Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
International trade is represented in GLOBIOM through the Enke–Samuelson–Takayama–Judge spatial equilibrium assuming homogenous goods38,44. Bilateral trade flows between the 30 economic regions were determined by the initial trade pattern, relative production costs of regions and the minimization of trading costs38. The initial trade pattern was informed by the BACI database from CEPII averaging across 1998–2002 (ref. 45). Trade costs are composed of tariffs from the MAcMap-HS6 database46, transport costs47 and a nonlinear trade expansion cost.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We implemented six trade scenarios to analyse the role of trade in climate change adaptation. The first scenario—fixed imports—limits imports to the level observed in the no climate change scenario or less. The second scenario, pre-Doha tariffs, excludes the tariff update in 2010, representing the trade environment before global trade liberalization launched by the Doha Round. We also implemented three trade integration scenarios to assess promotion of the trade adaptation mechanism. In the first scenario, the facilitation scenario, the nonlinear part of trade costs is set close to zero from 2020 onwards on the basis of Baker et al.24.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We measured the population at risk of hunger, or the number of people whose food availability falls below the mean minimum dietary energy requirement, on the basis of previous studies51–53. The following four parameters were used: the mean minimum dietary energy requirement, the coefficient of variation of the distribution of food within a country, the mean food availability in the country (kcal per capita per day) and total population. Minimum dietary energy requirements are exogenously calculated on the basis of demographic composition (age, sex) of future population projections. Future changes in the inequality of food distribution within a country are exogenous and follow projected national income growth.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
International trade contributes globally to climate change adapta-tion. The impact of the worst climate change scenarios on global risk of hunger increases by 33–47% under restricted trade scenar-ios, and decreases by 11–64% under open trade scenarios. The gain from reducing trade costs is largest for regions that remain import dependent under climate change. Climate change increases the role of trade in reducing the risk of hunger for some regions, although it does not substantially alter the pattern of comparative advantage of main staple crops. It is the ability to link food surplus with defi-cit regions that underpins trade’s adaptation effect.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Despite the limitations described above, our study brings novel policy implications. We found that liberalization that has already been achieved under the Doha Round substantially reduces climate-induced hunger impacts. A careful approach to trade integration covering different types of trade barriers can further limit hunger risks. The full removal of agricultural tariffs leads to increases in food availability in SSA, MNA and EAS, but may increase exports and lower regional food availability in SEA and SAS. Further trade facilitation can reduce undernourishment in all hunger-affected regions. However, the effective realization of trade facilitation requires considerable investments in transport infrastructure and technology.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We thank H. Guimbard and staff at CEPII for their contribution in terms of trade policy data and A. Mosnier for her support in the trade modelling work before this study. We acknowledge research funding from Research Foundation Flanders (FWO contract, 180956/SW) and support from the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, contract BPA-12-H-0023; call order, EP-B15H-0143). The views and opinions expressed in this paper are those of the authors alone and do not necessarily state or reflect those of the EPA, and no official endorsement should be inferred.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
All of the authors have contributed substantially to the manuscript. P.H., J.B., T.K. and C.J. developed the concept and designed scenarios. P.H., E.S., T.H., C.J. and D.L. provided code and model simulations. C.J., T.K. and P.H. analysed the data. C.J., P.H., T.K., J.B. and M.M. interpreted the data and wrote the manuscript on which S.F., H.V., N.V.L., E.S., T.H., S.O. and S.R. commented.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Cost-effective reduction of deforestation should be a corner- stone in the suite of climate change mitigation strategies. Land-use change accounts for 6–17% of global carbon emis- sions1. At any reasonable carbon price, avoided deforestation pro- vides 7.2–9.6 times the abatement potential of reforestation2. There are a range of strategies for accomplishing this—protected areas3, payments for ecosystem services4 and supply-chain initiatives5, among others. However, all of these strategies require monitoring of deforestation activities. Given that deforestation rates are often highest in low- and middle-income countries with limited resources to create effective monitoring systems6, the availability of low-cost monitoring technologies may be an important support to policy aimed at avoiding deforestation.

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Reducing deforestation to mitigate climate change necessitates monitoring of deforestation activity. However, while freely available deforestation alerts on forest loss are available, the effect of these alerts and the presence of subscribers in a particu- lar area is unclear. Here, we show that subscriptions to alerts in 22 tropical countries decrease the probability of deforestation in Africa by 18% relative to the average 2011–2016 levels. There is no effect on other continents, and the availability of alerts does not significantly change deforestation outcomes. This decrease in Africa is higher in protected areas and concessions, suggesting that alerts either increased capacity to enforce existing deforestation policy or induced the development of more effective anti-deforestation policies. Calculated using the social cost of carbon for avoided deforestation in Africa, we estimate the alert system’s value to be between US$149 million and US$696 million.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
There is no robust evidence of any impact of alert availability  on average or in any particular region (Fig. 2 and Supplementary Table A2). Results using the alternative outcomes of per cent forest loss and winsorized per cent forest loss are qualitatively similar to the binary outcome estimates (Supplementary Tables A6 and A7). As it is plausible that countries may take time to adapt to the avail- ability of alerts, we also examine a specification with a 1 yr lag of alert availability (Supplementary Tables A8–A10). Although results from this specification are not statistically different from zero, the sign of the average effect switches to become negative.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The average effect of subscriptions on deforestation is negative (the opposite sign of the impact of alert availability), but statistically insignificant and small compared with the average yearly 2011–2016 deforestation probability (0.18). Results using winsorized per cent deforestation and per cent deforestation as outcomes tell the same story (Supplementary Tables B6 and B7). Across regions, we estimate significant avoided deforestation in the African subsample, but no robust effects in Asia and South America. The coefficient for Africa implies an 18% decrease in the probability of deforestation relative to the 2011–2016 lev- els (0.04/0.22) (Fig. 4).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
As the average deforestation in these cells is 1.86%, the estimated avoided deforestation per year is equal to 495.27 km2. If we apply a carbon density of 6,000 MtCO2 km−2 (the low end of the valuation for forests in this region10), and if we value the amount of avoided carbon emissions resulting from alert subscriptions at the social cost of carbon (US$50 t−1)11, we calculate the alert system’s value at US$149 million. With a car- bon density of 28,100 MtCO2 km−2 (the estimated value of the dense forests in our sample1), we estimate a value of US$696 mil- lion.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The individual interactions are negative and statistically significant—subscriptions have a stronger deterrent effect in both protected areas and in forest concessions. These mechanisms are particularly relevant for the African sub- sample—more of the subscribed forests in Africa are in protected areas and concessions (57% versus less than 33% in the other two regions).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The GLAD alerts use all available Earth observation data from Landsat 7 and Landsat 8 satellites, which combined have a revisit rate of 8 days. Each day, all new images are first masked for clouds and shadow, and then a loss detection algorithm is applied to all unobscured land, evaluating the reflectance of the current obser- vation together with baseline Landsat metrics. Each 0.00025° pixel (28 m at the Equator) flagged as loss becomes an alert. The alerts map all forms of tree cover loss including logging, clear-cuts and intensive fires in both natural forests and plantations. These alerts and the date of first detection are provided without charge through a simple interface called Global Forest Watch (GFW).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We use a stratified random sample of 1 km2 grid cells drawn from across countries with proportional allocation within states. To ensure a representative sample, countries are divided into two groups: those with more than 75,000 forested grid cells and those with fewer than 75,000 forested grid cells. For the first group, we randomly selected 10% of all grid cells. For the second group, we first determined the minimum random sample percentage according to Lohr18 and then proportionally sample this percentage of grid cells across states within countries.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The basic estimation strategy exploits variation in either access to alerts (to estimate the impact of availability) or use of subscriptions.  The estimation equation is: di;c;k;y ¼ βGLADi;c;y þ ψiðcÞ þ αk;y þ μ0Xi;c;k;y þ ϵi;c;k;y where di,c,k,y is a binary variable indicating deforestation in grid cell i in country c of continent k in year y. GLADi,c,y is equal to the share of months that the country had access to GLAD alerts in year y or, to assess the impact of subscriptions, an indicator equal to one once over 50% of a grid cell fell within a subscribed area for the first time.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We first examine whether having access to GLAD alerts for a particu- lar region decreases deforestation using the gradual rollout of the alert system that began in 2016 (see timeline in Fig. 1a). Second, we study whether using GLAD alerts via subscription results in a decrease in deforestation rates. In the case of both access and use, we compare trends in areas covered earlier with those cov- ered later, holding constant factors known to affect deforestation, such as location and biophysical characteristics.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We apply grid-cell and year-by-continent fixed effects, annual measures of average temperature, cumulative precipitation and the same flex- ible time trends, with covariates measured at the grid-cell level. Our approach eliminates the effect of time-invariant characteristics that influence deforestation (for example soil suitability, slope and so on), general macroeconomic events affecting all countries or spe- cific regions, impacts of weather and confounding variation result- ing from changes in transport or production technologies over time.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
This Analysis presents strong evidence that freely available forest-change detection data can support decreased deforestation. The use of GLAD alerts through online subscriptions with intent to control deforestation led to an 18% decrease in the probability of forest loss in the African countries included in our sample. The estimated carbon benefits of the avoided deforestation from GLAD subscriptions—from US$149 million US$696 million—is a low-end estimate. It is likely that real benefits are much higher, given that impacts seem to be increasing over time, and that there are a num- ber of substantial co-benefits alongside avoided carbon emissions, including biodiversity and watershed protection, that are not valued in the calculation.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Nonetheless, we conclude that the GLAD system of freely available near-real-time forest monitoring provides an immensely valuable scaffold for the implementation of national forest policies, and subsequently to the world that benefits from the global public goods provided by standing forests.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We thank S. Jamilla, E. Goldman and I. Collins for creating the database. We thank K. Chomitz, T. Coger, J. Engelmann, N. Harris, H. Nembhard, F. Stolle and N. Ullery and participants at the Environmental and Resources Seminar of the University of Wisconsin-Madison and at the Applied Economics Seminar at Oregon State University for comments. We acknowledge funding from the World Resources Institute; the organization had no input into the study design nor impact on the presentation of  the results.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Peer review information Nature Climate Change thanks Juliano Assunção,  Johannes Reiche and Juan Robalino for their contribution to the peer review  of this work.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Although scholars have continued to assess the numerous ways in which climate change affects humans2,3, animals4,5 and plants6,7 on Earth, governments have been hesitant to pursue policies able to successfully reduce emissions8,9 because of a costs–participation dilemma: to be effective, climate policy must raise the price of carbon and include most countries of the world. Realizing both of these objectives is challenging because climate action is voluntary and existing studies demonstrate that publics are averse to costs10–13. A potential response to this problem is the ‘ramping-up principle’, that is, the idea that the price of carbon should be gradually increased to give publics time to adjust to stricter regulations8. Although intuitively appealing, it is not clear whether publics do indeed prefer increasing cost paths over alternative cost schedules or whether they simply favour climate policies with average low costs. Previous work has explored the willingness of individuals to invest in energy efficiency improvements14,15 and public approval of costly climate policy initiatives16–20. So far, there exists no systematic evidence on which intertemporal cost paths maximize public support for climate action.

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The pooled responses show that 58% of all individuals selected a constant cost path whereas only 12% preferred an increasing cost path (Fig. 2a). When we inspected responses separately by country, we found that the constant cost schedule received majority support in each of the four countries (Fig. 2b). We also explored whether preferences for climate cost paths reflected expectations about average cost levels. When breaking out the results by cost treatment, we still found that a majority preferred a constant cost path over increasing, decreasing and inverse U-shaped allocations in both the low-cost and the high-cost conditions.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Moving from an increasing to a constant cost path caused a significant increase in policy support by 7 percentage points compared to the widely discussed option of ramping up costs over time (the reference category), even when we explicitly specified and fixed the cost level of the policy proposal. At the same time, decreasing cost schedules also raised climate policy support compared to the increasing cost path. The causal effects estimated from the conjoint analysis show how cost paths changed the average level of support, but may as such not be informative about the level of support for a particular policy package, which was 50% across all profiles by design in the forced-choice, paired-profile conjoint experiment.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
First, consistent with previous research, costs had a significant and substantively noteworthy effect on public support. Second, when using these estimates to benchmark the sensitivity to an increasing domestic cost path, the effect of switching from a constant to an increasing schedule was similar to doubling the average monthly household costs from 0.5% of GDP (€28, €39, £15 and $53) to 1.0% of GDP (€56, €77, £30 and $107). These results are robust across all four countries (Fig. 3b). Overall, both the pooled estimates and the results by country suggest that constant and decreasing cost schedules increase the willingness to support climate action compared to a policy with increasing costs over time.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
A constant cost schedule increased support by 8 percentage points if costs were low (0.5% of GDP) and by 6 percentage points if costs were high (2.5% of GDP). This suggests that the aversion to increasing cost paths is unlikely to be explained by concerns about average cost levels. Comparison of decreasing cost paths to constant cost paths showed that decreasing schedules were only preferred over constant plans when costs were particularly high (2.0% of GDP or more).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
If publics were mostly concerned about cost avoidance, a later starting period should significantly increase public approval. The results (Fig. 5) indicate that changing the start year had no significant effect on support for climate action. Overall, this evidence is consistent with the idea that publics prefer cost stability, a tendency that seems to be relatively independent of concerns related to cost levels.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
To characterize mass preferences over climate cost paths, we devised a survey that we conducted among representative samples of adult populations (n = 10,075) in four major economies (France, Germany, the United Kingdom and the United States). The sociode-mographic margins for the raw and weighted samples along with the population margins for each country are shown in Supplementary Table 1. We first studied support for different climate cost schedules using a direct question item to introduce the idea of an international agreement that would entail certain average costs per month and per household. The survey then presented respondents with four different ways to distribute the costs of implementing an international climate agreement over time and asked them to indicate which cost schedule they would select in a referendum given a certain cost level average (Fig. 1; see the Methods for the wording of the questions). The cost level was held constant for respondents in the United States, but we randomized whether the average monthly household costs for implementing the agreement were expected to be low (€28, €39 and £15) or high (€113, €154 and £60) in France, Germany and the United Kingdom, respectively.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The experiment presented respondents with two climate policy scenarios and asked them to indicate which of the two they prefer. Each respondent completed eight conjoint tasks, each of which specified both the temporal allocation of costs that each scenario entailed (increasing, constant or decreasing) and the associated average costs to households (0.5%, 1.0%, 2.0% or 2.5% of GDP), along with other policy features (see Methods). By independently randomizing both the level of costs and their temporal distribution, this approach allowed us to separate and directly compare the causal effects of these two forces (see Methods). The instructions to respondents, along with an example conjoint task, are shown in Supplementary Fig. 1.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
For our analysis, each policy profile was treated as one observation. We estimate the causal effects of climate cost paths on policy support by regressing whether a scenario was chosen on indicator variables for each randomly assigned attribute value. The full results of the conjoint analysis are shown in Extended Data Fig. 2.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Sample. We carried out our survey in four major economies (France, Germany, the United Kingdom and the United States). The survey was conducted online by YouGov using matched sampling. Propensity scores were used to match available internet respondents (participants of the YouGov online panel) to a stratified random sample of the target adult population.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The text analysis that we performed on the responses to these questions was not preregistered. We first applied standard text-as-data cleaning procedures to these responses by removing all punctuation, capitalization and word orderings to treat the responses as a ‘bag of words’. In each of the three languages, we discarded common stop words (for example, ‘the’ and ‘and’) and we stemmed each word to combine related terms (for example, ‘consistently’ and ‘consistency’ both became ‘consist’).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Credible climate policies will have to raise the price of carbon, and the public are concerned about these costs even if they believe the science of climate change and generally would like governments to address the issue. One intuitively appealing approach to this problem is to ramp up the costs of climate action over time. This lowers costs in the near to medium term but also requires individuals to keep adjusting to steadily increasing carbon prices. Our results indicate that such cost plans run the risk of reducing support for climate policies because many individuals prefer to smooth their consumption over time.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Moreover, owing to the delay in large-scale policy responses to climate change, countries will probably have to pursue more progressive and costly climate action to limit the adverse effects of global warming. The drop in support because of higher costs associated with these more ambitious policy efforts may be at least partially mitigated by selecting a set of attractive design features such as the constant distribution of costs.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Online content Any methods, additional references, Nature Research report- ing summaries, source data, extended data, supplementary information, acknowledgements, peer review information; details of author contributions and competing interests; and statements of data and code availability are available at https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-020-00914-6. Received: 14 January 2020; Accepted: 20 August 2020; Published online: 21 September 2020. References 1. Australian Academy of Sciences et al. The science of climate change. Science 292, 1261 (2001).

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Author contributions M.M.B., K.F.S. and E.vL. contributed equally to the study design, data collection and analysis, interpretation of the results and writing of the manuscript. Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
As governments get serious about decarbonization, political leaders in large and politically diverse countries need to grapple with huge variations in political and administrative feasibility within their countries. That heterogeneity in interests and capabilities has led many federal governments to encourage or tolerate large internal variations in policy effort. Diverse studies have pointed to the benefits of heterogeneous approaches for experimentation and learning1–4. Yet these realities in climate politics have not been well represented in leading modelling frameworks, which typically assume nationally uniform policy efforts5–8. This gap in modelling work also reflects the widely held assumption by policymakers that heterogeneous subnational policy efforts will be a lot more costly than nationally uniform efforts9.

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Focusing on the United States, we represent plausible variation (by more than a factor of 3) in the stringency of state-led climate policy in a process-based integrated assessment model (GCAM-USA). For a wide array of national decarbonization targets, we find that the nationwide cost from heterogeneous subnational policies is only one-tenth higher than nationally uniform policies. Such results hinge on two critical technologies (advanced biofuels and electricity) for which inter-state trade ameliorates the economic efficiencies that might arise with heterogeneous action.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The nationwide mitigation cost increases dramatically from moderate to ambitious national mitigation efforts (Fig. 5). However, more surprising is that the difference in total cost does not vary much when the subnational policy approach is heterogeneous as compared with uniformity across the states. For a national mitigation effort of 20%, 40%, 60% and 80% decarbonization, the nationwide cost under the heterogeneous approach is only 14%, 9%, 4% and 5% higher than the uniform approach, respectively.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
This surprising result (that the overall costs do not rise much in spite of huge heterogeneity across states) is largely driven by the flexibility  across  states in terms of electricity trade and the location of energy-intensive industries (for example, bio-refineries; see the electricity and bioliquids production patterns in Supplementary Fig. 3). In other words, despite the subnational heterogeneity in policy stringency, energy markets are tightly coupled across states, allowing much of the heterogeneity in policy to be arbitraged through trade activities in the energy markets. Comparing the Heterogeneous and Hybrid approach with the Uniform approach, many states adjust the amount of electricity production, technology choices and trading volume with neighbouring states.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Most of these alternative formulations do not alter the core result that the heterogeneous policy approach is only marginally more expensive. However, the cost of deep decarbonization can increase significantly if a few states with the lowest support levels are not engaged in climate action at all (‘3 zero’ and ‘5 zero’ scenarios). For instance, to achieve 80% decarbonization nationally, a zero effort in those locales drives costs for the rest of the country up by 25–70%.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
With a heterogeneous approach, mitigation in harder-to-abate sectors is especially important in states with higher support rate. For instance, to achieve a national mitigation effort of 80% decarbonization with a heterogeneous policy approach, the contribution of non-electricity sectors to total CO2 mitigation from 2015 to 2050 is only 48% in the low-supporting states, while it is 60% in the medium- and high-supporting states (Fig. 4). This suggests that decarbonizing the electricity sector is a key strategy for all the states, and the major differences between states with low and high support levels occur outside the electricity sector, where mitigation is more costly.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We examine 12 mitigation scenarios that vary across two dimensions: i. National mitigation effort, measured by four targets of national total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for 2050 (for example, 20%, 40%, 60% and 80% below 2005 levels; Supplementary Fig. 1). We also include a 95% decarbonization target as a sensitivity analysis, which is close to the net-zero emissions target set by the Biden Administration (Supplementary Fig. 7). ii. Subnational policy approach, modelled as three degrees of heterogeneity in the stringency of state-level climate policy.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The Uniform approach assumes a nationally uniform policy implementation. It is represented as a uniform price on carbon, modelled by equalizing the marginal abatement cost (MAC) across states in GCAM-USA. By contrast, the Hybrid and Heterogeneous approaches assume state heterogeneity in policy stringency, which is represented as state-varying carbon prices and MACs. The MAC implicitly measures the highest willingness to pay by industries and households in each state to mitigate carbon emissions.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We incorporate key political factors and processes in our scenario design to bring it closer to the realities. Because the United States is a democracy, we use public opinions to proxy for the heterogeneity in stringency of state policies. Indeed, there is a vast literature on the important role for public attitudes in shaping climate policy (see Supplementary Note 1 as well as refs. 20–22).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
GCAM-USA divides the energy and economic systems of the United States into 50 states and Washington DC, with state-level representation of socioeconomics, energy transformation (power generation and refining), carbon storage, renewable resources (wind and solar), electricity markets (with the representation of regional electricity grids) and consumer end-use energy demands (in buildings, transportation and industrial sectors). Economic growth, population changes and climate changes set the scale for energy demands in buildings, transportation and industrial sectors. These demands are supplied by a variety of fuels and technologies.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
To calculate the mitigation cost, we construct state-level MAC curves using the CO2 emissions and MACs from 20% to 95% decarbonization target runs. The model considers state-varying and time-varying MAC curves, driven by the variations in a wide range of factors such as existing infrastructure, local availability of low-carbon resources and the evolving costs of technologies over time. We then integrate the area under the MAC curves in each state to calculate state-level mitigation cost, and add up the cost to the national level.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Controlling pollution of warming gases may prove to be the most elaborate and costly environmental policy undertaking yet, and the analysis we present here suggests that the extra nationwide economic cost of federalist variation in state-level policy can be very mod- est—much smaller by an order of magnitude than variations in the overall level of nationwide effort. For policymakers, this insight suggests that federalist approaches could be more sustainable, because higher costs are aligned with the states that are politically more willing to bear them.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
At least some modest floor level of effort by all the states is critical to avoid inter-state carbon leakage and a significant cost escalation. There is growing attention on how various forms of justice and equity considerations intersect with deep decarbonization, which is revealed not least in current plans in the United States and Europe that frame deep decarbonization as broad social changes.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Received: 9 December 2020; Accepted: 23 July 2021; Published online: 23 August 2021

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We thank B. Keohane, D. Tingley, L. Stokes, J. Jenkins, K. Fisher-Vanden and participants at seminars at Penn State University (September 2019), Johns Hopkins University (September 2019) and Princeton University (November 2019) on related themes. W.P. received a summer research stipend from Penn State School of International Affairs.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The repeated damages caused by urban flooding have raised questions regarding the efficacy of costly drainage systems, whether gray or GBI. For example, the United States spends $7–10 billion dollars annually for the construction and renovation of stormwater systems, with larger expenditures needed over the long term21. With the generally poor state of aging infrastructure in the United States22, even moderate rainfall events (a return period of ~10 years)23,24 can exceed the capacity of drainage systems8. Although current inadequacies stem partly from outdated stormwater design standards25,26, we posit that it is also due to an insufficient understanding of ‘flood connectivity’ within urban landscapes, defined as a complex interplay of flooding mechanisms (Fig. 1) and drainage pathways within urban settings, arising from the spatiotemporal distribution of hydraulic head (the term used to describe the summed potential, kinetic and pressure energies of stormwater flows). This flood connectivity encompasses the interactions and interdependencies among runoff, surface and subterranean sewer and drainage systems, rivers and other natural and built water bodies, and infrastructure components (for example, buildings and roadways) that can, by design or in an unintended way, convey stormwater during floods.

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The results in Fig. 2e highlight that a substantial portion of the studied area is susceptible to flooding: water exceeds 0.1 m in depth over ~75% of the area, with 27% having a depth of over 0.5 m. Such an outcome indicates how the spatial connectivity of flood processes can alter local perception of flood vulnerability conditions. Specifically, scenarios with intense precipitation only in neighboring areas must be considered when assessing flood risks and planning mitigation for a region of interest, even in the absence of rainfall occurring locally within that area.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Comprehensive hydrodynamic modeling of these two distinct scenarios of outfall functioning reveals peculiar results. Notably, with the outfalls hydraulically disconnected (the ‘Controlled’ case) from the rest of the flooded watershed, the resultant flooding is more extreme than that of the integrated outfall case, which facilitated backwater effects (Fig. 2d,f). Specifically, in areas near the outfalls at the Bear Creek channel, inundation levels for the ‘Controlled’ case exceeded the ‘Integrated’ case by over 0.1 m (Figs. 2g and 3a–c).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
This result can be explained by the considerable drainage from the ‘Controlled’ sewer system discharging into the open channel: water levels at the outfall sites thus tend to be higher and cause more severe flooding in nearby areas. In contrast, in the more realistic ‘Integrated’ case, if the water level in the channel exceeds the hydraulic head of the stormwater system at the outfall location, backwater flow will occur and water from the open channel will flow into the sewer system. This results in lower water levels in near outfall areas experiencing backwater, leading to reduced flooding in the ‘Integrated’ case.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Neglecting the connectivity between a sewer system and adjacent flooded areas and consequent backwater effects can overestimate flood levels. This can potentially result in poor design of the number, positioning and dimensions of manholes, pipes and outfalls. Larger sewers and outfall dimensions can facilitate rapid drainage, yet they can also allow rapid backflow.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Simulation results for 14 rainfall events of different magnitudes corroborate the persistence of the analyzed flood dynamics in the case study urban area caused by flood spatiotemporal connectivity. Another observable outcome is the rapid onset of flooding after rainfall. As depicted in Fig. 4c, impactful flooding with inundation depths exceeding 0.5 m occurs within a narrow time window following the most intense precipitation (initiating at hour 15:00), within 0.5–1 h.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We present a case study that demonstrates how engineering design infrastructure interacts with runoff drainage processes at different spatial scales of origin, including local scales, typical of engineering design, and the larger scales that connect upstream and downstream drainage conditions. The study was carried out in relation to a highly urbanized watershed in Southeast Michigan that has multiple conventional elements of gray infrastructure designed to deliver storm runoff to nearby channels. We designed the study by focusing on a single extreme storm on 11 August 2014 (referred to as STORM2014 hereafter) that struck Southeast Michigan and caused catastrophic flooding.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
To replicate historical flood events, we gathered an extensive array of data of high accuracy and spatial resolution that influence the flood response in this area, including topography, land use/land cover, road networks, buildings, stormwater systems and open channels. Notably, we also conducted field surveys to validate and refine the data, particularly regarding the locations of drainage outfalls, where strong interconnections exist between the drainage system, open channels and ground surfaces. Further details on the specific data used and the model configurations are provided in the Methods.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
A coupled model integrating complex hydrologic, hydraulic and morphologic processes, which has been verified in previous case studies, was used in the research as the high-fidelity urban flood model50,51. The hydrology module, the TIN-based real time integrated basin simulator (tRIBS), can simulate various hydrological processes such as canopy interception, evapotranspiration from the bare soil and canopy, vertical and lateral moisture fluxes in the subsurface, and diverse runoff generation mechanisms (for example, saturation excess, infiltration excess, perched subsurface stormflow and groundwater exfiltration) with appropriate inputs of meteorological data, topography, land-use and soil-type data. Taking into account these hydrologic processes enabled the model to simulate the hydrodynamics of overland flow (overland flow model, OFM52), relying on physically modeled wave velocities within a domain of arbitrary geometric configuration.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The EXTRAN module of the Storm Water Management Model53 is fully coupled with tRIBS-OFM for simulating a stormwater drainage system. EXTRAN is a 1D dynamic sewer network model based on 1D Saint-Venant equations. Water transport in conduits and nodes is calculated based on the continuity and momentum equations, written respectively as ∂A/∂t + ∂q/∂l = 0, ∂q/∂t + ∂(q2/A)/∂l + gC ∂H/∂l + gCSl + gAel = 0.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The research comprised two modeling experiments to address two research questions. First, we evaluated two scenarios of the spatial distribution of rainfall in causing flooding within the Warren area. For this purpose, STORM2014 precipitation data were configured as a grid with a resolution of 500 m × 500 m using rainfall data obtained from the Detroit City Airport rain gauge.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The recognition of the potential hazard imposed by flooding due to connectivity, even in the absence of rainfall in the design area, is an important but overlooked reality of urban stormwater systems. It is noted that most design guidelines worldwide28,30–33 rely on scenarios with only ‘direct rainfall’ occurring in the area of interest (often uniform), without considering influx/outflux from/to nearby interconnected areas. With flooding waters contributed by sources other than direct rainfall, assessments of drainage capacity can be highly uncertain.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
In the United States, FEMA maps require further updates in flood-prone areas, as already highlighted in previous research47–49. The current perception is that FEMA’s hazard maps, which have not been updated for over a decade, are outdated due to climate change and land-use alterations41. Critically, we show here that FEMA maps are further outdated because the methods (modeling and flood concepts) used to generate them do not consider the complexity of flood connectivity, especially in urbanscapes.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
V.N.T. and V.Y.I. acknowledge the support of the US National Science Foundation CMMI program award no. 2053429 and the Department of Defense, Department of the Navy, the Office of Naval Research award no. N00014-23-1-2735, Environmental Protection Agency grant #2020‐2509. J. Kim was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea government (MSIT)(NRF-2022R1A2C2008584. D.B. Wright and G.A. Alexander acknowledge the support of the U.S. National Science Foundation CMMI program award #2053358. We acknowledge informative discussions with P. Seelbach, B. Kerkez, J. Bednar, G. O’Neil, C. Brown, C. Purdy, A. Asher, M. Thomas and S. Bergt that assisted this study.

Category:

Answer: None