Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The fast electrification of heavy road freight transport is pivotal in limiting global warming in line with the Paris Climate Agreement1–3. This follows since heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs) contribute a noteworthy proportion of annual greenhouse gas emissions despite a low share in the vehicle stock4. Whereas the European Union has agreed on ambitious tail-pipe emissions reduction targets for newly sold HDVs of −43% by 2030, −65% by 2035 and −90% by 2040 (compared with 2019/2020)5, California has effectively imposed the phase out of conventional combustion trucks by 20366, with other US states expected to follow. Similarly, China is anticipated to tighten its tail-pipe emissions reduction targets soon to comply with its near-zero emissions target by 20607,8. These ambitions require the fast deployment of zero-emission trucks (ZETs), where demand from and, hence, affordability for operators are key. However, high acquisition costs are currently hampering fast ZET market diffusion9–13.

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Figure 1 illustrates that battery system costs, broken down by source categories, may decline by 64% to 75% until 2050. We observe rapid and consistent cost reductions per annum (p.a.), with similar patterns for all source categories. We find cost reductions (CRs) of around 5% p.a. (scientific and others) to 6.5% p.a. (near market) until 2030 and 3.3–4.5% p.a. over an extended 2020–2050 period.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Notably, near-market estimates (blue) are more optimistic, less heterogeneous and more stable compared with the other categories. This consolidates into expected cost estimates, where near-market estimates project a decrease from around €2020275 kWh−1 in 2020 to €2020140 kWh−1 by 2030 and around €202070 kWh−1 by 2050. In contrast, scientific estimates (green) indicate a drop from roughly €2020310 kWh−1 in 2020 to €2020180 kWh−1 by 2030 and around €2020100 kWh−1 by 2050.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Figure 2 illustrates that FC system costs, broken down by source categories, may decline by 65% to 85% until 2050. Notably, our observations unveil significant heterogeneity among these categories. Near-market estimates (blue) initiate at approximately €2020540 kW−1 in 2020, undercut the €2020100 kW−1 threshold by 2045 and attain around €202085 kW−1 by 2050. This equals CRs of around 9% p.a. until 2030 and around 6% p.a. over 2020–2050.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Our analysis of battery cost predictions unveils that near-market estimates are remarkably stable over different release dates. These projections are prone to only minor downward adjustments, as indicated by the difference between OLS and WLS results (Supplementary Figs. 5 and 6 and Supplementary Table 2), and are consistently more optimistic than those from scientific literature (p < 0.05, two-tailed t-test; Supplementary Table 4). Conversely, scientific cost estimates published in 2010–2023 faced substantial downward adjustments.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) benefits against diesel trucks (DTs) typically constitute the key ZET criterion for fleet operators9–13, with other factors being also relevant. Using a recent TCO framework56 along with our cost projections, we find that BETs may realize cost benefits versus DTs as of today. In contrast, FCETs may struggle to reach TCO parity throughout the 2030s because green hydrogen prices remain probably too high.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Meta forecasting involves synthesizing existing projections from literature encompassing historical trends, future expectations and different methods to yield novel ones. Pooling individual forecasts through this well-established approach29,30 enhances accuracy, often outperforming individual forecasts31. This paper analyses projected costs for five crucial BET and/or FCET components based on an extensive literature record.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We identified relevant literature via distinct search strings using the Scopus and Google Scholar databases. Following Nykvist and Nilsson25, we considered three different source categories: near market (that is, market outlooks from renowned analysts and consultancies and industry announcements), scientific (that is, peer-reviewed papers) and others (that is, non-peer-reviewed academic publications and reports). All cost values were harmonized to represent system-level original equipment manufacturer (OEM) purchase prices for the respective ZET component, including profit mark-ups (+35%) and specified in 2020 euros (€2020).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Component-specific cost developments were calculated by regression of log harmonized cost data and log time data using either weighted least squares (WLS) or ordinary least squares (OLS). Herein we controlled for several auxiliary variables such as release dates, scenario settings, data originality, forecast method and source category. Additionally, we used three robust approaches to strengthen our results by reducing potential outliers’ contribution (Methods).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Results were calculated by regression using Python statsmodels. Specifically, we used the log harmonized cost data and log time data to approximate the typical learning curve shape and controlled for several auxiliary variables stated above. Weighting (WLS) was performed by source age using the following exponential function for smoothing, as proposed by refs. 58,59:

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We used two robust techniques, namely robust norms and outlier removal, in three approaches to exclude outliers and noise, thus increasing the accuracy and robustness of our original regression results. First, we performed HuberT regression analyses that are less sensitive to outliers by minimizing a combined loss function of squared errors for small residuals and absolute errors for larger residuals but still using the full data sample. Second, we filtered the data by labelling the central 50% (that is, values within the lower and upper quartile) and 80% (that is, values within the 10% and 90% quantile) of observations as inliers and others as outliers.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Third, these substantial and fast cost-reduction potentials support an optimistic outlook for both technologies. This indicates rapid ZET market deployments that will substantially impact transportation and energy sector players, such as value chain reconfigurations, establishing national and international hydrogen ecosystems and electricity infrastructure expansions from transformers to distribution and transmission grids. Finally, we highlight the competition among ZET technologies, raising questions about market leadership and whether we need different technologies.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
All anticipated cost reductions rely on successful transitions to low-carbon road freight transport. This entails building large-scale production facilities supported by policy measures in key markets like North America, Europe and China, particularly in the early market phases. These measures may include purchase subsidies, infrastructure development, ZET mandates and carbon pricing.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Acknowledgements We gratefully acknowledge funding from the EU STORM project (grant number 101006700: P.P., D.S., S.L.) by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme, the HoLa project (FKZ 03EMF0404A: P.P., D.S., S.L.) by the German Federal Ministry for Digital and Transport and the BEMA project (FKZ 03XP0272B: S.L., A.S.) by the German Federal Ministry for Education and Research.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Author contributions S.L. conceived and designed the study in consultation with P.P. and A.S. S.L. collected the data, implemented the model and created the visualizations. S.L. wrote the original manuscript with contributions from all co-authors.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Disparities in electricity retail regulatory protections will see some consumers approaching energy transition from an uneven footing. Here we examine the spatial organization of regulatory inequities in Australia by mapping electricity legal protections for settlements nationwide. Multiple logistic regression (n = 2,996) identifies the geographic and socio-demographic characteristics of settlements likely to be underserved by regulations to: protect life-support customers, guarantee service levels, clarify connection requirements for rooftop solar, require disconnection reporting and set clear and independent complaints processes.

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
protections, guaranteed service levels and disconnection reporting that are ubiquitous for residential customers within urban and regional areas are often absent in remote settlements. Remote settlements and settlements with majority Indigenous population are respectively 18% and 15% more likely to lack comprehensive regulatory and legal protections compared with non-remote and non-Indigenous settlements. These findings show that some communities face energy transition from an uneven footing in Australia and that action is needed to support a just transition to avoid reproducing or exacerbating non-recognition in future energy systems.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Our review indicates that an estimated 5 million Australians (approximately 20% of the population) are living in settlements where not all customers are guaranteed protections across the five dimensions of life support, rooftop solar connection, disconnection reporting, guaranteed service levels and clear and independent complaints processes (Fig. 2 and Supplementary Table 2). Figure 2 summarizes the findings of legal protections reviewed across these five indicators and illustrates the compounding disparities; a settlement was considered to lack protections if not all customers (both prepay and post-pay) were guaranteed that protection. We use multiple logistic regression to examine whether remote communities and Indigenous communities are statistically more likely to be underserved by electricity regulations.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Remote settlements and Indigenous settlements are less likely to have solar connection clarity and less likely to have clear and independent complaints processes (models 3 and 5). Remote settlements are 38% less likely (vs urban and regional) to have solar connection clarity and 14% less likely to have clear complaints processes (margins contrast, p = 0.000 for both). Indigenous settlements are 48% less likely to have solar connection clarity and 10% less likely to have complaints process clarity, compared with settlements that are not majority Indigenous (margins contrast, p = 0.000 for both).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
For these indicators, we examine variation only within remote settlements (n = 610). Those remote settlements where over 80% of the population is Indigenous are less likely to have life-support protections, guaranteed service levels and disconnection reporting requirements for all customers (models 1, 2 and 4). Compared with remote settlements that are not Indigenous, Indigenous settlements are 61% less likely to have life support protections, 46% less likely to have guaranteed service levels and 63% less likely to have disconnection reporting requirements (margins contrast, p = 0.000 for all).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The conditions under which prepay customer applications to connect would be approved are only clear in the contracts for two settlements. This accords with recent research showing prepay customers are either precluded or face greater barriers when seeking to install rooftop solar52. When distributor standard contracts do not set out the conditions under which consumers could reasonably expect their residential solar connection to be approved, this presents a barrier to solar installation49–51.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Data were collected during October 2021 to February 2023 and included review of 1,159 regulatory documents (284 of which are legal documents used for protection coding). Our review focused on consumer-facing electricity retail regulation (such as the NERL) as opposed to energy regulation more broadly (such as the NEL). Where categories of interest for electricity services fell within distributor remit (that is, solar connections), we reviewed the appropriate documents associated with electricity regulation.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We use multiple logistic regression to examine whether remote communities and Indigenous communities are statistically more likely to be underserved by electricity regulations. Five dependent variables associated with legislative protections are examined: (1) life-support protections, (2) guaranteed service levels, (3) clear solar connection processes, (4) disconnection reporting requirements and (5) complaints process clarity and independence. Analyses control for the settlement population and the Index of Relative Socio-economic Advantage and Disadvantage (IRSAD).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Legal protections were mapped for 3,047 of the geographically identified settlements. We excluded 42 settlements from mapping despite meeting geography criteria (Supplementary Table 14). Our review began by identifying those legal documents applicable to each settlement nationally following a two-step process, with some iteration.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) Urban Centres and Localities (UCL) dataset identifies all settlements in Australia with populations of 200 or more people. To capture all possible settlements, including small remote locations, we developed a custom settlement classification based on the ABS smallest geographical units, Mesh Blocks (MBs), which cover the whole country and generally contain 30 to 60 dwellings. This process identified a total of 3,089 settlements across all of Australia, compared with the 1,809 settlements captured in the 2021 UCL dataset.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The logit command in Stata is used, providing logistic regression coefficients (not odds ratios). The margins (contrast) post-estimation command is then used to calculate the likelihood of groups lacking protections in comparison to counterparts. Interpretation of these likelihoods is that unconditional on other variables, settlements that are remote (Indigenous) are x% more likely to have protections, compared with settlements that are not remote (not Indigenous).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Reporting of self-disconnections should be mandatory in all jurisdictions. Further, we recommend that Australian regulatory bodies require the number of registered life-support customers by payment type in each jurisdiction to be publicly reported; reporting could highlight areas of under-registration, such as in areas where prepay and life-support protections are mutually exclusive. Australia’s regulatory agencies charged with governing electricity retail protections could take this role.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
There is an urgent need for regulatory frameworks to be developed that better support the rights of Australia’s First Peoples to participate in decision-making about present and future energy systems. Many underserved communities are on lands that will experience substantial temperature increases as a result of climate change64,65, requiring an ever greater reliance on electricity for cooling to maintain thermal safety and comfort66–68. Current Australian protections from disconnection during extreme weather lag those protections granted in many parts of the United States and the European Union28,47, with most Australian jurisdictions lacking codified protections from disconnection during extreme heat or cold weather events.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
L.V.W., B.R., L.O., F.M. and S.W. received funding from Energy Consumers Australia (ECA) under grant ARFEB22001 as part of its grants process for consumer advocacy projects and research projects for the benefit of consumers of electricity and natural gas. The views expressed in this document do not necessarily reflect the views of ECA. The research was also supported by the Australian National University’s Zero-Carbon Energy for the Asia-Pacific Grand Challenge and by Melbourne Climate Futures at the University of Melbourne.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
L.V.W., B.R., S.W., L.O., M.K. and V.N.D. contributed to conceptualization of the research. We especially note the contributions of M.K. and V.N.D. in shaping our understanding of the key issues faced by Indigenous communities in the NT. F.M. developed the customized geographies essential to settlement identification and worked with S.W. to validate and refine this new methodology.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
To promote an equitable energy transition1, many governments have enacted policies to provide energy technologies at reduced or zero cost to low-income households. In Western countries, these policies often take the form of subsidies for home retrofits2–6, heating-system and efficiency upgrades3,4,7,8, and solar panels3,7,9—with some policies, such as the US Inflation Reduction Act, covering 100% of costs for households below certain income thresholds. However, even when goods and services are ‘free’, attracting qualified households can be difficult. Studies show that low-income individuals often fail to take advantage of the social benefits programmes for which they qualify10, including cash11 and food assistance programmes12, and subsidized healthcare13,14. Indeed, research on low-income energy programmes finds that participation rates can be quite low1,15, owing to non-economic barriers such as lack of information, high transaction costs1,15, the need for home repair, and distrust of programme providers1,16,17.

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Our findings show that adding behavioural interventions to a referral programme multiplies the effect of providing financial rewards alone. Incorporating an appeal to reciprocity and further simplifying the referral process generated 2.0 and 7.5 times as many referrals. The control condition, on average, generated one referral from every 106 existing clients, while the reciprocity treatment led to one referral from every 52 clients, and reciprocity + simplification produced one referral for every 14 clients.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Figure 2a shows the response rates by condition. During the first 17 weeks, 74% of clients in the reciprocity + simplification condition referred by slip rather than by phone or webform, affirming the slip’s convenience. The odds of referring were five times as high in the reciprocity + simplification condition compared with the control (response rates of 4.22% versus 0.86%, odds ratio (OR) 95% confidence interval (CI) 3.16–7.88, P < 0.0001) and three times as high compared with reciprocity alone (4.22% versus 1.45%, OR 95% CI 2.04–4.33, P < 0.0001; Supplementary Table 2).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The reciprocity + simplification condition yielded 181 referred names in the first 17 weeks, 7.5 times more than the control (24 names, incidence rate ratio (IRR) 95% CI 4.66–12.19, P < 0.0001) and 3.7 times more than reciprocity alone (49 names, IRR 95% CI 2.41–5.65, P < 0.0001), while reciprocity yielded 2 times more than the control (IRR 95% CI 1.16–3.59, P = 0.013; Supplementary Table 8). Among individuals who responded to the campaign, clients in the reciprocity + simplification condition nominated more individuals (1.68 names per referring client) than either the reciprocity or control conditions (1.32 names in reciprocity, IRR 1.27, 95% CI 1.02–1.56, P = 0.029; 1.09 names in control, IRR 1.54, 95% CI 1.31–1.80, P < 0.0001; Supplementary Table 8).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
As shown in Fig. 2b, reciprocity + simplification had a statistically equivalent proportion of referrals living in eligible areas as the control (69% versus 71% at 17 weeks, P = 0.793; 73% versus 67% at 9 months, P = 0.691). In contrast, the reciprocity condition yielded a significantly higher proportion of eligible nominations at both timepoints, representing a 23–27% improvement over the control at 17 weeks and 9 months, respectively, and a 28% to 22% improvement over reciprocity + simplification. We note, however, that because reciprocity + simplification generated far more nominations in total, it led to 7.3 times more qualified nominations than the control at 17 weeks (124 versus 17; IRR 95% CI 4.17–12.74, P < 0.0001) and three times as many than reciprocity (124 versus 42; IRR 95% CI 1.89–4.61, P < 0.0001).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
For referrals generated within 17 weeks, reciprocity + simplification led to 26 contracts: 5.2 times the control (IRR 95% CI 1.95–13.8, P < 0.001) and 2.0 times reciprocity alone (IRR 95% CI 0.94–4.27, P = 0.074; Supplementary Table 8). The reciprocity condition resulted in 2.6 times more contracts than the control, though the comparison was less precise (IRR 95% CI 0.89–7.60, P = 0.081). Using back-of-the-envelope calculations (Supplementary Table 6), we estimate that the reciprocity + simplification condition, though more expensive in terms of material costs and staff time needed to screen referrals, was less expensive per resulting contract than the control, saving 17.8% at 17 weeks (US$522 versus $635). Reciprocity alone cost 2.5% more per contract than the control (US$651 versus US$635), but generated more than twice as many contracts.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We test reciprocity and simplification in a large, pre-registered randomized controlled field experiment. All California clients of the non-profit (N = 7,680) were randomized to receive one of three mailers highlighting the US$200 referral rewards programme (final N = 7,676; Methods). The control condition mimicked the non-profit’s standard approach: a postcard describing the US$200 contingent reward, with a toll-free number and website to provide referrals (Fig. 1).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The reciprocity condition was a letter with the same information and a US$1 bill framed as a gift. The reciprocity + simplification condition added a referral slip with space for three nominations and a stamped return envelope (though recipients could still call or go online). The slip, thus, simplified the referral process by reducing the steps involved and making salient what information referrers would need to provide.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We evaluate each condition on three outcomes: referral behaviour (response rate and number of names provided), the quality of referrals (do individuals nominate people who meet qualification criteria) and how many referred individuals sign solar contracts. Moreover, to determine whether treatments merely shifted the timing of intended referrals sooner, without yielding better outcomes in the aggregate58, we compare results at two timepoints post-intervention: 17 weeks (when the referral programme was next marketed) and 9 months.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The experiment was implemented in September 2018. Participants included the entire population of California LMI homeowners who had adopted solar with the non-profit GRID Alternatives, had interconnected their solar system between 2004 and 1 June 2018, and for whom GRID had a valid mailing address, N = 7,680. The vast majority of these customers qualified for California’s Single-family Affordable Solar Homes (SASH) programme, of which GRID Alternatives is the programme administrator.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We randomly assigned the 7,680 clients to three groups: control (N = 2,559), reciprocity (N = 2,560) and reciprocity + simplification (N = 2,561). The study was approved for exemption by the Institutional Review Board at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Human Subjects Committee number 381H25JE23). Our methods and analysis plan were pre-registered with the American Economic Association’s RCT Registry (https://www.socialscienceregistry.org/trials/4114).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
K.S.W. and A.T.-B. conceived and implemented the study, with E.T. handling randomization of postal mail recipients. A.T.-B. and E.T. cleaned the data, which A.T.-B. analysed. K.S.W. drafted the manuscript with revisions from A.T.-B. E.T. contributed to the methods section.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Two primary considerations arise when evaluating supply-side policies. The first is the relative effectiveness of each policy type in reducing oil production and associated GHG emissions, which to date, has received limited empirical analysis10–12. The second pertains to the ancillary benefits and costs of each policy and how they are distributed across different communities. In particular, oil extraction tends to be highly spatially concentrated in certain areas, employing a local workforce and generating air pollution impacting nearby residents. Depending on how oil extraction is spatially located in relation to workers and households, different supply-side policies can have different aggregate and distributional consequences in terms of health benefits and labour-market impacts. For example, for the same overall GHG emissions target, a policy that phases out more labour-intensive oil fields may have higher lost worker compensation than other policies. Likewise, a policy that bans oil fields near where disadvantaged households reside may generate larger overall health benefits and health equity gains. Quantifying such potential consequences is critical for informing the design of supply-side policies.

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We find setbacks generate the largest avoided mortality benefits from reduced air pollution and the largest lost worker compensation, followed by excise and carbon taxes. Setbacks also yield the highest share of health benefits and the lowest share of lost worker compensation borne by disadvantaged communities. However, currently proposed setbacks may fail to meet California’s GHG targets, requiring either longer setbacks or additional supply-side policies.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Supply-side policies lower statewide crude oil production but with different temporal and spatial patterns (Fig. 2a and Supplementary Fig. 17). Setbacks applied to new wells, excise taxes applied per unit of production and carbon taxes applied per tonne of GHG emissions lead to continuous declines that outpace that of the BAU trajectory, albeit with different pathways. In general, a setback and an excise tax result in lower oil production in each year when compared with a carbon tax that is calibrated to achieve the same 2045 GHG emissions target.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Among policies, setbacks consistently achieve the greatest health benefits, both in total and per unit of cumulative avoided GHG emissions (Fig. 3a,d). For statewide worker compensation losses, the pattern flips across supply-side policies. For a given 2045 GHG emissions target, setbacks consistently generate slightly higher worker compensation losses across the state than excise taxes, which exceed that for carbon taxes (Fig. 3b).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The DAC’s share of health benefits is consistently larger under a setback than under excise and carbon taxes for a given 2045 GHG emissions target. This share is largest at lower setback distances or equivalently less stringent 2045 GHG emissions targets and decreases as the setback distance increases. The lost worker compensation is largest for setbacks at the statewide level. However, the share of total lost worker compensation from workers in DACs is consistently lower under setbacks than under excise and carbon taxes.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
In comparison to setbacks on only new wells, applying setbacks to all wells predictably results in greater oil-production declines and emissions reductions. Although a 1-mile setback, the largest considered in this study, applied to all wells achieves a substantially greater GHG emissions reduction (81%) by 2045 compared with the same setback on new wells (72%), it still falls short of meeting the 90% reduction target (Fig. 6b). Setbacks applied to all wells result in fewer premature deaths but also greater total lost worker compensation compared with setbacks on only new wells (Fig. 6).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We develop spatially and temporally explicit pathways that reduce California’s oil extraction in response to various supply-side interventions—well setbacks, excise tax and carbon tax—between 2020 and 2045. Our approach has two components and is summarized in Fig. 1. For all oil fields in California (Fig. 1a), we first construct an empirically estimated model of crude oil-well entry (Fig. 1b), production and exit at the oil-field level to project how various supply-side policies and macroeconomic conditions affect oil production across California oil fields out to 2045 (Methods and Supplementary Notes 8–11, 16 and 17). In our second step, we insert field-level predictions of oil production from our empirical model into: (1) an air pollution model, InMAP (Intervention Model for Air Pollution)22, to characterize how air pollution emissions from oil fields disperse across the state (Fig. 1c,d and Supplementary Note 13) and (2) an employment input–output model, IMPLAN (Impact Analysis for Planning)23,24, which uses fixed multipliers to quantify local employment changes in the oil-extraction sector (‘direct’), in sectors that provide inputs to oil extraction (‘indirect’) and in sectors where these workers spend income (‘induced’) (Fig. 1e and Supplementary Note 14).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
For well setbacks, we consider three setback distances—1,000 feet, 2,500 feet and 1 mile—which encompass distances currently considered in policy proposals25–28. To ensure policy comparability, we set excise taxes as a percentage of oil price fixed across all years and carbon taxes which increase at an annual rate of 7% to levels that result in the same 2045 statewide GHG emissions as our three setback-distance policies (Supplementary Note 17). We further consider a fourth excise- and carbon-tax level that achieves a 90% GHG emissions reduction by 2045 compared with 2019 levels, inline with California’s target for in-state finished-fuel demand2.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Each combination of policy intervention—setbacks, excise tax and carbon tax—and the 2045 annual GHG emissions target result in a unique spatial and temporal pattern of oil production, benefits and costs. We analyse these policy scenarios using a common benchmark projection of global oil prices out to 2045 (US Energy Information Administration’s (EIA) reference oil-price projection29). Sensitivity analysis results using higher and lower projected oil prices are shown in the Supplementary Information.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We first estimate PM2.5 emissions from oil production for each oil-field cluster using average emissions factors obtained from a nationwide US sample53. Next, we model pollution dispersal using the Intervention Model for Air Pollution (InMAP) to obtain PM2.5 concentration from oil production at the census-tract level for each projection year55. We then quantify the avoided mortality associated with changes in ambient PM2.5 exposure at the census-tract level compared with the BAU scenario using a mortality concentration-response function adapted from ref. 58.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We quantify changes in employment and worker compensation using an economic input–output model from IMPLAN61,62. IMPLAN uses over 90 sources of employment data to construct measures of county-level employment and compensation based on sector-specific revenue inputs. Oil production and oil prices from the projected pathways serve as the inputs to IMPLAN, which then computes resulting employment in full-time equivalent job years and total employee compensation supported by the oil and gas industry for each county with active oil and gas operations in the state.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
By quantifying the trade-offs across different supply-side policies, we find that for California, an oil-well-setback policy applied to new wells provides greater health benefits compared to a carbon- or excise-tax policy designed to achieve the same 2045 GHG emissions-reduction target. A setback policy also produces equity gains as DACs accrue greater health benefits and lower employment costs than other communities under a setback compared to excise and carbon taxes. Yet a setback policy imposes the largest statewide loss of worker compensation among the three policies for the reference oil-price projection.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Moreover, on its own, a setback policy applied to new wells achieves only a 72% GHG emissions reduction in 2045 compared with 2019 for a 1-mile setback, a distance larger than the maximum 3,200 feet currently proposed in California28. GHG emissions reductions would be even lower under higher global crude oil prices. While a setback policy is generally advocated by stakeholders based on public health concerns, it will need to either impose greater distances, be applied to both new and existing wells or be combined with an appropriate excise or carbon tax to meet California’s decarbonization goals.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Acknowledgements
We thank the state of California for supporting this work through the Greenhouse Gas Reduction Fund. The state of California assumes no liability for the contents or use of this study. The study does not reflect the official views or policies of the state of California.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Author contributions
R.D., P.W., K.C.M., O.D. and D.W.L. conceptualized the study and acquired the funding. R.D., P.W., K.C.M., O.D., D.H.-C., R.L., C.M., T.M., M.M. and V.T. developed the methodology and software. R.D., P.W., K.C.M., O.D., D.H.-C., R.L., C.M., T.M., M.M., S.S., V.T. and A.U. conducted the formal analysis.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Following Russia‘s military attack on Ukraine, the European Union (EU) and United States have imposed a large number of sanctions on Russia1,2. The attack has also led to a negative supply shock of oil, partly because Russia’s ability to export has been hampered by the lack of will to insure Russian ships3, but also due to industry preparation for the upcoming EU oil import ban4. Together with surging post-pandemic demand, this has led to very high prices of transport fuels5,6. In response, a large number of European countries are either discussing or have already implemented a reduction in fuel taxes to help consumers cope with high prices. Such tax reductions have problematic consequences since they increase demand, thus making current supply even more scarce. Some of the tax reduction will be attenuated by an increase in the underlying oil price, leading to increased profits for oil producers. Here, we assess the magnitude of this effect using basic theory and empirical estimates from the oil sector.

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We find that an EU-wide tax cut of €0.20 l−1 increases Russia’s oil profits by around €8 million per day in the short and long term. This is equivalent to €3,100 million per year, 0.2% of Russia’s gross domestic product or 5% of its military spending. We show that a cash transfer to EU citizens—with a fiscal burden equivalent to the tax cut—reduces these side effects to a fraction.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Here, we show that an EU-wide fuel-tax cut equivalent to €0.20 l−1 would increase Russia’s oil profits by €36 million per day in the first month, €8.4 million per day during the rest of the first year and €8.2 million per day beyond the first year. The additional profits are equivalent to 0.2% of Russia’s gross domestic product (GDP) and 5% of its defence spending. The fiscal cost to the EU would be €170 million per day during the first year.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The results in the very short term are presented in the top row of Table 2. Of the 20 cents of tax reduction, 7 cents are passed through to oil suppliers. Russia, being an important supplier, attains a large share of the fiscal cost of the policy, making an additional €36 million per day.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
In the short-term case, to be thought of as the remaining part of the first year, the consumer price in the EU is reduced by almost the full tax reduction and the now global oil price is increased by much less than in the very short term. Nevertheless Russia—a large supplier also globally—is still receiving sizable additional profits (€8.4 million per day or €3.1 billion in year equivalents).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
In the long-term case, to be thought of as beyond 1 year and up to 3 years, supply becomes somewhat elastic and so does demand. The price effects are again smaller and the fiscal cost to the EU is smaller than in the very short and short term. This is because, instead of an oil price increase, there is an increase in the supply. Russia’s additional oil profits are still sizeable at €8.2 million per day or €3.0 billion per year.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The first step is to derive how the global oil market responds to changes in the EU’s road transport fuel tax. More detailed derivations are provided in the Methods. The global per-unit crude oil price is denoted p. To make the crude oil usable as fuel for end users, it must be refined, transported and so on. For the EU, we assume a per-unit cost c for this (in the Methods, we consider analytically the case where these costs are instead proportional to the oil price, and assess this case quantitatively in Supplementary Note 3). Additionally, road fuel users in the EU pay a fuel excise tax τ per unit of fuel, as well as the value-added tax (VAT) rate vEU.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The market equilibrium is found by equating the demand for crude oil for road transport in the EU, DEU((1 + vEU)(p + c + τ)) (in many EU countries, VAT also applies to the excise tax; hence, (1 + vEU) multiplies τ), and the remaining global demand for crude oil, DROW(p), to the supply from Russia, SRU(p), and from the rest of the world, SROW(p): DEU ((1 + vEU) (p + c + τ)) + DROW (p) = SRU (p) + SROW (p). We assume that the EU’s crude demand depends on the fuel price, including costs and taxes, while we assume that rest of the world demand depends on the oil price. The effect of a change in the tax on the equilibrium price can then be found by treating the price as a function of the tax, differentiating the equilibrium condition fully with respect to the tax, solving for the derivative of the price with respect to the tax and rewriting.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We quantitatively assess the effects described theoretically in three different cases: the very short term, the short term and the long term. Here, we sketch the qualitative effects in the different time horizons. The size of the effects depends on the numerical values, which are presented at the end of this section.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The parameters, quantities and shares in equations (1)–(9) are based on previous research and current data. They are reported in Table 1. Where relevant, we distinguish between very-short-term, short-term and long-term elasticities and shares. Motivations for the values are provided in the table, with further information available in Methods.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods