Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We constructed a state-level measure of structural sexism based on Homan (2019) from a variety of data sources. The sexism measure is a composite score of political, economic, cultural, and physical/reproductive factors. We then standardized and summed all variables to create a structural sexism index (α = .79) and standardized the final structural sexism index for an easier interpretation of results.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Then, we stratified the sample by gender and ran several multilevel logit models, with individuals nested within states, for each health care service. These models predicted the use of each preventive health care service as a function of state-level structural sexism exposure. Each model included all previously mentioned state-level and individual-level covariates.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Findings suggest that both theoretical perspectives contribute to our understanding of health care use among men, whereas only a gendered power and resource allocation perspective is relevant for women. Results demonstrate a pattern of universal harm, suggesting that reducing structural sexism is a promising approach to increasing preventive care use for both women and men in the United States. This study provides novel empirical evidence and important theoretical insights with policy implications for preventive health care use.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Structural sexism is an important determinant of preventive health care use for both men and women. These findings suggest a few possible explanations related to the gender performance and gendered power and resource allocation perspectives. This work contributes to a growing body of research on the universal harm of structural sexism and the urgency of dismantling oppressive gender systems to improve population health.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Emily C. Dore is a PhD student in the Department of Sociology at Emory University. She previously earned her master’s of public health and master’s of social work degrees at Boston University. She studies the impact of state contexts and social policies on health disparities throughout the life course.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Surbhi Shrivastava is a PhD student in the Department of Sociology at Emory University. She has a master’s of public health from Tata Institute of Social Sciences and a bachelor’s of dental surgery from Manipal University, India. Her current research focuses on obstetric violence, maternal health, and social inequality in India and Brazil.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The United States continues to have unenviable population health. U.S. life expectancy stagnated for five years (2010 to 2014) and subsequently declined for another three (2015 to 2017)—an unheralded decline among high-income nations (Crimmins and Zhang 2019; Woolf and Schoomaker 2019). Underneath these troubling trends are substantial and increasing disparities across U.S. states (Montez et al. 2020; Wilmoth, Boe, and Barbieri 2011; Woolf and Schoomaker 2019). For instance, in 2018, the difference in life expectancy between West Virginia (74.7) and Hawaii (81.9) was a marked 7.2 years—up from 4.3 in 2000.

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We find that state-level income inequality is inversely associated with policy liberalism and life expectancy. The association between income inequality and life expectancy was not mediated by policy liberalism but was moderated by it. The association is attenuated in states with more liberal policy contexts, supporting the neo-materialist perspective.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Table 4 presents the results examining life expectancy and reveals three important points. First, Model 1 shows that increases in income inequality are associated with decreases in life expectancy (b = −.031; p < .001) when nonlagged, while Model 4 shows this association for lagged income inequality is not statistically significant (b = –.007; p = .347). Third, the association between income inequality and life expectancy did not show any meaningful change with the inclusion of policy liberalism in either the lagged or nonlagged models.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Model 6 in Table 4 shows that the association between lagged income inequality and life expectancy varies by policy liberalism such that the association becomes weaker with increases in policy liberalism (b = .142, p < .01). This pattern looks similar for the nonlagged model (b = .096, p = .056). Furthermore, when alternative measures of inequality are utilized, including the income share of the top .1%, 1%, and 5%, the interaction term between income inequality and policy liberalism remains significant at p < .05.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Figure 2 shows how the association between income inequality and life expectancy varies by policy liberalism based on the lagged model (Model 6 of Table 4). Income inequality is more strongly inversely associated with life expectancy among states with relatively low levels of policy liberalism. Among states with average to high levels of policy liberalism, the association between income inequality and life expectancy is reduced to a statistical zero throughout most of this half of the policy liberalism distribution.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
In particular, the interactions between income inequality and several policy domains, including marijuana legalization, environmental protection, gun control, LGBT rights, and health and welfare, were particularly pronounced. For instance, the association between income inequality and life expectancy was –.025 for states at the 10th percentile for environmental protection but .001 for those at the 75th percentile—more than a 100% change. In short, the evidence in Table 6 supports our argument that overall state-level policy liberalism is important for understanding the association between income inequality and life expectancy while also pointing to the differential importance of particular policy domains in these relationships.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The data for this study included state-year observations for 2000 to 2014 for all 50 states. Our analytic sample included 750 observations (15 years × 50 states). This study combined state-level data from a variety of sources described below.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Annual data on life expectancy by state were obtained from the United States Mortality Database (https://usa.mortality.org/). Life expectancy is an ideal indicator of overall population health because it reflects age-specific mortality rates spanning all ages for a particular year. Our key indicator of income inequality was the income share of the top 10% of earners based off pretax gross income reported to the Internal Revenue Service.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The main source of data on state policies came from Grumbach (2018). These measures, shown in Table 1, contained 135 policies spanning 16 domains: abortion, campaign finance, civil rights and liberties, criminal justice, education, environment, gun control, health and welfare, housing and transportation, immigration, private sector labor, public sector labor, LGBT rights, marijuana, taxes, and voting. For each state, the data contained a score for each domain annually from 2000 through 2014.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Our analytical strategy utilized regression models with fixed effects for states and years. Fixed effects control for omitted variables that are time-invariant by examining variability within states rather than between states. We used the xtreg command in Stata along with the fe option to estimate regression models with fixed effects for years and states, with robust standard errors clustered by state.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The influence of income inequality on policy and life expectancy likely has a meaningful temporal lag (Clarkwest 2008; Mellor and Milyo 2003; Zheng 2012). To partially address this issue, we show both conventional fixed effects results and results after incorporating a five-year lag variable for income inequality and policy liberalism. We chose a five-year lag because the only study (that we are aware of) to systematically examine how the association between inequality and mortality changes by the lag time found that the association becomes pronounced at five years (Zheng 2012).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
One policy recommendation has been to reduce income inequality. Our findings suggest that investments in liberal social policies that support the general welfare of the population may also limit the degree to which populations are dominated by the market forces of neoliberalism and broader systems of social stratification. For instance, states with both high life expectancy and income inequality (e.g., Connecticut, New Jersey, New York) tend to invest in health and welfare programs that pay population health dividends.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
This finding helps us to understand how states like Massachusetts, New York, and California can rank high on both income inequality and life expectancy. When considered along with our null mediation model, these results suggest that the neo-materialist perspective might benefit from focusing more on framing policy environments as a modifier of income inequality than as a mechanism of income inequality (Curran and Mahutga 2018; McLeod et al. 2003). Our finding that policy liberalism moderates the association between income inequality and life expectancy may help reconcile cross-national income inequality research.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Michael McFarland is an associate professor in sociology and a faculty associate of the Center for Demography and Population Health at Florida State University. His recent research focuses on the adverse effects of policing for health, early life lead exposure and mental health, and recently, social policy and health. Recent publications can be found in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS), Social Science & Medicine, and Energy Economics.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Arts, Wil, and John Gelissen. 2002. “Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism or More? A State-of-the-Art Report.” Journal of European Social Policy 12(2):137–58. Bambra, Clare. 2007. “Going beyond the Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism: Regime Theory and Public Health Research.” Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health 61(12):1098–102. Bauer, Daniel, Kristopher Preacher, and Karen Gil. 2006. “Conceptualizing and Testing Random Indirect Effects and Moderated Mediation in Multilevel Models: New Procedures and Recommendations.” Psychological Methods 11(2):142–63.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
In the current study, we are primarily concerned with the rising use of obstetric interventions among pregnancies to U.S. women and how systemic racism has likely shaped these trends. Specifically, we consider racial-ethnic differences in the mechanisms driving the large increases in rates of induction of labor (IOL) among U.S. pregnancies. From 1990 to 2017, the average state IOL rate among singleton pregnancies to Black, Latina, and White women increased from 12.5% to 34.4% (National Center for Health Statistics [NCHS] 2020). We contend that the rising use of IOL in the United States provides a good case to illustrate how obstetric care is not being centered at the margins.

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Among pregnancies to White women, increases in state IOL rates are strongly associated with changes in risk factors among White childbearing populations. However, the rising IOL rates among pregnancies to Black and Latina women are not due to changing factors in their own populations but are instead driven by changing factors among states’ White childbearing populations. The results suggest systemic racism may be shaping U.S. obstetric care whereby care is not “centered at the margins” but is instead responsive to characteristics in states’ White populations.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Results from Equation 3 indicate that U.S. states’ IOL rates among pregnancies to Black women are associated with both the demographic profiles and risk factors of states’ Black childbearing populations (Appendix F in the online version of the article). Yet, as shown in Figure 3 (Panel A), changes in these demographics and risk factors between 1990 and 2017 do not account for the upward trend in states’ IOL rates among pregnancies to Black women. We see that the mean IOL rate indicated by the “Control Own Characteristics” line (dashed black) is nondifferent from the mean IOL rate indicated by “Observed” line (solid black). Thus, the increases in states’ IOL rates among pregnancies to Black women are estimated to occur even while controlling for changes in demographic characteristics and risk factors among states’ Black childbearing populations.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Furthermore, changes in risk factors among states’ White childbearing populations account for much of the rising IOL rates among states’ Black childbearing populations. As shown in Figure 3 (Panel A), the rise in the mean IOL rate indicated by the “Control White Characteristics” line (solid gray) is much lower than the upward trend of the “Observed” line. This suggests that increases in IOL among states’ Black women would have been much smaller if the demographic and risk factors of states’ White childbearing populations had not changed between 1990 and 2017.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Although the differences are not substantively large, these findings suggest that a small fraction of the rising IOL rates among states’ Latina women are associated with changes in the demographics and risk factors of the states’ Latina childbearing populations. Yet states’ IOL rates among Latina women are also statistically and substantively associated with changes in demographic characteristics and risk factors among states’ White childbearing populations (“Equation (4)-White,” Appendix G in the online version of the article). As shown in Figure 3 (Panel B), the “Control White Characteristics” line (solid gray) indicates that the average IOL rate among pregnancies to Latina women would not have substantively increased between 1990 and 2017 if states’ White childbearing populations had not experienced changes in their demographic composition or maternal risk factors.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Results also indicate that changes in these demographic characteristics and risk factors of states’ White childbearing populations are strongly associated with the rising IOL rates among pregnancies to states’ White women between 1990 and 2017. This is clearly shown in Figure 3 (Panel C), which suggests that states’ IOL rates among pregnancies to White women (“Observed” line, solid black) would not have increased if the demographic profiles and risk factors of states’ White childbearing populations had remained at 1990 levels (“Control Own Characteristics” line, dashed black).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We examined trends in U.S. states’ IOL rates using the National Vital Statistics Systems (NVSS) restricted birth data for years 1990 through 2017 (NCHS 2020). To reduce the confounding effects of multiparous women and multiple pregnancies on risk for obstetric interventions (Denona et al. 2020; Donahue et al. 2010), we restricted the analytic samples to include only singleton first births among non-Hispanic White, non-Hispanic Black, and Hispanic women (henceforth, White, Black, and Latina). The data are composed of 41,126,037 singleton first births: 26,446,616 to White women, 6,252,741 to Black women, and 8,426,680 to Latina women.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We aggregated the data at the state level by mother’s race-ethnicity to create separate analytic samples for births among states’ White, Black, and Latina childbearing populations (for the creation of the analytic samples, see Figure S1 in the appendix in the online version of the article). Due to small counts of births, we omitted Idaho, Maine, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Vermont, and Wyoming from the analytic sample for births to Black women, and we omitted Maine, Vermont, and West Virginia from the analytic sample for births to Latina women. The analytic sample for births to White women is composed of all 50 states plus the District of Columbia (DC) across 28 years (1,428 state-years), and the analytic samples for births to Black and Latina women were limited to 43 states plus DC (1,232 state-years) and 47 states plus DC (1,344 state-years), respectively.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We calculated state-level time-varying measures of obstetric interventions, maternal demographics, and risk factors for “high-risk pregnancy” among states’ Black, Latina, and White childbearing populations. Our outcome measure was the proportion of births in state i in year j in which labor was induced, where i = Alabama, …, Wyoming and j = 1990, …, 2017. Induction of labor is a characteristic of delivery that is comparable across the 1989 U.S. Standard Certificate of Live Birth and the 2003 U.S. Standard Certificate of Live Birth (Martin et al. 2007), and IOL coding in the NVSS is also comparable across U.S. states.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We modeled U.S. states’ IOL rates between 1990 and 2017 separately for Black, Latina, and White women. We fit generalized linear mixed models to estimate the year-specific state-level rates as outcomes of a fixed effect linear slope, a random intercept, a random slope, and state-specific residual variance: Y ij = π0i + π1i( Yearij −1990) /5 + εij. Assuming μ0i μ1i ~ N([0 0] , [σ0 2 σ01; σ10 σ1 2]) and εij ∼ N(0, σε 2) where Y ij is the IOL rate for state i in year j.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We then fitted trends in IOL rates among pregnancies to U.S. states’ Black, Latina, and White women using state-level fixed effects panel regressions: Y ij = β0 + γ2State2 + … + γnStaten + δ19911991 + … + δ20172017 + μij. These “within-estimator” models control for all time-invariant characteristics of U.S. states while also accounting for yearly trends in IOL rates shared across states (Halaby 2004). The models are well suited for identifying average trends in U.S. states’ IOL rates while controlling for time-invariant state characteristics and for estimating how states’ time-varying characteristics are associated with changes in states’ IOL rates.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Taken together, evidence here suggests that the increasing use of IOL in the United States has not been centered on the needs of the Black and Latina childbearing populations but, instead, is likely responding to the changing needs and/or preferences of the White childbearing population. Although we did not identify the underlying reasons for these associations, we offer two potential explanations for future research to consider.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The authors are grateful to the anonymous referees and the JHSB editors for their helpful comments.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research was funded by a grant from the Eunice Kennedy Shriver Institute of Child Health Human and Human Development (RHD099359A) and benefited from support provided to the University of Colorado Population Center (Project 2P2CHD066613-06) from the Eunice Kennedy Shriver Institute of Child Health Human and Human Development.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The inverse relationship between socioeconomic status (SES) and mental health is a cornerstone of the general argument linking social inequality to well-being (Adler et al. 1994; Aneshensel 2009; Pearlin 1989; Thoits 2010). The SES–mental health association is also one of the most consistent in social science (Thoits 2010), spanning over a century of research (Dohrenwend and Dohrenwend 1969; Faris and Dunham 1939; Hollingshead and Redlich 1958; Jarvis 1855; Srole et al. 1962) and continuing to the present day (Miech and Shanahan 2000; Warren 2009). This consistency within countries, predominantly estimated in the North American context, supports a social causation interpretation, net of social selection (Warren 2009; Wheaton 1978), indicating SES as a primary social determinant of mental health. However, cross-national comparisons across countries demonstrate that the strength of the association between SES indicators, such as education, occupation, and income, and mental health outcomes differs (Rai et al. 2013), implying contextual social determinants may be driving differences in the effect of SES between countries while also demonstrating the generality of the existence of this association across very different national contexts (Präg, Mills, and Wittek 2016).

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Welfare state spending effort divided between social investment and social protection spending modifies the classic inverse relationship between SES and depression. Distinguishing policy areas in both social investment and social protection spending demonstrates that policy programs devoted to education, early childhood education and care, active labor market policies, old age care, and incapacity account for differences in the effect of SES across countries. Our analysis finds that social investment policies better explain cross-national differences in the effect of SES on depression, implying policies focused earlier in the life course matter more for understanding social disparities in the mental health of populations.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The most consistent result here is the interaction between individual differences in SES and overall social investment differences between countries over time. This finding suggests that a general climate of social investment does reduce depression differences between high and low SES at the individual level. In results not displayed, we note that all SI models explain away the negative depression trend across waves, suggesting it to be an important mechanism for societal well-being.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Examining differences between the three levels of spending demonstrates a clear pattern that generalizes across all components of SES: The slope for the effect of SES is weaker as the level of social investment increases. It is important to note that this figure especially makes clear the fact that individuals face different levels of depression at the same level of low status depending on the country in which they live. Differences at high levels of SES are not affected, and specifically, depression levels are not worse due to state investments at high levels of status.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
In SI policies, we find a consistent pattern of overall between-country SI spending moderating the effects of education, occupation, and income. There are two exceptions: ALMPs do not reduce the positive slope for education squared and between ECEC does not moderate the effect of household occupation. Social protection has much more limited influence on the SES–depression association: Only incapacity spending moderates the effect of household income on depression.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
In answering our first research question, we find evidence to support the notion that SI spending is more consequential for the SES–mental health association. Both generally and in terms of specific disaggregated policies, SI reduces mental health inequities between low and high status across all components of SES. Of particular importance is the effect of SI on the education and depression link.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Individual data were taken from the 2006, 2012, and 2014 survey rounds of the European Social Survey (ESS) of representative samples of adults (restricted to 18 and above). Rounds had to be specifically chosen based on the availability of depression measures. Rounds varied in sample size from 35,210 to 42,351, and typical within-country samples per year varied from 949 to 2,925 and were combined for a total pooled sample of 113,078.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Included in this study were 21 countries: Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Israel, Lithuania, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. Countries excluded from this analysis were Bulgaria, Cyprus, Hungary, Iceland, Ukraine, and the Russian Federation, either due to the unavailability or quality of welfare state data or inclusion in the ongoing ESS at only one point in time. Using listwise deletion, we obtained a total analytic sample of 83,091, with attrition occurring mainly from occupation (6,588) and income measures (16,496).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Depression was an averaged index of eight survey items taken from the widely used Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D; Van de Velde et al. 2010). The eight CES-D scale items used here load consistently on a single latent construct and behave similarly across countries and demographic groups (Van de Velde et al. 2010). We adjusted averaged item scores to range from 0, or no weekly symptoms of depression, to 24, which represents reporting the most severe response on every survey item.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Following Kuitto (2016), social investment was a measure combining four areas of welfare state spending reported as a percentage of total gross domestic product (GDP): education, ECEC, ALMP, and old age care. Education spending was extracted from the World Bank (2021). ECEC, ALMP, and old age care were extracted from the SOCX Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) spending database (OECD 2021).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We employed three-level hierarchical linear models (HLMs) to answer our research questions, incorporating both between-country averaged differences over time and within-country trends. In these models, the individual was Level 1, the country-year was Level 2, and the country was Level 3 (Giesselmann and Schmidt-Catran 2019). Our analytic strategy addressed core issues in using multiple cross-sectional, cross-national studies to estimate differences between countries and over time within countries using pooled time-series cross-sectional data structures and small number of countries (Schmidt-Catran, Fairbrother, and Andreß 2019).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Our results also have broader implications for social policy research in general. By distinguishing the two theoretical pathways of social protection and social investment, we demonstrated that social investment spending more dramatically reduces the inverse link between SES and depression. At the same time, we find no systematic evidence suggesting that changes in the direction or magnitude of spending (i.e., within-country trends) impact the SES–depression association, either due to the general or specific domains of either social investment or social protection policy.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We demonstrate that more generous welfare states matter for reducing mental health inequalities and argue that this article is one of the first to find direct evidence for Thoits’s (2010) conception of cumulative advantage at the macro level where individuals who live in high spending countries enjoy mental health advantages. Our evidence also points to the importance of the timing of policy interventions in the life course because SI policies are typically more focused on formative stages of the life course and less on later life. Generally, this finding suggests that the consequences of fundamental individual differences in social status depend in part on social context.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
ORCID iDs
Matthew Parbst  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5949-6122
Blair Wheaton  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6705-4594

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL
Appendices A through D are available in the online version of the article.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We build on prior work by exploring an unexamined source of medical uncertainty: the political context of care. We use the case of abortion in Ohio, a state with one of the most restrictive legislative contexts in the United States prior to the overturning of Roe (Guttmacher Institute 2018), to show how the political context of care produces uncertainty. The political context of care includes (1) cultural politicization, such as stigma; (2) the legal, regulatory, and policy contexts; and (3) the economic organization of health care. We focus on how an influx of laws and regulations that are often unclear and incongruent with evidence-based medicine necessitate and complicate the interpretive work of institutions and providers. Frequent policy changes disrupt standards and practices, economic and legal penalties stigmatize abortion care, and variation in policies across institutions and states limits information seeking to address uncertainty.

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Although respondents voiced familiarity with abortion legislation, there was widespread uncertainty and frustration regarding the legal status and content of several bills, such as abortion method restrictions, reason bans, and prohibitions on the use of public funds. This uncertainty was partly due to the challenges of keeping up with a changing legislative context that includes numerous bills with varied legal statuses (proposed, passed, enacted, enjoined,2 partially enjoined). Anna, an ob-gyn, explained, “It’s always so confusing what went up for votes, what went through, and what got blocked by a judge and what was enacted . . . it was always hard to keep up with.”

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The swift pace of legislative changes left providers in a chronic state of uncertainty in the workplace, with patients’ options being subject to change from one day to the next. For instance, genetic counselors described how routine referrals became a process marked by uncertainty, which is exacerbated by abortion clinic closures in the state, limiting referral options. Genetic counselors managed uncertainty by regularly calling abortion clinics for the most current legal information about patient options.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We heard from respondents that Ohio’s hospitals—both religious and nonreligious—tend to have abortion restrictions that are more conservative than the law, impacting patients’ access to abortion care more than legislation alone would suggest. In fact, laws not in effect during the study period still informed institutional policies and practices. Respondents also perceived that institutional cultures, personal beliefs, fear and stigma, or a combination thereof accounted for some variation.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Karen, an ob-gyn at a private hospital, described how when a patient presented hemorrhaging, the hospital and providers disagreed on when the case became “emergent.” Although the medical evidence left little doubt as to the outcome, the legal uncertainty required providers to stand by and let the patient’s condition worsen before intervening. Karen described this as a case of medical but not legal certainty.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Uncertainty about consequences surfaced when clinicians were legally or institutionally obligated to provide or withhold forms of care that might result in increasing medical risk. For instance, ob-gyns expressed concern that the D&E ban would “require us to perform procedures [to cause fetal demise] that have no medical benefit to the woman and potentially have a risk.” At the time of the study, providers found to be in violation of the law could face a fourth-degree felony charge.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We conducted focus groups with prenatal genetic counselors and ob-gyns employed in a variety of Ohio hospital settings (e.g., private, public, academic, religious). Focus groups are a useful method for exploratory research that enables respondents with similar characteristics, such as profession, to engage in conversation. Participants who were unable to attend focus groups shared their experiences in individual, semistructured interviews.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Participants were recruited through professional society memberships and listservs, advocacy groups, university-affiliated hospitals, and snowball sampling. Participants were eligible if they were ob-gyns or genetic counselors who worked in Ohio for at least six months between 2010 and 2020. We excluded providers working in dedicated abortion clinics because the impact of abortion regulations on those who work in abortion clinics has been well documented.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We conducted four ob-gyn focus groups, ranging from 2 to 19 participants per group, and five individual interviews with ob-gyns (n = 35). We conducted five genetic counselor focus groups, ranging from 2 to 6 participants per group, and two individual interviews with genetic counselors (n = 19). The total number of participants in the study was 54.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Participants provided verbal consent and received an Ohio legislative timeline of abortion restrictions between 2010 and 2019 (Heuerman et al. 2022). Participants were asked to review the timeline and discuss how regulations impacted their work. A semistructured interview guide ensured comprehensive coverage of the topic.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Interviews and focus groups were audio-recorded. Focus groups were 90 minutes; individual interviews lasted 45 to 60 minutes. The recordings were transcribed and deidentified, including provision of pseudonyms for participants.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Our findings have implications for advocacy and policymaking. Lack of clear information about legislation and how it applies to patient care was a prominent theme from our focus groups. Professional societies and institutions should ensure that health care providers are equipped with information about how legislation impacts care provision, including referral practices (Heuerman et al. 2022).

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Providers will be better able to care for their patients if they have guidance about how to navigate legislation that may not be medically legible in clinical practice. Professional societies and advocacy organizations preparing recommendations for providers should also consider that institutional policies can vary and contribute to uncertainty. By identifying the political context of care as a source of uncertainty in medical practice, we expand our understanding of both medical uncertainty and barriers to abortion access.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Acknowledgments The authors thank Jessie Hill, JD, for providing guidance on understanding and discussing Ohio legal regulations. We also thank Dr. Meredith Pensak for her insights on abortion provision in Ohio; and Cynthia Beavin, Dyanna Burnham, and Colleen Kavanagh for their research assistance. We are grateful to the editors and three reviewers for their insightful feedback.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: Data collection was supported by a grant from an anonymous foundation.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Despite recent, louder prescriptions to treat addiction as a disease (Pew Research Center 2014), pregnant and postpartum substance users continue to experience extraclinical interventions such as criminal prosecution and child welfare interventions (Paltrow and Flavin 2013). State mandatory reporting laws and child abuse statutes that codify substance use during pregnancy as child maltreatment create a statutory environment that empowers practitioners to investigate their patients for suspected illegal activity. Recent estimates indicate that tens of thousands of women a year are subject to child welfare investigations after medical staff identify and report them to the state for prenatal substance use (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 2021).

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Drug testing was presented as just one test in a battery of tests that patients may expect to be subjected to while receiving prenatal care. Refusal of a drug test carries different consequences relative to refusing other sorts of tests (e.g., screening for sexually transmitted infections). The language of forensic investigation blends into routinized screening as a part of clinical assessment and providing the “best care” to patients.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
There were only a few medically indicated reasons providers cited for conducting a drug test to clarify the clinical picture. For example, abnormally high blood pressure and placental abruption could be related to cocaine use. Additionally, a physician may have concerns about how certain illicit substances might interact with other medications.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Over the past decade, the United States has seen a dramatic shift in legal, policy-based, and cultural responses to certain illicit substances. Successful efforts to legalize marijuana use and shifting attitudes toward criminal justice responses to substance use (Pew Research Center 2014) have paved the way for medical and lay populations to reevaluate their beliefs about harm posed by substance use versus its legality. Marijuana use has had a confounding effect on providers’ assessments of risk and harm.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Attitudes and decisions toward involving child welfare were not black and white but were made meaningful in a context marked by medico–legal hybridity. Medical staff drew from available medical and criminal–legal risk assessments to rank substances and establish thresholds for forensic action. By positioning certain substances as representing “known” or “unknown” risks, the previously quoted physician gestures to the limits of medical surveillance.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings