Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We performed preprocessing of the LL84 dataset prior to our analysis. First, as EUI data are self-reported, we identified and removed misreported and erroneous entries. Specifically, we applied a logarithmic transformation to the EUI data and filtered outlier values that fell outside the threshold of two standard deviations from the mean58.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Second, using the unique Borough Block Lot property identifier, we merged energy and building attribute data with tax lot and zoning information provided by the NYC’s Primary Land Use Tax Lot Output database to identify additional building characteristics, such as assessed value. Finally, we integrated the merged dataset with information from individual audit reports submitted to the Department of Buildings as per LL87 requirements to identify properties that conducted an energy audit in calendar years 2013 or 2014, and to analyse building-specific ECM recommendations and savings potentials. After our data processing steps, we analysed whether the audited properties in our sample demonstrated larger percentage reductions in site EUI between the pre- and postaudit period than those of similar buildings that did not perform an audit during the study period.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
To assess the impact of energy audits on building EUI over time, we split the data into three time periods: pre-audit (average EUI in years 2011 and 2012), intervention (average EUI in years 2013 and 2014) and postaudit (average EUI in years 2015 and 2016). As a first step to test the significance of the audit effect, we used a two-way mixed design ANOVA in which the dependent variable is EUI, the within-group variable is time (with three levels as mentioned above) and the between-group variable is the intervention (with two levels, which indicate audited and non-audited buildings). One significant limitation of this approach is that it does not account for additional variables, besides time and intervention, that might be associated with changes in EUI, such as changes in occupancy characteristics.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We used the No-U-Turn Sampler developed by Hoffman and Gelman63, an efficient Markov Chain Monte Carlo algorithm, to draw 2,000 posterior samples for the office and multifamily housing stock models. We repeated the process for three chains to assess the robustness of our estimated model parameters. Another advantage of Bayesian regression is the ability to include prior knowledge regarding the model parameters’ distribution.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Independent of the exact cause, if mandatory audits do not encourage investment in ECMs proportionate to the time and cost of conducting the audit, policymakers should consider whether a mandatory policy is the most efficient strategy to encourage energy efficiency in buildings. Although mandatory audits do produce substantial amounts of data about building systems and energy reduction potentials, which can have a significant value for policymaking, it may be possible to collect these data through less costly means, and complete coverage of a city’s building stock may not be necessary to make reasonable inferences about where savings opportunities exist. For example, a recent study demonstrates how machine learning can be used to predict ECM recommendations and cost-savings opportunities with a high degree of certainty based on simple surveys of building systems55.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
To begin to address these economic and behavioural barriers, cities need to develop a comprehensive strategy to support energy efficiency in the building sector that starts with a foundation of data transparency and rigorous analytics. Energy disclosure mandates are an important first step: once the data are available, buildings can be evaluated on their energy performance and compared with their peers, which creates a ‘grading’ scheme that can help to shift individual and collective decision-making56. Following this, cities can consider performance targets and provide financial and regulatory incentives to motivate building owners to improve their energy efficiency and also ensure that regulations are in place to require poorly performing buildings to improve when owners do not respond to incentives.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Acknowledgements
We thank the NYC Mayor’s Office of Sustainability for sharing the LL84 benchmarking and LL87 energy audit data used in this study. We also thank participants at the ‘Next Generation Building Efficiency Policies’ workshop hosted by the NYU Law School and NYU Marron Institute for their feedback on preliminary versions of this work, and K. Hoffman for useful discussions on methodology.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Author contributions
All the authors contributed equally to all aspects of the work presented in this article.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Such rapid changes suggest a speculative bubble, which the US Commodity Futures Trading Commission defines as a rapid run-up in prices caused by excessive buying that is unrelated to any of the basic, underlying factors affecting the supply or demand for a commodity (https://www.cftc.gov/ConsumerProtection/EducationCenter/CFTCGlossary/glossary_s.html). But empirical evidence for a speculative bubble is mixed1,2. Nor is the 2007–2008 spike and collapse the first time that prices seem to move away from a trading range implied by market fundamentals.

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Results for the cointegration/ECMs are consistent with Occam’s razor; market fundamentals account for much of the variation in oil prices in 139 (or 138) of the 323 quarters in the 1938:1–2018:3 sample period. During the other 184 quarters, the price implied by the cointegrating relation is altered by regimes (Table 2). Most regimes occur after OPEC gains control over the marginal supply of crude oil in the early 1970s (Regime 2).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
During Regimes 7 and 8, speculative bubbles raise prices by US$14.31 and US$4.65 per barrel, respectively (Table 3 and Supplementary Note 3). These price increases transfer US$42.9 billion from US consumers to US oil producers and transfer US$87.4 billion from the US economy to oil exporting nations. These totals suggest transfers that reduce total social welfare.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Regime 4, 1979:3–1980:4, is associated with a precautionary demand shock that raises the price by US$12.63 relative to that indicated by market fundamentals. Prior to the start of Regime 4, revolutionary chaos in Iran subsides and Iranian production of crude oil rises from 0.73 mbd in February 1979 to 4.2 mbd in April 1979 (ref. 14). Commensurate with this increase, Saudi Arabia cuts production by about 2 mbd back to its official ceiling of 8.5 mbd.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Regime 5, 1981:1 (or 1981:3)–2004:2, starts with a US$18.58 price drop due to declines in both inventories and consumption18. This drop pushes prices US$5.95 below the levels indicated by the cointegrating relation (Fig. 1). Regime 5 includes several large price changes, such as the 1986 price collapse, the Asian financial crisis and the first Persian Gulf War.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Once the cointegrating relation allows for regimes, UtilOPEC does not have a statistically measurable long- or short-run relation with prices. The lack of a significant relation does not indicate that OPEC is unimportant. Rather, the lack of a relation may be caused by changes in OPEC behaviour, such as a change from acting as the marginal supplier to defending a fair share of the market (and vice versa). Such changes in sign prevent the statistical methodology from quantifying a coefficient for UtilOPEC that applies over the entire sample period.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Here, we identify the price effects of speculative bubbles and changes in market governance and property rights by defining regimes as two or more consecutive quarters when oil prices move away from the level implied by market fundamentals. To identify regimes, we start with a simple assumption: in a world without regimes, a stable long-run cointegrating relation translates market fundamentals into an equilibrium price for oil. Observed prices move towards these ever-changing equilibria as represented by an error correction model (ECM).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Because a cointegrating relation for price cannot be chosen a priori, we estimate 58 possible specifications (Supplementary Table 1). Of these, we focus on nine (Models 1–9), which specify a single measure of capacity utilization by the Texas Railroad Commission (UtilTRC) and OPEC (UtilOPEC), and include inventories (Days) and refinery utilization rates (UtilRef), that cointegrate with and have a statistically measurable relation with oil prices.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The saturation indicator technique identifies periods when prices move away from the level implied by market fundamentals for two or more consecutive quarters. Regimes start in the quarter when a step (SIS) changes the equilibrium price and end when the next step either moves the equilibrium price back towards or further away from the equilibrium that is implied by market fundamentals. For models that specify a linear (or squared) relation between price and capacity utilization by producer organizations, the gets procedure within the R package of that name identifies 12 steps (Table 1), which define nine regimes (Fig. 1).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
During Regimes 7 and 8, speculative bubbles raise prices by US$14.31 and US$4.65 per barrel, respectively (Table 3 and Supplementary Note 3). These price increases transfer US$42.9 billion from US consumers to US oil producers and transfer US$87.4 billion from the US economy to oil exporting nations. These totals suggest transfers that reduce total social welfare. Such welfare losses suggest that regulations, which prevent speculative bubbles, can avoid significant costs.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Acknowledgements
We thank F. Pretis for his help with the R package gets. We also thank C. A. S. Hall, J. Noguera, the members of Project LINK and members of the Economics Department at the University of Victoria for comments on preliminary versions of this work. Any errors that remain are our responsibility.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Author contributions
This project was conceived by R.K. and modified by C.C. C.C. took the lead in compiling the data used in the analysis reported in the main text; R.K. compiled the data used in the analysis reported in the Supplementary Information. C.C. took the lead in estimating the statistical models in R; R.K. adapted this code for the analyses in the Supplementary Information. R.K. took the lead in writing the manuscript and designing the figures, with significant input from C.C.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The growth of the sector in the UK has been driven by a combination of the decreasing cost of renewable energy technologies and government policies1,4 (see Table 1). However, more recently, government support for small-scale renewables has been substantially scaled back1,12. Most notably, Feed-in Tariff scheme (FITs) rates fell more than 50% from 2015 to 2016 for many technologies (see Supplementary Table 2) and the scheme is now closed to new projects. In this challenging low-subsidy environment, project development and investment have slowed significantly13.

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Community energy projects take a decentralized and participatory approach to low-carbon energy. Here we present a quantitative analysis of business models, financing mechanisms and financial performance of UK community energy projects, based on a new survey. We find that business models depend on technology, project size and the fine-tuning of operations to local contexts. Although larger projects rely more on loans, community shares are the most common and cheapest financial instrument in the sector. Community energy has pioneered low-cost citizen finance for renewables, but its future is threatened by reductions, and instability, in policy support. Over 90% of the projects in our sample make a financial surplus during our single-year snapshot, but this falls to just 20% if we remove income from price guarantee mechanisms, such as the Feed-in Tariff scheme.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Focusing on operational energy generation projects (121 of the 136 with financing data), the size of the CAPEX is related to how the finance is raised: larger projects rely more heavily on loans, and smaller projects rely more on community shares. There seems to be a threshold around a CAPEX of £200,000: 88% of generation projects above this threshold use some loan finance, but only 17% of projects below this threshold reported using loans. However, community shares still account for a significant proportion of the total capital raised for all but the largest scales of project, as Fig. 1 shows.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
From this analysis, we find that community shares charge an interest rate that is 2 percentage points lower than loans on average. (Community shares typically pay interest rather than dividends, see Supplementary Note 1.) To put this finding into perspective, the average size of the financing instruments in the regression sample is about £306,000; therefore, the first year’s interest payments on this would be about £6,200 lower if financed by community shares rather than loans (see Methods section for details).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We find that 92% of these projects (101 projects) were in financial surplus (that is, total annual revenues exceeded total annual costs) for the year for which data were provided; however, after removing the price scheme revenues, only a fifth of the projects (22 projects) were in surplus. As these projects were designed to draw on FITs or similar revenue streams, it is not surprising that removing those revenues would push many projects into deficit. Yet, it is notable that 22 projects do not suffer this fate in our exercise, and so in the rest of this section we examine their characteristics in more detail.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We find that energy companies pay the lowest rates on average, equal to just 5.03 pence per kW h in our sample (Table 6). This low rate is to be expected, as projects selling to energy companies are competing with wholesale rather than retail prices. Of community energy’s retail customers, 6 out of 25 community or third sector customers in our dataset receive energy for free (‘zero rate’ customers); the remaining 19 customers pay an average rate equal to 6.33 pence per kW h. Private sector companies that are not energy companies pay a slightly higher rate equal to 6.87 pence per kW h. Public sector organizations pay 2.28 pence per kW h or 45% more on average for their energy than energy companies (and 0.99 pence per kW h more than community or third sector customers).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We use data from the new Financing Community Energy survey of the UK community energy sector conducted in 2017−2018. The survey structure is based on the Business Model Canvas34, which analyses organizations’ value propositions and associated activities, customers, resources, and costs and revenues (see Supplementary Methods for the survey questions). For each project’s energy generation and financial flows (costs and revenues), we collected data for only the most recent 12-month period for which they were available, to minimize the administrative burden on participants and maximize the number of projects included in the dataset.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We received substantive responses to our survey on 145 projects from 48 organizations. To obtain more data on certain technologies, we supplemented the survey data with information on a further eight projects from organizations’ published financial statements and reports. This extra data give a total of 153 projects and 56 organizations in our dataset.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
To shed further light on the structure of the sector we applied cluster analysis to produce the first ever quantitative data-driven taxonomy of community energy business models in the UK. A cluster analysis of the survey results helps to identify similarities and differences between community energy projects, to complement case study research. The clusters also present a ‘menu’ of business models that can be used to inform the design of new projects.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We then estimate the linear regression model given by equation (1): IRi = β1 + β2CommunitySharei + β3Bondsi + β4Sizei + β5Durationi + εi where the dependent variable IR is the financing interest rate of financing source i. IR is a continuous variable that can take non-integer values. CommunityShare and Bonds are defined above. As explained previously, we compare how these financing instruments are associated with the interest rate relative to the omitted category, which is loans. In equation (1) we also include the variables Size and Duration to control for the size and duration of the financing instrument, respectively.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Although data were collected between November 2017 and May 2018, as noted above, the data do not relate to the performance of projects during the months the survey was open. Rather, organizations reported data that relate to a 12-month period, more specifically, the most recent financial year for which data on the project were available. As the data measure project performance over a 12-month period, they will reflect project performance over a sustained period of time rather than during an individual month or season of the year.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
However, without some form of price stabilizer it is hard to see the number of projects using community renewable energy business models returning to its previous rate of growth in the short term. One source of price stability could be a floor price for exported electricity, as suggested by community energy sector associations55. Another mechanism might be Contracts for Difference auctions. The UK already runs such auctions for large-scale renewables and has opened them to remote island wind56.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Third, policy could encourage, or even mandate, public sector bodies to purchase community-generated energy on long-term contracts. Given the growth of the community energy sector to date, the low cost of community capital and the wider social benefits it offers, these three measures would appear to be promising routes forward for both expanding renewable generation capacity and supporting the delivery of positive social impacts through the energy transition.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Acknowledgements This research was funded as part of the UK Energy Research Centre Phase 3 research programme (grant number EP/L024756/1). C. Birch and C. Walsh, doctoral researchers at the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, University of Manchester, also provided research assistance for the survey.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Author contributions C.M. led the research project. C.M., S.M., M.S., E.M., J.H., M.H. and T.B-S. contributed to the conception, framing and design of the survey research. T.B-S. conducted the survey and supervised the work of C.B. and C.W.; he also conducted the analysis of the composition of project finances and the impact of price support mechanisms.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Clean cooking energy transitions away from solid fuels present a major public policy challenge for the Global South1,2. About 2.9 billion people lack access to clean cooking fuels such as gas and electricity and burn solid fuels in open fires and other simple devices3. Exposure to household air pollution from solid fuel combustion is associated with 1.6 million avoidable deaths each year4 and results in a global welfare loss of roughly US$1.5 trillion5.

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We find rapid growth in enrolments of LPG consumers, but this is not matched by an increase in LPG sales, suggesting that LPG access has not induced a full transition away from the use of polluting solid fuels. The number of LPG refills among PMUY beneficiaries is less than half that of rural general consumers. We also find no observable increase in LPG consumption among general rural consumers with years of experience.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
However, that rapid increase in PMUY customers is also associated with a drop in the growth of general customers. The median value for the distribution of month-to-month general consumer growth rate decreased from 2.4% to 0.9% after PMUY was rolled out (Fig. 1). Overall, the compounded monthly enrolment growth rate among general consumers dropped by half from 3.2% to 1.5% during this time period.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
In recent months, PMUY refill sales have fluctuated around 100 cylinders per 1,000 consumers (suggesting rare use), while the monthly refill sales for general consumers is around 400 cylinders per 1,000 consumers. This suggests that average general consumers use LPG as a secondary or primary cooking fuel. Considering that the national (urban + rural) monthly average is about 600 cylinders per 1,000 consumers, there is considerable scope to encourage more regular use among general consumers in rural areas.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The mean consumption rate for PMUY and general customers is 2.3 and 4.7, respectively (this includes refill purchases as in Fig. 3 plus the initial cylinder). Notably, 35% of PMUY consumers purchased no refills in their first year. Only 7% of PMUY consumers have purchased 4 or more cylinders, which is the median purchase level for general consumers.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
However, we do have up to five years of data for general customers, and for these users we do not find a discernible increase in LPG cylinder purchases over this interval (Fig. 5). The median refill rates and distribution of refills remain nearly constant over this period. There is a slight decrease in the time between refills as consumers consume more, but not enough to result in an increase in a number of cylinders purchased per year.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Here, we use an original dataset of LPG sales transactions records (>200,000) for more than 25,000 rural (PMUY and general) consumers from Koppal district in Karnataka state to address these knowledge gaps (see Methods) to assess the efficacy of PMUY in promoting a cooking energy transition, and the determinants of adoption, which can inform potential mid-course corrections, and similar future initiatives. The dataset used contains details for all LPG sales transactions in Koppal district (see Supplementary Note 3 and Supplementary Table 2 for a socio-economic profile of the region) between January 2016 and December 2018 for three distributors of a public sector LPG marketing company (Indian Oil) and data from earlier than 2016 for distributors 1 and 2 (D1 and D2; see Methods). While the results presented here are specific to the conditions within the Koppal region, they address key questions around LPG use and point to implementation issues that may have broader implications.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
On the basis of the date of the transaction, we also broadly designate an individual transaction using two different seasonal classifications—climatic and agricultural. The standard seasonal classification used by India’s meteorological department is pre-monsoon (March–May), monsoon (southwest monsoon) (June–September), autumn (post monsoon) (October–December) and winter (January, February)47. For Koppal, we have slightly modified this as summer (March–May), monsoon (June–August), autumn (September–November) and winter (December–February) based on local temperature and rainfall trends.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We used linear regression models to explore the effect of an increase in a number of consumers, prices (distributor price, bank subsidy and net price) and season on LPG cylinder refill purchases, in addition to the distributor and the number of consumers. As price changes on a monthly basis, we used aggregated normalized monthly refill sales as the response variable. We converted the two seasonal categorical variables and the distributor details as factors using the base ‘is.factor’ function in R48.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
All data processing, analysis and plot generation were carried out in the R platform48. Details of the code and the packages used are provided in Supplementary Codes 1 (National—state-level variance) and 2 (Sub-district—Koppal) hosted on Figshare45,46. The raw data collected in MS Excel format from the distributor terminals were first processed by the field staff of a partner organization—SAMUHA—in accordance with the Institutional Review Board guidelines of the University of British Columbia.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
For the first, we use a national database of LPG purchase by PMUY beneficiaries aggregated at the state level. These data were made available by a senior official from the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, Government of India. It contains data on 30 million PMUY beneficiaries, aggregated by state, who have completed at least 1 year as LPG consumers (based on their date of enrolment).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Second, the low refill rates (and a large fraction of non-returning customers) suggest that more effective incentives are needed for PMUY beneficiaries to become frequent LPG users and benefit from lower household air pollution exposure. One option would be to offer vouchers with seasonal discounts during summer months when demand drops. Other options might include behaviour change communications and strategies18 to ‘nudge’43 poorer consumers to substitute solid fuels with LPG more often.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Finally, the use of this novel dataset provides new insights into the clean cooking energy transition, which would have been difficult to reliably obtain through standard tools such as self-reported surveys and would have been prohibitively expensive to achieve via thermal sensors at this scale44. Datasets consisting of distributor-level transactions are invaluable sources of information that, properly anonymized, should be made accessible to researchers and policy analysts. This not only promotes transparency but could facilitate objective programme evaluation and potential design changes to this programme to improve targeting and effectiveness.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
This article was developed under Assistance Agreement No. 83542102 awarded by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to R.B. (sub-award to H.Z.). The EPA has not formally reviewed it. The views expressed in this document are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the Agency.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The authors do not have ownership over the LPG sales data downloaded from the Indian Oil Corporation system. Researchers who seek access to the raw data to replicate this study or to perform other analyses should contact the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas and/or IOCL.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Being widely available and replenishable, wastes and biomass residues from agricultural, dairy, forestry and household activities seem to contain the basic attributes of a sustainable energy resource, in stark contrast to bioenergy from food crops13–15. However, at the same time, sustainable use of this resource hinges on overcoming some challenges. The collection, transport and storage of biomass feedstocks are costly and could account for over 50% of total cost in the supply chain of bioenergy products25. The composition of wastes also varies from one location to another, and their processing requires substantial energy inputs. In addition, national-scale policies tend to ignore local trade-offs, leading to suboptimal use of scarce resources26. Harnessing the full energetic and environmental potential of this resource, therefore, requires a holistic assessment of alternative competing pathways to their utilization taking into account the spatial distribution of each specific type of waste and the local conditions under which the wastes will be processed.

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Agricultural and forestry residues, animal manure and municipal solid waste are replenishable and widely available. However, harnessing these heterogeneous and diffuse resources for energy requires a holistic assessment of alternative conversion pathways, taking into account spatial factors. Here, we analyse, from a life-cycle assessment perspective, the potential renewable energy production, net energy gain and greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction for each distinct type of waste feedstock under different conversion technology pathways. The utilization of all available wastes and residues in the contiguous United States can generate 3.1–3.8 exajoules (EJ) of renewable energy, but only deliver 2.4–3.2 EJ of net energy gain, and displace 103–178 million tonnes of CO2-equivalent GHG emissions.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We find that the source of electricity consumed during processing and the environmental footprint of the displaced products are key in determining the best use of wastes and biomass residues. The utilization of all available wastes and residues in the contiguous United States can generate 3.1–3.8 EJ of renewable energy, but deliver only 2.4–3.2 EJ of net energy gain, and displace 103–178 Mt of CO2-equivalent (MtCO2e) GHG emissions. For any given waste feedstock, looking across all US counties where it is available, except in rare instances, no single conversion pathway simultaneously maximizes renewable energy production, net energy gain and GHG mitigation.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Scenario results suggest that there is substantial benefit from utilizing wastes and biomass residues to either displace energy production or reduce GHG emissions or both. As one would expect, MEP results in the highest potential of renewable energy production, which totals 3.8 EJ—3.7% of total US energy demand in 2016 (ref. 46), and MER results in the highest potential of emissions reduction, 178 MtCO2e—2.7% of total US GHG emissions in 2016 (ref. 47). The MNE scenario indicates the highest potential of net energy as well as a moderate amount of emissions reduction (75% of MER).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Results show that cleaner power grids in general would yield less climate benefit for electricity pathways and more climate benefit for non-electricity pathways (Fig. 2). For cleaner power grids, electricity-related pathways would on one hand result in lower emissions during the processing stage, but on the other hand lead to less climate benefit from the displacement of grid electricity. For the majority of non-electricity pathways, electricity is only an input, so cleaner power grids would result in lower emissions during the processing stage and the overall life cycle.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Disaggregating the contribution to total GHG emissions from the different stages in the production chain shows that emissions during the processing stage, which requires electricity and heat input, and credits for avoided emissions attributable to displaced products, are key determinants of GHG emissions for most conversion pathways (Fig. 1). This is generally in line with results from a number of recent studies, such as refs. 15,20,34. For agricultural residues, current management practice (that is, left and decayed on field) entail no GWP due to the fact that the GWPbio index for annual crops is zero.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Here, we determine the net energy gain and the global warming potential (GWP) of energy recovery from waste; which pathways simultaneously maximize renewable energy production, net energy gain and climate benefits for each type of waste and how this varies given the spatial distribution of their availability (specifically, in the contiguous United States); and what are the aggregate energy and climate benefits when all available wastes and biomass residues across the contiguous United States are dedicated for a specific policy objective such as maximizing renewable energy production, maximizing net energy gain or maximizing climate benefits. To this end, we quantify life-cycle GHG emissions and net energy gain for 15 conversion pathways (detailed description in Table 1) and 29 waste feedstocks with spatially explicit estimates of waste potential for the United States.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We conducted an LCA to estimate the energy balances and GHG emissions associated with the conversion of a given feedstock to the final energy product(s) in each county. The different phases of the life cycle that are accounted for include collection of waste, transport to the conversion facility, processing (including pretreatment), transmission and distribution, and end use (Supplementary Note 2 and Supplementary Fig. 3). Since this study mainly focuses on the optimal use of wastes, the functional unit of this LCA is thus 1 Mg of wet waste.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Feedstock-specific technology data (including lower heating values, moisture content, non-biogenic carbon content, energy inputs and outputs by the conversion pathway) were collected from the literature to calculate energy and emission flows in each phase as well as the overall net energy gains15,39,42,49–52. Emission intensities of the production of electricity and fossil-based fuels vary geographically, and variation across states in such emission intensities was taken into account (Supplementary Note 3 and Supplementary Table 1).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
For the comparison of conversion pathways, county-level results were first aggregated to the national level and by feedstock. Weighted averages (by weight) of results by feedstock in each of the four broader categories of waste resources were calculated for the comparison by waste type (as shown in Fig. 1). For the current management of wastes and residues (that is, BAU practices in Fig. 1), we used the same emission accounting method and life-cycle framework to estimate the GWP (Supplementary Note 5 and Supplementary Table 3).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
To explore the optimal utilization of waste biomass resources, we developed three alternative scenarios: MEP, MNE and MER. For all scenarios, the optimal conversion pathway for each feedstock was selected on the basis of the maximum value of energy or emission reduction. Under each scenario, the county-level results were then added up to obtain the potentials for total renewable energy production, net energy and emission reduction at the national level.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Maximizing the benefits of waste conversion requires attention to first the life-cycle implications of different technology pathways, second the spatial distribution of waste feedstocks, and third the local conditions under which waste feedstocks will be processed. The policy insight that emerges from this analysis is that national mandates such as the US Renewable Fuel Standard might not maximize even renewable energy production let alone environmental benefits. Likewise, renewable portfolio standards, a widely employed policy in the electricity sector, could lead to suboptimal use of waste biomass.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Indexing volumetric targets and mandates as well as financial subsidies for renewable energy to life-cycle emission-based performance measures will lead to more sustainable use of wastes and biomass residues. This analysis illustrates the value of combining LCA with spatial analytical techniques for multicriterion assessment of alternative conversion pathways and the identification of hotspots for the refinement of existing energy policies.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Acknowledgements
This study would not have been possible without financial support from the UCLA Grand Challenges—Sustainable LA programme.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Author contributions
D.R. conceived and designed the study, guided data collection, modelling and analysis and co-wrote the manuscript. B.L. contributed to the study design, collected the data, conducted the modelling and analysis and co-wrote the manuscript.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Demand-side response (DSR) measures are gaining prominence as a way to align demand with non-dispatchable supply. The residential sector accounts for 30–40% of electricity consumption across the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development countries, which makes it a prime target for DSR1. Decision makers, such as the California Public Utilities Commission, are enacting policies that require default enrolment in DSR programmes2, which can yield participation rates that exceed 80% (ref. 3); other entities may follow4. Thus, DSR is poised to soon reach millions of households, which highlights the need to understand whether the costs and benefits of DSR are distributed evenly across sociodemographic groups.

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Here we examine 7,487 households that took part in a randomized control TOU pilot in the southwestern United States. We found that assignment to TOU rather than control disproportionately increases bills for households with elderly and disabled occupants, and predicts worse health outcomes for households with disabled and ethnic minority occupants than those for non-vulnerable counterparts. These results suggest that vulnerable groups should be considered separately in DSR rate design, and future pilots should seek to determine which designs most effectively avoid exacerbating existing energy injustices or creating new ones.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Both TOU rates resulted in bill increases for all participants (P = 0.000; Fig. 1, Tables 2 and 3 and Supplementary Note 1). As expected, households vulnerable on the disability indicator assigned to TOU1 (P = 0.011) or TOU2 (P = 0.022) and households vulnerable on the elderly indicator assigned to TOU2 (P = 0.001) saw greater baseline-to-pilot-year bill increases compared to non-vulnerable counterparts. Contrary to expectations, for households vulnerable on the low-income (P = 0.012) and Hispanic indicators (P = 0.014), assignment to TOU2 versus control is associated with a smaller increase in bills relative to non-vulnerable households.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings