Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The bank-level information on total gross loan amount and LLR by NACE code were grouped into high-carbon and low-carbon sectors. We defined sectors as ‘high-carbon’ if they had a median share of CPRS higher than 95%, as reported by banks in the EBA Risk Assessment exercise. This gave us the following high-carbon sectors and their respective codes: A - Agriculture, forestry and fishing; B - Mining and quarrying; D - Electricity, gas, steam and air conditioning supply; E - Water supply, sewerage, waste management; H - Transport and storage; and L - Real estate activities.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Using the data available, we could provide an estimate of the potential impact of a divestment from high-carbon assets on EU banks’ financials. The primary assumption in this estimation is that the total amount of loans of each bank is left unvaried. In other words, the simulation assumes that banks shift their lending portfolio directly from high-carbon to low-carbon investments.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
More formally, we defined the PCR as the LLR (or accumulated provisions in EBA terminology) divided by the gross exposure for the high-carbon and low-carbon sectors i for each bank j. The PCR represents the expected credit loss (of non-default counterparties) and the corresponding loan loss provisions which banks must allocate to lending activities in each sector. This measure is assumed to be the model-based output from each institution risk model, in line with the accounting regulation.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
In conclusion, our results suggest that model-based financial regulations, and in particular accounting rules, might disincentivize banks from divesting from high-carbon sectors by directly impacting their profitability. This side effect of the rules might impair the transition towards net-zero carbon emissions and in turn contribute to increasing the build-up of transition risk in the financial system. Our comparison of financial ratios between oil and gas and renewable energy firms indicates that this effect might penalize investments in clean energy.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
While the desire to promote a green transition may be based on broader social objectives that lie beyond the remit of financial regulators, the deeper problem for regulators is that this transition could represent a potential source of systemic risk. Broader research is needed to determine whether the existing regulations sufficiently account for any such emerging sources of systemic risks that might accompany the green transition. More research is also needed to shed light on whether this bias might be present in other similar model-based frameworks (for example, capital requirements).

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Online content Any methods, additional references, Nature Portfolio reporting summaries, source data, extended data, supplementary information, acknowledgements, peer review information; details of author contributions and competing interests; and statements of data and code availability are available at https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-024-01972-w.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Over the past two decades, an increasing number of countries have
been engaging in a ‘race to the bottom’ on corporate tax rates.
Some countries have even implemented a zero tax rate to attract
international capital inflows. Multinational enterprises (MNEs) may
take advantage of differing tax regimes between jurisdictions and
effectively avoid paying taxes. To prevent this, a global minimum
tax, the second pillar of the overall global tax reform agreement,
was approved by over 130 countries and jurisdictions in October
2021. The reform is designed to ensure that MNEs are subject to a
minimum tax rate of 15% in every country of operation starting in
2023. As MNEs play a central role in shaping countries’ production
patterns, the global race to the bottom in corporate tax and the global
minimum tax reform may reshape the global production network,
adversely impacting economic and environmental development. Cor-
porate tax-cutting may even offset the burden of climate regulations
and challenge CO2 mitigation. For instance, developing countries,
which usually have greater carbon intensity and lower corporate
tax rates, tend to be tax havens1. Consequently, the global tax race
has led to more production moving to developing countries and
reshaping the global production network, which could increase
global carbon emissions.

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
A regression analysis of corporate tax rate cuts and changes in
carbon emissions at the country level suggests a negative correla-
tion between them. This analysis controlled for population, gross
domestic product (GDP) per capita and energy use per unit of GDP,
and encompasses 56 countries over a 10-year period (Supplementary
Information 1). Results suggest that corporate tax competition could
hinder climate cooperation and present challenges to climate change
mitigation efforts2.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We found that the global corporate tax competition from 2005 to 2016 increased global emissions by 128.7 Mt, which is equivalent to 0.4% of global CO2 emissions from fuel combustion in 2016 (32,141 Mt) based on International Energy Agency (IEA) data. Emissions in developing countries increased by 118.5 Mt, but only by 10.2 Mt in developed countries. Global corporate tax competition shifts more emissions to developing economies.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
There is a significant negative correlation between changes in CO2
emission (in percentages) and corporate tax cuts. Intuitively, corporate
tax cuts would lead to an increase in the economy’s output and subse-
quently result in higher local CO2 emissions. The simulation results
indicate that China experienced the most substantial increase in emis-
sions in absolute terms, with emissions rising by 0.7%. The corporate
tax rate in China has decreased from 33% in 2005 to 25% in 2016, which
has attracted more global production to move to China and thereby led
to an increase in industrial output and emissions.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We find that the global corporate tax competition from 2005 to 2016 resulted in a 0.029% increase in the weighted average of real income of different economies by GDP. The corporate tax cut has reduced production distortions, real-located production to the regions with high marginal labor products and improved global economic efficiency, which brought real income gains. Meanwhile, the global corporate tax cut raised global carbon emissions, negatively impacting national welfare. The changes in real income notably outweighed the disutility brought about by carbon emission, and the weighted average welfare of different regions by GDP in the benchmark year increased by 0.011%.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The simulation results show that global carbon emissions would exhibit a reduction of 45.0 Mt (0.14% in relation to the total emissions observed in 2016) in this counterfactual. This implies that the global minimum corporate tax would contribute to climate change mitigation. However, the increase in corporate tax rate would introduce additional distortion to global production, and lead to a reduction in regional real wage (Supplementary Information 6) and global welfare by 0.002%. The impact of both the emission and welfare effects resulting from the minimum corporate tax rate policy is notably more modest compared with that of global tax competition.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
To comprehensively quantify the emission effect of the global corporate tax changes, we build a multi-country multi-industry general equilibrium model by incorporating MNEs, international trade flows and corporate tax. We calibrate the model and quantify the economic and emission impacts of two global corporate tax shocks: the global corporate tax competition and the global minimum tax policy approved by OECD (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development) countries in 2021.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We build a multicountry multi-industry general equilibrium model
by incorporating MNEs, international trade flows and corporate tax
to quantify the emission effect of corporate tax changes27. Specifi-
cally, we extended the quantitative trade and MP model developed
by refs. 11,12, by incorporating corporate tax and linking production
to environmental emissions. In the model, a firm from country i can
serve country n by building an affiliate (MP) in country l and shipping
goods to country n (Trade).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We first calibrate our general equilibrium model to 2016, which we
denote as our benchmark equilibrium. On the basis of the benchmark
equilibrium, we conduct our first counterfactual by forcing all econo-
mies’ corporate tax changes as they actually did in 2005‒2016 while
keeping other exogenous variables constant. The corporate tax in
most countries decreased notably from 2005 to 2016 (Supplementary
Information 2), indicative of intense tax competition.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
In 2021, G20 countries proposed a global minimum corporate tax of at
least 15% for MNEs. We quantify the potential welfare and environmental
effects of this policy by forcing a 15% corporate tax rate on economies
whose original corporate tax is less than 15% based on the benchmark
equilibrium in 2016.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
To solve the equilibrium, we calibrated the model to the year 2016,
which is the most recent year for the ICIO–AMNE (Inter-Country Input–
Output, Activity of Multinational Enterprises) tables (https://www.
oecd.org/sti/ind/analytical-amne-database.htm). We imputed bilateral
trade and MP shares and consumption preference α j l  from the ICIO–
AMNE 2016 data constructed by the OECD28, and set θ = 4.5 and σ = 4
following ref. 12. The effective corporate tax rates for the different
economies were obtained from the World Bank (http://www.doingbusi-
ness.org/). The changes in the corporate tax rates of the different
regions were obtained from KPMG (https://home.kpmg/xx/en/home.
html).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We found that global corporate tax competition increased global car-
bon emissions and the introduction of a global minimum 15% tax rate
could mitigate the negative impact of such competition on climate
change mitigation. However, the impact is somewhat limited. The 15%
minimum corporate tax rate, while a positive step, remains relatively
low and should be seen as an initial effort to address the issue of global
corporate tax competition.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
On the basis of our findings, we suggest that corporate tax adjustment should be coordinated with the implementation of cli-
mate policies. For example, a higher minimum corporate tax could be
imposed on fossil-fuel companies, thereby contributing to the phasing
out of fossil-fuel subsidies. Sectors with higher emission intensity have
expanded their scales more due to global tax competition (Supple-
mentary Information 9). Meanwhile, the increased revenues resulting
from these minimum tax reforms should be directed towards initia-
tives aligned with low greenhouse gas emissions and climate-resilient
development, such as financing renewable energy development to
accelerate the transition to cleaner energy sources.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the financial support from the National
Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 72394404 to Z.Z.), the
National Social Science Foundation of China (No. 22CJY019 to Y.D.),
the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 71988101 to
W.S., No. 72261147471 to Y.D., Nos. 71834004 and 71974141 to Z.Z.),
the major program of the National Social Science Fund of China
(No. 22&ZD086 to Y.D., No. 19ZDA062 to Y.C., No. 20&ZD079 to Y.L.).
Special thanks to Longfei Cai and Yuan Gao from Central University
of Finance and Economics in China for the excellent research
assistant work.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Author contributions
Y.D. and Z.Z. designed the research. Y.D. built the general equilibrium
model and wrote the methods. Z.Z. created figures and drafted
the initial manuscript. Y. Li. collected the raw data and revised the
manuscript. S.W., C.Y. and Y. Lu. commented on the results and
discussion. All authors contributed to writing the manuscript and
discussed the results at all stages.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Financing these potentially large profits with public funds suggests that NETs can substantially influence the income distribution via two channels. First, remunerating negative emissions reduces the amount of carbon tax revenues potentially available to tackle inequality and alleviate poverty12 (revenue drying effect). Second, if these technologies are privately owned and are allowed to reap windfall profits due to increasing carbon prices, their financing will disproportionately benefit the high end of the income distribution that holds stocks and capital (ownership effect). Since the carbon tax is expected to be mostly regressive12–14 and equity ownership is concentrated at the top of the income distribution, both mechanisms can increase inequality and erode the support for the ambitious climate goals of the Paris Agreement.

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We identify a clear connection between carbon removals and inequality (Fig. 3). Regions that deploy more NETs experience a higher increase in inequality (Fig. 3a as measured by the Gini index and see Supplementary Annex L for alternative inequality metrics). The financing of NETs primarily drives this effect. Using a Shapley–Owen decomposition, we can isolate the contribution of each economic flux to the total inequality variation (bars in Fig. 3a): the percentage of inequality increase due to NET financing increases with brackets. It accounts for more than 70% of the total for the countries highly relying on carbon removal.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Assuming higher costs of negative emissions amplifies their between-country distributional effects. At the same time, it reduces the within-country regressivity because it decreases the profit margin for NET companies. Towards the end of the century, under a progressive allocation of removal potential (Global North, high costs) the two effects roughly counterbalance (bottom-right panel of Fig. 5). These results indicate that a progressive international distribution of removal effort, or a properly designed set of international transfers, can indeed contribute to reducing global inequality. However, especially under the assumption of cheap NETs and around net zero, our results suggest that the within-country inequality increase is more relevant in shaping the global income distribution.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
To quantify the inequality implications of NET ownership, we run scenarios consistent with 1.5 °C with 33% likelihood, imposing a carbon budget of 700 GtCO2 from 2019 to 21002 achieved through a global uniform carbon tax (see Supplementary Annex G for alternative specifications of the carbon tax and different carbon budgets). To assess the implications of scenario design, we consider a case without overshoot of the carbon budget where emissions remain at net zero in exchange for faster short-term reductions (Fig. 2). This leads to higher carbon prices and policy costs before net zero and lower thereafter, confirming recent evidence23,24.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We use an open-source integrated assessment model18. This model has high regional detail, featuring 57 interacting countries/regions, and allows for a granular representation of income dynamics between countries. We extend it by differentiating income groups within countries19 and introducing direct air capture (DAC) as a representative NET (see Methods for details).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
RICE50+ is an open-source highly regionalized integrated assessment model18. It represents 57 different countries and regions, each characterized by a marginal abatement cost curve function calibrated on detailed-process models and by projections about socioeconomic drivers and baseline emission intensity of GDP. The model solves a problem of discounted consumption maximization with a time horizon until 2300 and five-year timestep periods. The model allows solutions with multiple possible coalitions, including the singleton coalitions (Nash solution) and the grand coalition (cooperative).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
To model the distributional effects of NETs, we introduce a decile-based representation of household heterogeneity, conceptually following Dennig et al.19. As in the standard DICE model, in our model final income Y is calculated for each timestep t and region n by subtracting from the gross income YGROSS that emerges from a Cobb–Douglas production function (calibrated to match exogenous GDP projections) the cost of emission reductions and carbon removal. To assign these costs to each decile d, we implement weights wη that are driven by an elasticity η.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We choose to model our representative NET technology as DAC. DAC is modelled as in Realmonte et al.30 as an investable technology with depreciating capital, and emissions captured must be stored geologically. Total costs are divided into investment and variable costs (which implicitly include fuel and operation and maintenance costs), as well as storage costs. Total costs shrink with time due to learning by doing.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The results described so far rest upon two main policy assumptions: NETs are privately owned and a single carbon market exists for emission reduction and removal. While these assumptions align with the current policy landscape, alternative policy choices can mitigate the inequality implications of NETs. First, the regressive nature of financing NETs could be alleviated by altering either the ownership structure of NETs companies or the taxation system. Taxes levied to finance NET revenues could be tailored to target the same income brackets as those who own the negative emissions industry.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Second, the market structure could be redesigned to lower the profit margin. For instance, separating markets for emission reduction and CO2 removal could reduce the carbon price applicable to NET companies and thus their profit margin. Alternatively, the maximum profit allowed for these companies could be capped even within a single carbon market (see Supplementary Annex F for scenarios with profit caps for NETs). All these policy design options face hurdles and limitations.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Author contributions All the authors designed and conceptualized the research questions and scenarios. P.A. and J.E. performed the model advancements. P.A. ran the scenarios, analysed the data and produced the figures. P.A. and M.T. wrote the first draft. All the authors extensively contributed to the final version of the paper.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Data availability All scenario runs and code used to produce the figures and data analysis are available in open source at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.8397488. Code availability The model used to produce the scenarios is available in open source at https://github.com/witch-team/RICE50xmodel. To run the model, an active GAMS licence with CONOPT3 is required.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Despite the need for more stringent climate policies to achieve the Paris climate targets, many countries seem reluctant to ratchet up their mitigation efforts. This might be partly because the costs of mitigation are incurred domestically and immediately, whereas most of its benefits will be reaped globally and in the future. In addition, more ambitious climate action might be hindered by concerns about the limited effectiveness of nations’ domestic efforts to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions if other countries do not do make similar changes. This consideration is especially pertinent in relatively small countries. Indeed, in 2021 the smallest 90% of emitters contributed only about 20% of global GHG emissions.

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Our empirical analysis yields robust statistical evidence for an international diffusion of carbon pricing policies (Table 1, column 1). The magnitude of the estimated coefficient of policy diffusion is substantial. For example, according to our main estimates (Table 1, column 1), prior adoption of carbon pricing by Canada increases the probability of adoption in the USA by a factor of about 1.78, or by 78% (95% confidence interval (CI) of 35–134%). In Germany, prior adoption by France increases the probability by 20% (10–31%), whereas in China, prior adoption by Japan increases it by 25% (12–39%). For comparison, in the USA, prior adoption by China increases the probability of adoption by 8.5% and in Germany, prior adoption by Japan by about 1.9%.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We find that indirect emission reductions are as large as or even larger than direct emission reductions in most countries. Specifically, from 2022–2050, about 70% of countries (97 out of 138) have larger indirect than direct cumulative emission reductions (Fig. 2a). Furthermore, we find that indirect emission reductions are far more equally distributed across countries than direct emission reductions (Fig. 2b). This result also suggests that the total reductions in emissions from policy adoption and diffusion are more equally distributed than only direct domestic emission reductions.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We find that policy diffusion substantially increases the geographical coverage of carbon pricing over the time period 2022–2050 (Fig. 3). In our simulations, by 2050 carbon pricing policies will be in place in about 50% of countries, 21 percentage points more than without diffusion. By 2100, the difference increases to more than 30 percentage points (Fig. 3a).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
In our main specification, we consider carbon taxes and ETSs as two alternative designs of the same policy. This is informed by previous findings that there are no systematic differences between countries that chose either of the two designs24. Furthermore, we consider it likely that in many cases the decision to adopt carbon pricing was made before the choice of instrument design, as in the case of the EU ETS9. Consistent with this idea, we find stronger evidence for policy diffusion if we consider ETSs and taxes as the same policy than if we distinguish between them (Table 1).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Visual inspection of the relative timing of policy adoption shows that carbon pricing was often introduced successively by geographically close countries (Fig. 1a). In Europe, for example, the earliest carbon pricing policy in Finland was followed by similar policies in Scandinavian countries, the Baltics and other parts of Europe. Qualitative work on the role of diffusion in this context highlighted the importance of the pioneering adoption in Finland, which was soon “emulated by its Nordic neighbors”9.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We first construct a global dataset of carbon pricing policies, countries’ characteristics and linkages between countries related to geography, trade and international organizations. We then estimate Cox proportional hazard models that include spatial lags of policy adoption (Methods). The spatial lags are constructed using alternative metrics of the proximity of countries. Possible concerns about causality are addressed with a series of robustness tests and a placebo test.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
To do so, we estimate a Cox proportional hazard model (equation (1) in Methods) with several country characteristics as explanatory variables. We use Lasso regressions and a detailed examination of multicollinearity for the selection of variables (Methods and Supplementary Tables 4–6). On the basis of a statistical test using Schoenfeld residuals23 we cannot reject the null hypothesis of proportional hazards for models with the preferred five or more control variables.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We find the best model fits for a metric that combines the gross domestic product (GDP) of countries with the geographical distances between them in the spirit of gravity models of international trade, and for a metric based on joint membership in international organizations (Supplementary Table 7). We then multiply these two metrics to create a hybrid metric for the empirical analysis and simulations. Furthermore, in our main specification we focus on the first policy in every country and we consider all members of the European Union (EU) emissions trading system (ETS) without a prior carbon tax together as one country that adopted its first carbon pricing policy in 2005 (Methods and Supplementary Fig. 2).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Given the probabilistic nature of our model, we conduct Monte Carlo simulations. All simulations start in 2022 from the carbon pricing policies adopted by the end of 2021. For every country without a carbon price, we conduct 30,000 simulations in which this country adopts carbon pricing in 2022. We then compare the results with results from counterfactual simulations in which this country does not adopt carbon pricing in 2022.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
For simplicity, we assume that carbon pricing policies reduce GHG emissions by the same rate r = 1% per year in all countries relative to a situation without a carbon pricing policy. This rate is conservative compared to known reductions in emissions in existing ETSs and estimated reductions for carbon taxes (Methods). In a sensitivity analysis, we vary the value of this parameter between 0.1% and 10% and find that this changes the number of countries with larger indirect than direct emission reductions by only a few percentage points (Supplementary Fig. 7).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The main contribution of this paper is the quantification of reductions in GHG emissions that can be attributed to the international diffusion of carbon pricing policies. These indirect emission reductions can be interpreted as a quantitative measure of the international leverage of a country in terms of global GHG emission reductions due to future diffusion of its policy. Overall, our results suggest that the magnitude of indirect emission reductions can be substantial. With our empirically estimated parameters, future indirect emission reductions will be larger than domestic emission reductions in 63% of countries that did not have a carbon pricing policy in place by the end of 2021. This evidence for large positive spillovers of domestic climate policy adoption provides additional support for the adoption of stringent climate policies, especially in countries in which climate policies might so far have been deemed to have relatively little importance because of a relatively small domestic economy.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Our results speak to a long-standing debate about free-riding in global environmental policy26. According to this theory, unilateral climate policy weakens the incentives of other countries to implement climate policy themselves. In this paper, we show that free-riding is not the only possible reaction of countries to unilateral climate policy in the case of carbon pricing policies. Instead, we find that these policies diffuse internationally. We consider this as evidence consistent with the idea that leadership in climate policy can send a credible signal about the willingness to cooperate to other countries, supporting the formation of global climate coalitions that have been proposed27,28.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the following for comments and suggestions (IMF, unless otherwise noted): S. S. Aiyar, M. Aufhammer (UC Berkeley), M. Bangalore (LSE), H. Berger, S. Black, W. Chen, S. Fankhauser (Oxford University), F. Jaumotte, T. Kliatskova (World Bank), V. Kluyev and V. Thakoor; and participants of internal seminars at IMF and LSE, the summer conference of the Association of Environmental and Resource Economists and the annual conference of the European Association of Environmental and Resource Economists. M.L. acknowledges financial support from the UK Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) with grant number 2300776. For the purpose of open access, the authors have applied a Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) licence to any Author Accepted Manuscript version arising. All remaining errors are our own.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Author contributions
M.L., A.M. and G.S. designed the research. M.L. collected the data and conducted the analysis. M.L., A.M. and G.S. wrote and revised the manuscript.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
However, in the current real-world situation, energy and LU policies are regionally and sectorally fragmented. While many countries have already started to implement GHG emission pricing in the energy sector, institutional capacity building is much less developed in the agricultural and forestry sectors26, leaving a regulatory gap of emissions in the LU sector27. The implicit assumption in IAMs of institutional feasibility of LU mitigation has been criticized28, because the regulatory gap can lead to substantial emission leakage from regulated to unregulated regions29,30 or sectors18,31,32 involving excess bioenergy production.

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Using the global integrated assessment model REMIND-MAgPIE, we derive a biofuel emission factor (EF) for different policy frameworks. We find that a uniform price on emissions from both sectors keeps biofuel emissions at 12 kg CO2 GJ−1. However, without land-use regulation, the EF increases substantially (64 kg CO2 GJ−1 over 80 years, 92 kg CO2 GJ−1 over 30 years). We also find that comprehensive coverage (>90%) of carbon-rich land areas worldwide is key to containing land-use emissions.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Between these benchmark scenarios, LU and energy policies lead to different consequences for bioenergy and LUC emissions. Applying 20% of the energy systems’ carbon price to terrestrial GHG emissions reduces EFav80 to 33 kg CO2 GJbiofuel−1. In contrast, a tax on bioenergy consumption fails to lower specific emissions, and total emissions decline only as a consequence of reduced bioenergy demand.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We applied the IAM framework REMIND-MAgPIE4,38,39 to derive climate change mitigation pathways for different policy frameworks. All scenarios are compatible with limiting warming well below 2 °C by setting a carbon budget of 1,000 GtCO2 to total energy-based and LU-based CO2 emissions from 2018 to 210040. Key socio-economic assumptions on population, gross domestic product, dietary choices and energy demand projections that drive the model results reflect a middle-of-the-road scenario (Shared Socioeconomic Pathway 2)41.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
REMIND v.2.1.2 is an open-source global multi-regional Ramsey-type general equilibrium model of economic growth with a detailed representation of the energy sector, hard-coupled to the macro-economic core42,43. Using optimization methods, it finds a market equilibrium while maximizing intertemporal global welfare. Via different conversion routes (see Supplementary Table 1 for a list of technologies converting biomass feedstocks into secondary energy carriers, including conversion efficiencies and carbon capture rates for BECCS technologies), REMIND represents the supply, trade and conversion of biomass feedstocks along the value chain to final energy carriers along with relevant GHG emissions and removals.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
All scenarios reach the same climate target by imposing a uniform carbon price applied on all GHGs in the energy sector at the level necessary to comply with the carbon budget. However, they differ with respect to assumptions on the coordination of additional LU and energy policies (Table 1), implying different carbon price levels. A highly idealized scenario with a globally uniform carbon price (UCP) in both sectors serves as an aspirational benchmark, representing a world in which climate policies are internationally harmonized and implemented in the energy and LU sectors without delay.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
To close the regulation gap, as a first set of alternative policies we explored the effect of different LU regulatory schemes to serve as substitutes for full GHG emission regulations. First, we assumed reduced GHG price levels on LU emissions of 10–50% compared with the energy sector emission prices (LUprice10–50%). Despite the tax discount, all LU-emission sources are covered by the regulation. Second, we implemented different direct land protection policies, protecting all or 90% of all forests, or only focus areas—namely, primary forests, biodiversity hotspots or last of the wild areas (protX; see ‘Protected areas’ in the Supplementary Information).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
For each policy framework, we derived bioenergy EFs by comparing these pathways with a counterfactual future without bioenergy available for decarbonizing the energy sector. We thus isolated LUC emissions changes and attributed them to bioenergy production, and we derived ex-post EFs (EFex-post) in units of kg CO2 emitted per GJ of biofuel produced. Biofuels are the most prominent secondary energy carrier produced from biomass2 (Extended Data Fig. 1). We thus focused our analysis on EFs for liquid fuels.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Our analysis thus shows that global regulation of LUC emissions—while being extremely aspirational—is essential for bioenergy to be beneficial for cost-effective mitigation. The comprehensive coverage of all carbon-rich land areas worldwide is of the utmost importance, as even a 90% forest protection has only little effect on the EF. Since the conditions for such an exhaustive policy framework to materialize are highly idealized, involving close collaboration between and functioning governance within all countries, this finding implies climate policy sequencing: first, global LU regulation needs to be in place, and only then should large-scale bioenergy be considered.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Hence, the policy challenge is to either close the regulatory gap by comprehensively regulating the LU sector (on a global level, as our analysis on regional fragmentation shows) and produce biomass at scale, or substantially reduce bioenergy demand by increasing its price, as bioenergy cannot be treated carbon neutral otherwise. Given the difficulties in regulating the LU sector described above, this implies that bioenergy may play a much smaller role in climate change mitigation than suggested by most IAM scenarios2. The main driving force behind this challenge is the huge demand for non-electric energy, particularly transport fuels.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
L.M. performed the model experiments, analysed the scenarios, produced the figures and led the writing of the manuscript. L.M., N.B., F.H., D.K., J.S., A.P., G.L. and E.K. contributed to the development of the models, the presented ideas and the text. The authors declare no competing interests.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Allen, M. et al. in Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (eds Masson-Delmotte, V. et al.) Summary for Policymakers (IPCC, WMO, 2018). Bauer, N. et al. Global energy sector emission reductions and bioenergy use: overview of the bioenergy demand phase of the EMF-33 model comparison. Climatic Change 163, 1553–1568 (2018). Klein, D. et al. The value of bioenergy in low stabilization scenarios: an assessment using REMIND-MAgPIE. Climatic Change 123, 705–718 (2014).

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The combined forces of social media and rise of populism have amplified the politicization of knowledge. What is considered true often depends on group membership rather than scientific evidence and facts1–6. This politicization is seen in numerous topics, including climate change. Overwhelming scientific evidence suggests that climate change is occurring7, is caused by human activity8 and is likely to result in dire consequences9,10. Nonetheless, actions of governments around the world lag behind what climate scientists say is needed. In some cases, this inaction is related to a lack of concern about climate change. For example, in the United States, surveys show that over a third of the population believes that the seriousness of global warming is exaggerated11, and more than half the population disagrees with the claim that climate change is caused by humans12.

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Across two field studies, we show that betting on climate events alters: (1) participants’ concern about climate change, (2) support for remedial climate action and (3) knowledge about climate issues. While the effects were dependent on participants’ betting performance in Study 1, they were independent of betting outcomes in Study 2. Overall, our findings suggest that climate prediction markets could offer a promising path to changing people’s climate-related attitudes and behaviour.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Here betting outcomes significantly and consistently predicted the change in concern (number of bets won: B = 0.007, SE(B) = 0.003, t = 2.44, p = 0.017; total earnings: B = 0.01, SE(B) = 0.005, t = 2.37, p = 0.021). That is, participants’ concerns about climate change increased if they were accurate in their predictions. Finally, we tested whether the impact of the treatment varied between believers and sceptics.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The treatment group showed significantly higher levels of concern (B = 0.12, SE(B) = 0.045, β = 0.08, t = 2.69, p = 0.007; Fig. 3a), support for remedial action (B = 0.13, SE(B) = 0.058, β = 0.09, t = 2.19, p = 0.029; Fig. 3b), and knowledge (B = 1.58, SE(B) = 0.22, β = 0.52, t = 7.15, p < 0.001; Fig. 4) in the post-survey compared to the control group. Given that we asked the same question regarding concern and support in the pre- and post-survey, we could compare participants’ scores to understand the underlying mechanisms of the effects. Participants in the treatment condition showed significantly higher levels of concern in the post-survey than the pre-survey (t(355) = 2.23, p = 0.026; Fig. 3) while controls did not (t(307) = −0.93, p = 0.353; paired t tests).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Similarly, participants in the treatment condition increased their support for remedial action (t(355) = 2.89, p = 0.004) while controls did not (t(307) = 0.37, p = 0.712; paired t tests). In addition to testing our main hypotheses, we conducted a series of exploratory analyses. First, we tested whether the treatment effect was stronger in certain conditions (that is, as in Study 1, when participants were successful in their bets).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
While we did not observe significant interaction effects between the experimental condition and the bet winnings for climate concern (B = 0.009, SE(B) = 0.011, β = 0.04, t = 0.75, p = 0.455) or support (B = 0.007, SE(B) = 0.014, β = 0.04, t = 0.55, p = 0.583), we found a significant moderation for climate knowledge (B = 0.182, SE(B) = 0.053, β = 0.41, t = 3.44, p < 0.001). Notably, we observed a significant interaction between the treatment and political ideology. The treatment was more effective at increasing support for remedial action among more conservative participants (B = 0.077, SE(B) = 0.036, β = 0.13, t = 2.14, p = 0.033).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings