean region as at least one other type of intervention (Fig. 1b).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
In terms of development, the majority of interventions identified were at pilot or full implementation stage (46% and 38%, respectively, n = 207 interventions; Fig. 1c) while 16% were at concept stage. Development was most progressed for marine bioengineering and coastal and marine restoration interventions. Specific interventions reported as having the highest level of technical readiness and development included artificial manipulation of habitats and regrowing of targeted coastal species (53% and 65% at implementation stage, respectively; Fig. 1c).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The most stated climate goal was to increase the biophysical adaptation or resilience of local marine ecosystems to climate-driven changes (57% of interventions, n = 211; Fig. 2). This climate goal was being pursued across all five intervention types, most commonly through coastal and marine restoration (for example, kelp forest and seagrass bed restoration), followed by marine bioengineering (for example, assisted evolution of coral). Notably, biophysical adaptation and resilience was also being pursued through marine socio-institutional capacity building (for example, development of climate-adaptive fisheries management regimes).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Gaps in the use of available governance arrangements were notable (Fig. 3) and included the low use of data co-produced with Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities (11% of interventions identified, n = 233), ethics assessment (14%), accountability and transparency mechanisms (15%), social impact mitigation measures (15%) and mechanisms to recognize and address unintended social impact (21%), and strategic leadership capacity (19% of interventions) (Supplementary Table 4). Preparedness to responsibly govern specific intervention risks (Table 1 and Supplementary Tables 5 and 10) was varied. The risk of ineffectiveness was the risk most frequently addressed by applying available government arrangements.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Observations and attitudes towards novel marine-climate interventions were surveyed using an online survey–questionnaire targeting active practitioners. Questions were designed to capture observational data describing current arrangements for governing interventions and positional attitudinal data concerning perceived benefits and costs, gaps in governance, risks, and missed and emerging opportunities (see survey–questionnaire in Supplementary Table 8). Types of interventions used to design response options were identified from recent authoritative reviews15,34,84.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Actors engaged in novel marine-climate interventions constitute an emerging group. The survey was designed to target participants in this broad group via their participation in professional networks associated with interventions. Participant selection was therefore opportunistic, and stratified sampling of specific sub-groups, such as Traditional Owners and First Nations, was not pursued101.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The online survey–questionnaire was launched on 31 October 2022 and remained open until 15 March 2023. Three hundred and thirty-two responses met the criteria for level of question completion and were retained for analysis. These responses included those undertaken in five non-English languages—Chinese, Japanese, French, Portuguese and Spanish—which accounted for 18% of the final sample.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Two units of analysis were used to examine the data. Data on respondents’ role, interaction with interventions and general awareness of interventions were treated as data about the respondents, while data in response to survey question six onwards were treated as data about the intervention the respondent was asked to identify as the one with which they were most familiar. Selected choice data where respondents answered by selecting from a pre-determined set of options were analysed using basic descriptive statistics (frequency counts).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
To determine the extent of responsible governance of new marine-climate interventions, we developed a methodological heuristic by extending Stilgoe31 and Macnaghten’s35 framework for responsible innovation (based on anticipation, inclusion, responsiveness, reflexivity), which they apply to emerging scientific innovations and in particular to climate geoengineering innovations. We matched these four dimensions to the new categories of marine-climate intervention risk (Table 1), which we developed from the literature. We identified specific examples of such governance arrangements through a review of the literature on instruments and processes for governing technical feasibility, cumulative risk and impact assessment, including public deliberation in intervention development and approval and anticipatory climate governance.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
First, marine-climate intervention remains science driven with limited involvement of public institutions or communities and only 14% of practitioners in our sample working within government. By contrast, the biophysical science sector’s major role in novel intervention development and in standard-setting for intervention research is likely to explain the emphasis on technical feasibility assessment as the main form of intervention appraisal. The relative absence of strong public-interest actors and processes, combined with the limited competencies of conventional science organizations39–42,57, may also explain the low levels of use of responsible governance arrangements (Fig. 3). Not surprisingly, organizations in the NGO and research sectors were recognized as best-practice leaders of interventions by 68% of the survey respondents.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Fourth, marine-climate interventions are occurring in all major ocean regions, and within each of these regions more than one specific intervention sub-type is under way. For example, in the North Atlantic and in tropical waters adjacent to Australia, the range of interventions described includes those in all intervention types. This co-occurrence may present additional under-recognized governance challenges for policy- and decision-makers who are faced with both prioritizing across interventions and managing their cumulative and synergistic impacts within a single marine region. We found that formal consideration of trade-offs between intervention risks and benefits and assessment of cumulative impacts are not widely occurring governance practices (reported as occurring for only 31 and 32% of interventions, respectively). The results suggest that many decision-makers are materially underprepared for these strategic challenges, which extend beyond managing the risks posed by single interventions22,30,32.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The authors acknowledge the translators of the survey–questionnaire and responses: S. Kwong, M. Angelini, J. Morias, V. Huertas, M. Tatsumi, H. Mera and C. Appert. C. Cullen-Knox assisted in data analyses. Illustration and figure design work was undertaken by V. H. Martin. Funding for this study was received from the Australian Government via the Australia Research Council Discovery Projects grant scheme for the project, Novel governance for marine ecosystems in rapid transition (DP220103921; T.H.M., T.H., G.T.P. and E.M.O.).

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We use a dynamic computable equilibrium model of China (CEEGE model) and establish a policy range containing 1,295 scenarios that cover four mitigation strategies with five intensity grades and their portfolios. It can depict the cost-neutrality mechanisms of mitigation policies, capture dynamic sectoral changes through the upstream–downstream industrial chain and adjust both quantity and price at equilibrium simultaneously. Three indicators are used to measure the trade-offs and synergies between policy couples in terms of their carbon-mitigating effects, economic costs of mitigation and carbon-mitigating efficiency.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The CEEGE model is a dynamic computable equilibrium model of China, following the framework of the CHINAGEM model provided by the Centre of Policy Studies at Victoria University26,27. The CEEGE model is based on the neoclassical economics theory and assumes that the market is fully competitive and that the returns to scale of production are constant. It contains six economic agents (production, investment, consumption, government, foreign and inventory) and three primary factors (labour, capital and land) and is solved with the GEMPACK software51.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
To establish mitigation policy scenarios, we extensively review the existing mitigation policies (Supplementary Section 2) and summarize the four most important mitigation strategies, including energy efficiency improvement, renewable energy development, electrification of end uses and carbon pricing. Energy efficiency policy (A) increases the energy efficiency improvement rate of industries and residents; the economic cost of energy efficiency policy is burdened by industries and residents according to their consumption of energy products. Renewable energy policy (R) refers to the decrease in generation and accommodation costs of solar power, onshore wind power, offshore wind power and bioenergy power due to technological progress; the development of renewable energy sectors will crowd out investment in fossil energy sectors, so the declining economic costs in the renewable energy sector will be accompanied by rising costs in the fossil energy sector.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The Chinese government should explore the synergetic effect of mitigation policies, which could be largely achieved by constructing large-scale renewable energy generation and gradually expanding the share of electricity in final energy consumption. The following suggestions can be used when designing the alignment of the implementation pace and intensity of policies. Accelerate the development and commercialization of energy storage technologies
Energy storage addresses the intermittency of renewable energy and grid load shortages, promoting renewable energy penetration and distributed grids. Compared with the baseline scenario, energy storage can increase emission reductions at a cost to the economy (Supplementary Section 5).

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Specify long-term emission abatement strategies
Among the 94 government documents collected35 and reviewed in this study, 59 focus on goals for 2025, 25 focus on goals for 2030 and 18 focus on goals for 2035 (Supplementary Sections 2 and 4). Notably, only two documents44,45 propose long-term development goals for 2060, representing 4.9% of the total policies proposed after 2020. In contrast, France, the United Kingdom and the European Union have introduced four, nine and nine policies, respectively, that target 2050, accounting for 14.3%, 18.8% and 23.1% of all policies proposed after 2020, respectively35. Thus, the Chinese government must enhance the planning and formulation of emission reduction policies from a long-term perspective.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Yu Liu was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant nos. 72125010, 72243011 and 71974186), The Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities, Peking University and High-performance Computing Platform of Peking University. M.D. is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant no. 72304222) and Young Talent Program of Xi’an Jiaotong University (grant no. GG6J007). Q.C. was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant no. 72373163) and Beijing Natural Science Foundation (grant no. 9222016), Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities from China Petroleum University (grant no. 23CX06039A) and Taishan Scholar Program of Shandong Province.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Yu Liu, M.D. and L.Y. conceived the research. Yu Liu, M.D., L.Y. and Q.C. designed the research. Q.C., L.Y., Yu Liu, M.D. and Yawen Liu collected the data and conducted the model simulations with inputs from X.L., N.Z., Y. Li and C.J. M.D., Q.C., L.Y. and Yu Liu interpreted the results and wrote the paper with inputs from Yawen Liu, X.L., N.Z., Y. Li, C.J., P.Z., Q.L. and C.H.

Category:

Answer: None