Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Results from models that adjust for selection effects
suggest that incarceration exposure predicted accelerated
aging, leaving formerly incarcerated African
American individuals biologically older than their calendar age.
Direct experiences with violence also exacerbated the effects
of incarceration. These findings suggest that incarceration
possibly triggers a stress response that affects a biological
signature of physiological deterioration.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The results show that incarceration is associated with accelerated epigenetic aging in this African American sample, with exposure predicting a greater accelerated aging score by about 2 years (b = 1.970; p ≤ .001). After applying IPTW (Model 2) to the model, the association between incarceration exposure and the speed of aging is slightly reduced but remains statistically significant. Exposure to incarceration is associated with a 1.719 difference (approximately 1 year and 9 months) in accelerated aging (p ≤ .001).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
As shown, formerly incarcerated individuals who did not report direct violence are roughly 9 months (12 × .776) older biologically than expected based on their chronological age. Those who did report direct violence during incarceration are approximately 2 years and 2 months (12 × 2.164) older biologically than expected based on their chronological age. These results indicate that the direct experiences with violence during incarceration moderate the association between incarceration exposure and the speed of aging.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
First, incarceration exposure significantly predicts accelerated biological aging among African American adults, as assessed in the GrimAge measure. Study participants who reported a history of incarceration were, on average, biologically older than expected given their numerical age. Notably, the estimates were robust to a host of potential confounding factors obtained earlier in the life course, including adverse childhood experiences, social class, depression, and delinquency.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Second, exposure to violence during incarceration exacerbates the degree to which incarceration exposure hastens the pace of Grim aging among African American adults. Those who experienced violence were more than 2 years older than their calendar age. This effect, however, was exclusive to direct incidents of violent threats, assaults with and without weapons, and robbery.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
FACHS is designed to investigate the factors associated with the health and well-being of African American adults (see Lei
et al. 2018; Simons et al. 2019). The FACHS sampling strategy includes African American families with a child who was in fifth grade at the time of recruitment. Families were intentionally recruited from neighborhoods that varied on demographic and economic characteristics based on 1990 census data. For 259 census block groups (115 in Georgia and 144 in Iowa), households were randomly selected from rosters of fifth graders in the public school system. Households were then contacted until the required number of households were recruited (84% response rate).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The data for the first wave of FACHS were collected in 1997 and 1998 (for a description of FACHS waves, see Appendix A in the online version of the article). The sample consisted of 889 African American fifth-grade children who were an average age of 10.6 years and resided in Iowa (n = 467) or Georgia (n = 422). The second through sixth waves of data were collected between 1999 and 2012, capturing information when the target children were 12.5, 15.7, 18.8, 21.6, and 23.6 years. The seventh wave of data was completed between 2015 and 2016 when the target children had an average age of 28.8 years. By Wave 6, approximately 49% of respondents resided in Georgia, 40% in Iowa, and the remaining 10% were located in other states.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
In Wave 7, participants were also asked to provide a blood sample. The phlebotomist drew four tubes of blood (30 mL) from each participant; these were shipped on the same day to a laboratory at a public university for preparation. Blood samples were assessed for genome-wide methylation status using standard protocols. The Illumina Infinium HumanMethylationEPIC 850 BeadChip was used to assay genome-wide DNA methylation. Participants were randomly assigned to 16 sample “slides/chips” with groups of eight slides being bisulfite converted in a single plate, resulting in two “batches/plates.”

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
To calculate the speed of aging, we used an epigenetic clock known as the GrimAge index (Horvath and Raj 2018). The index is called GrimAge—after the Grim Reaper—because an accelerated score is grim news. This measure of aging has been shown to be a more robust predictor of morbidity and mortality among different racial groups than other epigenetic clocks currently available (Lu et al. 2019; McCrory et al. 2021). The index was developed by identifying a set of plasma protein predictors of mortality and then using these protein predictors to identify CpG sites that could predict time to death. As expected, the GrimAge index has a weak to moderate correlation with chronological age in the FACHS sample (r = .22), indicating a discrepancy between biological and calendar ages.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We then used a series of ordinary least squares regression models to test our hypothesis regarding the association between incarceration and our continuous speed of aging variable, GrimAge, adjusting for a series of key confounds. Given that respondents were not randomly assigned to incarceration, we then estimate the analysis using an inverse probability of treatment weighting (IPTW) scheme to adjust for possible threats of selection bias. For the IPTW procedures, we first created propensity scores by calculating the probabilities of incarceration conditional on our confounds (Rosenbaum and Rubin 1983). We then reran our regression analysis weighted by the propensity scores. By doing so, the IPTW method balances the distribution of confounds across the treated and untreated groups and allows for less biased estimates of the potential causal effect of incarceration (Robins, Hernán, and Brumback 2000).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The consequences of mass incarceration for health and well-being have become a topic of interest among policymakers and academics from multiple scientific disciplines for good reason: With so many Americans cycling through prisons and jails each year, the public health toll of the carceral state is likely to mount, creating challenges for communities already beleaguered by accumulated hardships. The findings would seem to have important intervention and policy implications. At the very least, they provide further support for decreasing the scale of the carceral state and providing sound alternatives to punitive penal policies for the sake of reversing health inequalities.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Mark T. Berg is a professor of sociology and criminology and director of the Crime and Justice Policy Research Program at the University of Iowa, where he is also a Collegiate Scholar. His current research examines conflict escalation and the life course determinants of biological aging and cardiovascular disease risk. Ethan Rogers is an assistant research scientist in the Crime and Justice Policy Research Program at the University of Iowa Public Policy Center. His research utilizes quantitative analyses to explore interpersonal conflict and violence, the spatial distribution of crime across communities, trends in violence, and the health consequences of incarceration.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Suppplemental Material Appendices A through C are available in the online version of the article. Notes 1.	We reestimated our analyses using a multiple imputation strategy to recover missing values from the confounding measures—this step increased the sample size to 436 respondents. The results did not substantively depart from the main findings and conclusions.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The mental health of racial-ethnic minorities sometimes presents a paradox. Despite expectations to the contrary, minorities report mental health that is either somewhat better or no worse than that of the non-Hispanic white population (Williams and Earl 2007). The 12-month prevalence of most psychiatric disorders tends to be lower among minorities (Breslau et al. 2005; Miranda et al. 2008; Vilsaint et al. 2019), including for depression (Hasin et al. 2018).

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Evidence from MEPS indicates that non-Hispanic whites consume more pharmaceuticals than racial-ethnic minorities for a wide variety of medical conditions. Moreover, non-Hispanic whites consume more pharmaceuticals that although effective in treating their focal indication, include depression or suicide as a side effect. In models that adjust for the use of such medications, the minority advantage in significant distress is reduced, in some instances to statistical nonsignificance.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Although a significant black and Hispanic advantage in a continuous measure of distress remains, the magnitude of the difference is reduced considerably. The relationship between the use of medications with suicide as a side effect and significant distress is especially large, exceeding, for instance, the relationship between poverty and significant distress. For some minority groups, the less frequent use of such medications is driven by better health (as in the case of Asians), whereas for others, it reflects a treatment disparity (as in the case of blacks), although the consequences for the mental health paradox are the same.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
In general, the use of medications with side effects increases the prevalence of significant distress and the K6 score. Furthermore, racial-ethnic differences in distress are different within the rows denoting the use of no drugs with side effects. Within this group, the prevalence of significant distress is generally higher among blacks than among whites (the difference is statistically significant for three of four comparisons). Similarly, the prevalence of distress is higher among Hispanics (for three of four comparisons).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Taking three or more medications with suicide as a side effect results in an increase in the odds of significant distress by a factor of more than 10. Even one such medication more than doubles the odds of significant distress. Drugs with depression as a side effect are consequential, too, though the relationship is considerably weaker than it is for suicide.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The black-white difference in significant distress is reduced to statistical nonsignificance in a model controlling for side effects. The black-white difference in the continuous distress score remains significant, though the difference, as estimated with basic controls, is reduced by 32% in a model that excludes antidepressants (Model 4) and by 60% in a model that includes them (Model 3). The advantage in significant distress for Asians is reduced to statistical nonsignificance, and at least in Model 3, the advantage for significant distress turns into a significant disadvantage among Hispanics.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Data came from the 2008–2013 MEPS (see Cohen, Cohen, and Banthin 2009), including the file made available at the Integrated Public Use Microsample repository at the University of Minnesota (Blewett et al. 2018). The MEPS is a nationally representative probability survey of the civilian noninstitutionalized U.S. population, drawn from a subsample of households that participated in the prior year’s National Health Interview Survey (NHIS). Both MEPS and NHIS include oversamples: Black, Hispanic, and low-income respondents are oversampled to improve the precision of estimates for these subgroups.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The data are organized as annual files, though data collection occurred through a series of overlapping household panels. MEPS respondents enter the survey annually as members of a panel. A new panel is selected each year, and data are collected over five rounds in two calendar years.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The MEPS survey includes the Kessler K6, a well-validated instrument assessing nonspecific psychological distress (Kessler et al. 2003). The K6 was not fielded in every round: In each calendar year, respondents in the first year of their panel were given the K6 in the second round of interviews, and respondents in the final year of their panel were given the K6 in the fourth round. The K6 asks about the frequency of six symptoms in the past 30 days.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Drug information was then linked to information on whether the specific drug taken by the respondent involved suicide or depression as a side effect (in separate categories). This linkage was based on procedures described in detail in Qato et al. (2018) and, in particular, on lists provided in an online appendix to that article. After using the information provided in Qato et al. (2018) we created two variables, the first corresponding to the number of drugs the respondent was taking with depression as a side effect and the second corresponding to the number of drugs the respondent was taking with suicide as a side effect.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The models also included controls for the sex of the respondent, marital status (married; widowed, divorced, or separated; never married), age (18–39, 40–64, 65–79, and 80 and over), education (less than high school, high school or equivalent, college or higher), insurance status, and poverty (below 100% of the federal poverty line for household income). All the models also controlled for the year of the survey using a series of dummy variables.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
It is also important to understand whether and how physicians consider psychological side effects when treating physical disease. One possibility is that physicians largely ignore the risk of depression as a side effect, either because the medications involved have proven value in treating illnesses of putatively greater significance or because physicians infer that a patient’s depression is caused by disease. Many drugs with depression or suicide as a side effect are effective in treating the conditions they were designed to treat, to the point of being essential.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
More generally, the results speak to the potential adverse consequences of exceptionally high levels of confidence in medicine. Americans maintain enormous confidence in their personal physicians and in the medical treatment of disease. As medical authority continues to expand over a wider set of conditions and the pharmaceutical armamentarium continues to grow, the apparent benefits of pharmaceuticals might loom so large as to overwhelm serious consideration of their numerous side effects.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Author Biographies
Jason Schnittker is professor of sociology at the University of Pennsylvania. His research focuses on the social, cultural, and biological determinants of health, with a particular focus on mental health.
Duy Do is a graduate student in demography at the University of Pennsylvania. He is interested in health policy, health economics, and the social and medical determinants of health.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Alegría, Margarita, and Thomas McGuire. 2003. “Rethinking a Universal Framework in the Psychiatric Symptom–Disorder Relationship.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 44(3):257–74. American Psychological Association. 2016. Stress in America: The Impact of Discrimination. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

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Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Variation across social class contexts can lead to differences in the effects of a diagnosis on child socioemotional well-being (i.e., children’s exposure to the positive or negative consequences of diagnosis noted previously). On one hand, research in the tradition of Lareau (1989) would suggest that high-socioeconomic-status (SES) parents’ ability to activate social capital and other resources for educational intervention is predominantly beneficial for children. For children with disabilities, high-SES parents likewise may be better at navigating schools and the health care system to connect their child to proper treatment and other supports while also systematically avoiding negative exposures, like stigma (Blum 2015; Lareau 1989).

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The most important finding from Figure 3 is that, on all three outcomes, “diagnosed and medicated” upper-SES and middle-SES children fare comparably to undiagnosed lower-SES children. “Diagnosed and medicated” upper- and middle-SES children also fare slightly worse than their “diagnosed and unmedicated” counterparts on future positive approaches to learning and perceived self-competence. The opposite is true for future externalizing problems.

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Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
This study uncovers three major findings. First, ADHD diagnosis is tied to worse approaches to learning, more behavior problems, and poorer academic self-competence in fifth grade, but only for children in upper- and middle-SES families. Second, for children in low-SES families, ADHD diagnosis is not significantly tied to any of the outcomes considered here. Third, when differentiating between diagnosed upper-SES children who are versus are not receiving medication following diagnosis, ADHD diagnosis is significantly tied to poorer learning approaches and greater externalizing problems regardless of medication receipt.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Data and sample.  To estimate differences between the teacher-rated school behaviors and perceived self-competence outcomes of diagnosed and undiagnosed children, this study draws on the restricted-use Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten Cohort of 1998 (ECLS-K), an initially nationally representative sample of kindergarteners followed through middle school. The analytic sample used here consisted of the 7,330 children who remained in the study through 5th grade, were not missing data on either the outcomes or ADHD diagnosis, and were either diagnosed (N = 380) or plausible undiagnosed matches who had comparable levels of early ADHD-related behavioral problems in spite of not having been diagnosed (N = 6,950). Details on the longitudinal sample, attrition, and trimming are detailed in the Online Appendix; cell sizes were rounded to the nearest 10 per the restricted-use data agreement.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
These data offered several substantial strengths for isolating the net “marginal effect” of an ADHD diagnosis (path d of Figure 1)—defined as the average difference between the outcomes of diagnosed and otherwise comparable undiagnosed children who had the same observed pre-diagnosis behavioral problems, cognitive skills, family/demographic contexts and overall propensities to be diagnosed even though one child was diagnosed and the other was not. First, given that ADHD diagnoses require functional impairment from inattention and/or hyperactivity/impulsivity in at least two settings (American Psychiatric Association 2013), both teachers and parents rated children’s behaviors. Moreover, ratings occurred in children’s naturalistic settings (school and home), independent of diagnostic evaluation and less subject to reporting bias.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Researchers have turned to matching techniques to help achieve sample balance on key variables for which OLS models may yield estimates that lack sample support/balance (Gangl 2010). This study used two types of matching to obtain estimates that are “doubly robust” to confounding between diagnosed and undiagnosed children: coarsened exact matching (CEM) and propensity score matching (PSM) (Stuart et al. 2009). First, I use CEM to preprocess the data and ensure sample balance on three key factors that shape both diagnosis and the outcomes: family social class group (given the study’s theoretical motivation), severity quartile of pre-diagnosis behavioral problems (a key confounder of diagnostic effects), and child sex (since sex differences in children’s presentation of ADHD-related behaviors could produce improper matches given greater diagnosis of the hyperactive subtype among boys).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The advantages of CEM include that it is not a method of estimation but, rather, a way to pre-process a data set. As a result, estimation based on the matched data set will be less model-dependent (i.e., less a function of indefensible modeling decisions) than when based on the original full data set (Iacus, King, and Porro 2011). Because the degree of model dependence is bounded ex ante by the researcher, estimates are less vulnerable to mis-specification of functional form.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Models
First, differences by family social class in the marginal effects of diagnosis were estimated overall and then separately by whether or not the child subsequently received medication following diagnosis. In the latter analyses, diagnosed children were further classified as those who “additionally receive medication” and those who “do not receive medication,” both relative to undiagnosed children. This moderation analysis (first by family social class and then also by medication status) occurred after CEM but before PSM (Stuart et al. 2009).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
This study carries practical implications. It might caution against parents, educators, and medical providers considering an ADHD diagnosis for middle- and upper-SES children at the first signs of behavioral difficulties. For example, prior research points to potential negative diagnostic effects on later school behaviors and academic achievement among children who had only mild pre-diagnosis behavioral problems (Owens 2020; Owens and Jackson 2017). Further research is needed to understand diagnostic effects on academic outcomes among high-SES children, but these studies together suggest that both potential positive and negative consequences of diagnosis should be considered. Findings should not dissuade ADHD diagnosis for high-SES children who have a clear-cut need for diagnosis.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
When it comes to the relationship between social class privilege and children’s well-being, work in the tradition of Lareau (1989) may be taken to assume that high-SES parents’ activation of social capital and other resources for school intervention is predominantly beneficial to their children. However, the present findings indicate that there is also a need to consider that there could be a negative side to the consequences of this social capital and privilege in schools through children’s increased susceptibility to negative social labeling. The ability of parents to convert social capital may be highly influenced by the ways in which broader social structures (e.g., schools) differentiate and stigmatize disability differently among high-SES and low-SES families.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Acknowledgments
I thank three anonymous reviewers, Editor Amy Burdette, Jordan Conwell, Laura Doering, Heide Jackson, Margot Jackson, Susanna Loeb, John Logan, John Mullahy, Chandra Muller, Zhenchao Qian, Paul Rathouz, Emily Rauscher, Stephanie Robert, Kelley Smith, and Michael White for invaluable feedback during the preparation of this manuscript. Earlier versions of this manuscript were presented at the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Health and Society Scholars Program Annual Meeting in 2015, the University of Wisconsin–Madison in 2015, the American Sociological Association Annual Meeting in 2019, and the Population Association of America Annual Meeting in 2019.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Funding
The author disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: The author is grateful for support from the Brown Population Studies and Training Center, which receives funding from the NICHD (P2CHD041020); Brown University; the National Academy of Education/Spencer Foundation Postdoctoral Fellowship Program; the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Health and Society Scholars Program; and the University of Wisconsin–Madison. Supplemental Material
Supplemental material for this article is available online.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
An abundance of evidence indicates that the drug overdose epidemic in the United States is a national public health emergency (Gomes et al. 2018; Hedegaard, Miniño, and Warner 2018; Kariisa et al. 2019). In 2017, 70,237 drug overdose deaths occurred in the United States, with opioids involved in 67.8% of these fatal poisonings (Scholl et al. 2019). The U.S. drug-related mortality rate (age-adjusted) increased from 6.1 per 100,000 people in 1999 to 21.7 in 2017 (Hedegaard et al. 2018). From 1999 to 2006, the average annual increase in the drug-related mortality rate was 10%, and that rate has risen over time. From 2006 to 2014, the average increase was 3%, which subsequently jumped to 16% from 2014 to 2017 (Hedegaard et al. 2018).

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Contrary to the demand-side approach, we find that educational attainment is not associated with drug-related mortality. In support of the supply-side approach, we provide evidence indicating that opioid prescription rates are positively associated with drug-related mortality. We also find that income inequality is a key driver of the epidemic, particularly the lack of resources going to the bottom 20% of earners.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The percentage of people with a bachelor’s degree is not statistically significant at the .05 level in any of the models, which does not support the demand-side hypothesis. The opioid prescription rate’s within effects are not statistically significant in any model, but all of the between effects are, which supports the supply-side hypothesis. In other words, states with a higher rate of opioid prescriptions, on average, have a higher drug-related mortality rate.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The results for the income inequality measures indicate that inequality has a complex association with drug-related mortality. In contrast to what the income inequality hypothesis expects, the share of income of the top 5%, the top 20%, and Gini coefficient are not associated with drug-related mortality, but the share of income of the bottom 20% is negatively associated with drug-related mortality. Moreover, the values of the BIC statistic for each model indicate that the bottom 20% model best fits the data.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Overall, these results indicate that the lack of resources going to the bottom 20% of earners best explains the income inequality–drug-related mortality relationship—rather than the concentration of resources at the top of the income distribution. The results suggest that none of the inequality measures had an effect on drug-related mortality during the Great Recession but did so during nonrecessionary years. Regardless, the primary results reported in this study appear to be more robust compared to alternative specifications and both opioid prescription rates and the income share of the bottom 20% of earners are drivers of the drug overdose epidemic.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The results of this study have important implications for understanding the drivers of the U.S. drug overdose epidemic and the policies needed to combat it. Regarding the drivers of drug-related mortality, the findings support the arguments made by the supply-side perspective more so than the demand-side perspective. As we discussed, the supply-side perspective argues that changes in the drug environment are driving the epidemic.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We analyzed state-level annual observations for the temporal period 2006 to 2017 for the 50 U.S. states and the District of Columbia. The time period of this study corresponds to the first year in which the opioid prescription data were made available by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC 2019) and the last year of available mortality data. We analyzed these data using a two-level random intercept model.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We used a two-level random intercept model to test our hypotheses. Our model nested annual state-level observations within states. In total, 611 observations (Level 1) were nested within the 50 states and the District of Columbia (Level 2) from 2006 to 2017.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Our dependent variable was the annual drug-related mortality rate per 100,000 people by state. We obtained these data from CDC WONDER’s (CDC 2018) multiple cause of death database. As defined by the CDC, drug-related deaths are those that are unintentional (ICD-10 codes X40-X44), by suicide (ICD-10 codes X60-X64), by homicide (ICD-10 code X85), undetermined (ICD-10 codes Y10-Y14), and all other drug-induced causes (deaths not categorized in any of the aforementioned ICD-10 codes).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Our three main variables of interest were educational attainment (the percentage of the state population with a bachelor’s degree), the opioid prescription rate (per 100 people), and four different measures of income inequality: the income share of the (1) top 5%, (2) the top 20%, (3) the bottom 20%, and (4) the Gini coefficient (range = 0–1). Educational attainment (used to test the demand-side hypothesis) and the inequality measures (used to test the income inequality hypothesis) were obtained from the American Community Survey (ACS) 1-year estimates (U.S. Census Bureau 2018a), and the opioid prescription rates (used to test the supply-side hypothesis) were garnered from the CDC (2019). Each measure of income inequality provided a sufficiently different approach to understanding how inequality is associated with drug-related mortality.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Before group mean centering the variables, we grand mean centered all of the independent variables to provide a meaningful interpretation of the intercepts. The dependent variable and independent variables were converted to natural logarithms, making them equivalent to elasticity models. We logged the variables to (1) correct for skewness and (2) because we posited that the relationship between drug-related mortality and its determinants are multiplicative in nature; that is, the determinants are not independent of one another but rather, act proportionally.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Building on this discussion, the results indicate that health policy should take on a wider set of measures to combat the drug overdose epidemic. The actions taken by federal and state governments in the United States have primarily focused on the practices of pharmaceutical companies and prescribing physicians (Gross and Gordon 2019). Although we find that addressing the supply side of the epidemic is necessary—it is an inadequate prevention response by itself (also see Monnat 2019; Peters et al. 2019).

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We conclude by reiterating that drug-related mortality is likely a deleterious “downstream” consequence of changes in the U.S. economy over the past half-century that have led to increased income inequality and an exploitive private health care and pharmaceutical industry. Our emphasis on the role of income inequality in the current drug overdose epidemic is consistent with recent research demonstrating that growing income inequality is a key determinant of other health-related outcomes, including overall life expectancy, crime, and mental illness as well as anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions that cause climate change and exacerbate air pollution’s impact on public health (Hill, Jorgenson et al. 2019; Hill and Jorgenson 2018; Jorgenson et al. 2016, 2017, 2020). Therefore, addressing the supply side of the drug overdose epidemic is certainly warranted, but taking a more structural perspective to the epidemic that involves reducing income inequality would likely not only lead to reduced drug-related mortality but also have positive economic and environmental benefits.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
This figure shows that, for respondents in their 20s and 30s, the odds ratios for between-wave differences in subjective social isolation are relatively small and are not statistically significant for those in their 20s. By age 40, however, respondents in 2020 had 33% greater odds of reporting increased feelings of isolation, and this difference was significant. The between-wave odds of subjective social isolation increased further in strength in later age cohorts.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Figure 3 shows that at younger ages, between-wave differences in psychological distress are not significant. By age 40, however, respondents in 2020 reported significantly higher mean levels of psychological distress. These differences increased in strength at older ages.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Model 1 shows that, independent of the controls, respondents in 2020 evidenced a significantly increased risk of community distrust. Being a respondent in the 2020 survey was associated with almost 50% greater odds of reporting a higher level of distrust than being a respondent in the 2019 sample. However, these between-wave differences did not vary by age; the interaction between wave of survey and age in Model 2 is not significant.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
All categories of feelings of isolation are significantly associated with greater distress. Furthermore, these differences are quite substantial. Ancillary analyses showed that the semistandardized coefficient feeling isolated some of the time was .835, whereas the semistandardized coefficient for feeling isolated most or all of the time was 1.33 and was 2.024 for all of the time.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Data were derived from two waves of the Canadian Quality of Work and Economic Life Study (C-QWELS), national surveys intended to examine social conditions and well-being among Canadians who were currently employed. Data were gathered by the study authors in cooperation with the Angus Reid Forum, a Canadian national survey research firm that maintains an ongoing national panel of Canadian respondents. The C-QWELS I was gathered from September 19 to September 24, 2019, and was an online survey conducted among a representative sample of 2,524 working Canadians.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The C-QWELS II was conducted from March 17 to March 23, 2020 with another nationally representative sample of 2,528 working Canadians. The response rate was 43%, and responses were similarly weighted. Of the 5,052 total respondents, 4,923 were retained in the analytic sample (2019 sample = 2,477; 2020 sample = 2,446), a retention rate of over 97%, suggesting little bias due to listwise deletion.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Psychological distress was measured using five common symptoms of nonspecific psychological distress (Kessler et al. 2002): feel anxious or tense, feel nervous, feel restless or fidgety, feel sad or depressed, feel hopeless. Respondents indicated the frequency they experienced each symptom in the previous month, with response scales of all of the time, most of the time, some of the time, a little of the time, and none of the time. All responses were coded so that higher values indicated more frequent symptoms.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Community distrust was measured using a single item that asked, “Thinking about the people in your neighbourhood—that is, the local area in which you live,” how much do you agree or disagree with the statement, “My neighbours can be trusted.” Response choices were strongly agree, somewhat agree, somewhat disagree, strongly disagree. Responses were coded so that higher values indicated greater disagreement, thereby creating a measure of community distrust.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
In recent decades, wildfires, encompassing all types of fire in vegetated landscapes, have been increasingly reported worldwide. This trend is particularly evident in Australia, the Brazilian Amazon, Europe, Russia, Canada and the western United States1. Climate change is expected to increase the frequency, duration and intensity of extreme wildfire events4. The global fire-prone area is projected to increase by 29%, by the end of the twenty-first century5. This may result in amplified socioeconomic and health burdens6. Wildfires harm human health primarily through wildfire smoke (for example, toxic gases and particles), of which ~90% of the total particle mass is comprised of fine particulate matter with diameters ≤2.5 µm (PM2.5)7.

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Overall, wildfire-specific PM2.5 presented consistent positive associations, for each of the respiratory hospitalizations examined. A 1 µg m−3 increase in wildfire-specific PM2.5, during the lag 0–1 days, was significantly associated with elevated risks in all-cause respiratory (RR = 1.0036, 1.0032–1.0038), asthma (RR = 1.0048, 1.0040–1.0057), COPD (RR = 1.0038, 1.0032–1.0042), AURI (RR = 1.0042, 1.0032–1.0050), influenza (RR = 1.0079, 1.0059–1.0096) and pneumonia (RR = 1.0036, 1.0032–1.0040) (Table 1). Sensitivity analyses confirmed the robustness of our results (Supplementary Figs. 1 and 2 and Supplementary Table 8).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We found that age, community income level, community non-wildfire PM2.5 level and country or territory significantly modified the association between wildfire-specific PM2.5 and respiratory hospitalization risks (Fig. 3 and Supplementary Table 5). Specifically, individuals ≤19 or ≥60 years old presented a greater hospitalization risk in all-cause respiratory disease and pneumonia, compared with those aged 20–59 years old. Greater risks were observed in communities with high non-wildfire PM2.5 levels for all-cause respiratory disease, COPD and pneumonia.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Overall, 25,321 (20,478–30,114) all-cause respiratory hospitalizations were attributed to wildfire-specific PM2.5 annually, equating to an attributable fraction (AF) of 1.42% (1.15–1.69%). For each year, on average, up to 1.49% (0.86–2.10%) of asthma, 1.30% (0.89–1.70%) of COPD, 1.77% (0.88–2.64%) of AURI, 2.84% (0.90–4.41%) of influenza and 1.57% (1.24–1.89%) of pneumonia hospitalizations, were attributed to wildfire-specific PM2.5.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Wildfires only constituted a small portion (17.1%) of ambient PM2.5, compared to non-wildfire sources, with a median concentration of 1.4 (IQR 3.6) µg m−3 and 13.4 (IQR 11.0) µg m−3, respectively. However, wildfire-specific PM2.5 was associated with a significantly greater risk and contributed to a substantial proportion of hospitalizations for all the major types of respiratory diseases examined, compared with non-wildfire PM2.5 (Fig. 4 and Supplementary Tables 10 and 11).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The spatiotemporal pattern of annual AF of all-cause respiratory hospitalization due to wildfire-specific PM2.5 varied. We found an overall increasing trend in annual AF. This pattern extended to Australia, Canada, Chile, New Zealand and Taiwan during 2000–2019. Taiwan experienced an exceptional rise during the most recent 5 years.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings