Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Race, class, gender, and other patient traits like health status and age were salient in providers’ accounts of how patients were selected for testing or shielded from suspicion. Counter to evidence that racial bias in medical interactions is implicit or unconscious (Feagin and Bennefield 2014), I found that providers often mentioned race when discussing decisions to drug test. For example, a pediatrician explained that drug testing was overwhelmingly carried out on black patients relative to other racial groups where he practiced.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
These data were derived from a larger qualitative study examining multisystem collaboration in response to perinatal substance use in Chicago, Illinois, and included in-depth interviews with frontline workers and stakeholders (N = 71) and interviews with local women who had experienced child welfare interventions at the birth of their children (N = 28). Although these data informed this analysis, the findings presented here are a subset of in-depth qualitative interviews conducted with 30 medical providers in the Chicago area. To recruit medical professionals who had knowledge of institutional responses to perinatal substance use, I employed a purposive sampling and snowball approach.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
I selected five hospitals in the Chicago area as recruitment sites. These sites were selected because they served distinct patient populations (in terms of race-ethnicity and class status) and included one safety net hospital, one teaching hospital, two private hospitals, and one small community hospital. Each hospital had publicly available contact information for their obstetric and neonatal physicians.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
I sent emails to providers whose contact information was accessible (N = 116) to invite them to participate in an interview about their “observations and experiences working with” substance-using patients. The email recruitment resulted in 21 participants agreeing to meet for an interview. An additional 9 participants were subsequently recruited via snowball sampling, for a total of 30 interviews (see Table 1 for sample characteristics).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
I conducted semistructured interviews in person and over the phone (eight individuals were unable to meet in person) that lasted on average 45 minutes to an hour, with the longest interview spanning over 3 hours. The interview schedule centered around the provision of care for substance-using patients, including questions regarding how substance use was determined, drug screening and testing practices, hospital procedures and treatment protocol, professionals’ attitudes toward substance-using patients, medical interventions for maternal substance use, and child welfare involvement. Interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Data were coded and analyzed using Atlas.ti. Participants were given pseudonyms to protect their identity. Data were analyzed inductively following a grounded approach (Charmaz 2014).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
There are stark consequences of medico–legal hybridity in perinatal care. Using health care delivery systems to capture patients with substance use issues creates unintended negative health outcomes, resulting in more women seeking prenatal care late into their pregnancies or avoiding it altogether, birthing unassisted at home, or attempting to self-detox without the supervision of health professionals (ACOG 2011; Stone 2015). Recent research suggests that the postpartum period is a particularly vulnerable time for women with opioid use disorders when rates of fatal overdose significantly increase (Schiff et al. 2018). By rerouting patients toward punitive systems and away from health care resources, providers retract medical care in a moment when substance-using women need it most.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Understanding how therapeutic and punitive control blend together is essential for scholars studying health governance in the twenty-first century. Future global health crises are expected to become more frequent and destructive and will likely necessitate strong partnerships between public health, medicine, and the state. Furthermore, the increasing politicization of health care access and rights for marginalized groups, including efforts to limit health care access to immigrants and transgender people, and ongoing efforts to restrict access to abortion services will likely create myriad opportunities for health care workers to enforce laws, actively challenge them, or ignore them.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
I am grateful to Anna Kirkland and Sandy Levitsky for their commitment to this research and for their generative feedback along the way. Thanks to Claire Decoteau and Paige Sweet for reading and providing feedback on previous versions of the article and to the three conscientious reviewers for their insights.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The author disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research was funded by the National Science Foundation Award No. DDRI 1802773. Katharine McCabe https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2526-5561

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Beyond drug dependence, the United States experienced massive growth in overdoses over the past 20 years, which contributed to lower life expectancies (Case and Deaton 2015; Dowell et al. 2017; Imtiaz, Probst, and Rehm 2018). Surging overdose mortality contributed greatly to years of life lost across socioeconomic groups (Ho 2017). Between 1999 and 2019, nearly 850,000 people died in the United States from a drug overdose, and early evidence indicates further escalation of overdose deaths during 2020 (CDC 2020).

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
PDMPs reduced opioid overdose mortality 2 years postimplementation and sustained effects, with similar effects for prescription opioids, benzodiazepines, and psychostimulants. Access or mandates for action do not reduce mortality beyond surveillance. Overall, PDMP effects on overdose mortality are likely due to self-regulation under surveillance rather than mandated action.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
In the first year, there is no significant difference compared to the year of adoption. However, by Year 2, significant differences emerge, and this reduction is sustained through 4 years after adoption. Specifically, county-level overdoses per 100,000 are predicted to be .88, 1.17, and 1.59 lower in years 2, 3, and 4, respectively, from adoption.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Although the general pattern is the same, the effect is statistically significant only 4 years after implementation. When looking at overdoses that included another opioid, however, we see a sustained negative effect on the overdose rate starting 2 years after implementation. Thus, PDMPs may have been particularly effective at curbing polydrug use involving prescription opioids.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
In Figure 5, we provide evidence that PDMPs are also effective at lowering the overdose mortality rate for benzodiazepines and psychostimulants. Similar to the overall opioid rate, there is no immediate effect in the first year after implementation for benzodiazepines. However, the rate is significantly lower in Years 2, 3, and 4 by .51, .82, and .87, respectively. For stimulants, the results are significant in Year 1 (–.26) and sustained through Year 4 (–.45).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Simply put, we find no evidence that overdose mortality was associated with policies that specifically grant prescriber/dispenser access to the PDMP system. Although almost all the lag coefficients are in the hypothesized negative direction for access, the only evidence of a significant reduction is for the effect of prescriber access on psychostimulants, but only in the first lag, and a coterminous effect for heroin. Given the significant lead, there is even some evidence that fatal psychostimulant overdoses were already on the decline when states implemented dispenser access.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We utilized CDC restricted access mortality files from 2000 to 2016. The database contains every death in the United States in each year. Cause of death codes allowed identification of drug overdoses, which we then aggregated to the county level. We calculated age-adjusted overdose rates per 100,000 for each county.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Our first outcome is age-adjusted death rate due to any opioid overdose within counties each year. We utilized the CDC’s operational definition for opioid overdose (CDC 2014). Such deaths have ICD-10 underlying cause codes of “drug poisoning,” X40-X44, X60-X64, X85, and Y10-Y14, together with ICD-10 multiple causes codes T40.0-T40.4 and T40.6.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We utilized the Prescription Drug Abuse Policy System for a comprehensive listing of policy passage in each U.S. state between 2000 and 2016. We then created a state-year data set of the presence of policies across the observation period. Our central variable of interest is presence of a state-level PDMP (coding described in the following). We also considered alternative specifications via variables for whether prescribers/dispensers have access to the PDMP and whether prescribers/dispensers are required to check the PDMP when writing/filling a prescription.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
From the U.S. Census Bureau’s American Community Survey (ACS) and decennial censuses, we included county-level time-varying covariates, specifically population density, median household income, and percentages foreign-born, female-headed households, non-Hispanic Black, Hispanic, and over 25 with a bachelor’s degree. We included an interaction between percentage foreign-born and Hispanic given their high correlation and a significant interaction effect in several model specifications. To include all counties, we required 5-year ACS estimates because only larger counties are available over shorter estimates.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We used fixed effects models to determine the effect of PDMPs on overdose mortality (Allison 2009; Halaby 2004; Winship and Morgan 1999). The method’s strength is the elimination of unobserved heterogeneity by differencing all predictors and the outcome from its county-specific average. Fixed effects estimators are robust to observed or unobserved time-invariant variables, which removes any constant county-level effects. To account for the well-known increase in overdose rates and provide estimates of the effect of PDMPs independent of that increase, all models included fixed effects for year.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The effects of PDMP systems on reduced benzodiazepine and stimulant overdose mortality highlight the broad scope of such systems of institutional surveillance; the policy is efficacious beyond a single class of controlled substances. The findings for these drug classes further support our central hypothesis regarding the constraining power of surveillance systems because the expectation is that this oversight would affect behavior generally and not necessarily for opioids alone. Furthermore, within an American political context in which calls for reduced governmental involvement are common, our results augment prior research indicating that the surveillance effect of PDMPs has a measurable impact on premature mortality and should be maintained even if the United States reduces overdose mortality in future years.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Our findings have relevance beyond PDMPs for public health, wherein surveillance is the main form of state intervention. The area of occupational health and safety is a clear example of surveillance systems having an effect on self-governing of both individuals and institutional actors leading to positive changes in outcomes. In this manner, choices constrained by policy implementation have a measurable impact on health.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We thank Rich Carpiano, Dave Melamed, Trent Mize, Sarah Mustillo, Eric Schoon, and Dan Winchester for valuable feedback on this article. Funding The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was funded by the National Institute on Drug Abuse (Grant No. R21DA046447). The funding agency had no role in the research; the views expressed in this article do not represent those of the funding agency.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Mike Vuolo is an associate professor in the Department of Sociology at The Ohio State University and current editor of Sociological Methodology. His research interests include crime, law, and deviance; health; work and education; substance use; the life course; and statistics and methodology. Laura C. Frizzell is a PhD candidate in the Department of Sociology at The Ohio State University.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
This is the overarching question that we tackle with this analysis. We focus only on the Phase 1A and 1B periods to examine who got early access while vaccine supply and eligibility were still limited. Obviously, many considerations are at play for how any individual can get the vaccine, and early media reports indicate that access to reliable Internet and transportation play a major role in people’s ability to find an appropriate appointment time and travel to the location (Menchaca and Agnew 2021; Prescott and Prescott 2021; Stone 2021). Here, we focus on the structural element of this story to examine where these vaccine allocations went and whether certain types of neighborhoods were advantaged or disadvantaged in the rollout. We ask: What neighborhood characteristics are related to the distribution of COVID-19 vaccines? Specifically, are racial-ethnic minority communities less likely to have vaccine supply? Furthermore, how do these patterns relate to extant inequalities in health care provision?

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
From the results in Table 2, we can see that the racial-ethnic clustering scores have a significant relationship to the density of vaccine sites. Specifically, for Black and Latino clustering, these scores are significant and negative, meaning that as the clustering of these two groups increases, the number of vaccine sites per 100,000 people decreases. Essentially, the higher the concentration and clustering of these two groups, the lower the number of vaccine sites.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
In the case of Black clustering, a 1 SD (648.99) increase in Black clustering relates to 3.47 decrease in the number of vaccine sites per 100,000 people. Given that the average number of sites per 100,000 people is only 7.92, this is a notable change. For Latino clustering, a 1 SD (1,611.93) increase in Latino clustering is related to a 1.59 decrease in the number of vaccine sites per 100,000 people.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
When we include two such health care establishments, the number of hospitals and the number of physicians’ offices, these are both significant and positive. This indicates that having more health care establishments in a ZIP code relates to a greater number of vaccine distribution sites. The addition of these two variables also reduces the size of the coefficients for the clustering variables, suggesting that the lower number of vaccine sites in these areas is a function of their lack of health care resources.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Black clustering is again significant and negatively associated with the number of vaccine doses per 10,000 people in a ZIP code over a 9-week period (although this is only significant for Latino clustering at the .1 level), meaning that minority segregated communities were less likely to receive doses of vaccine over this period. Specifically, every 1 SD increase in Black clustering (648.99) relates to 658.08 fewer vaccine doses per 10,000 people in a ZIP code. The same figure for a 1 SD change in Latino clustering (1,611.93) is 492.66 vaccine doses per 10,000 people.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Moreover, the inclusion of these variables weakens the association between the clustering scores and the number of vaccine doses per 10,000 people, especially in the case of Black clustering. Hospitals and physicians’ offices appear to explain away a substantial portion of the differential allocations across areas related to Black clustering. We also see changes in the size of the coefficients for Latino clustering, but this score was only significant at the .1 level in Model 1.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
First, for data on vaccine allocations, we used data from the Texas Department of State Health Services. Since the first shipment of the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine on December 14, 2020, the state of Texas has released information on a weekly basis on the location and quantity of doses allocated across the state by county. We collected these data each week for the first 10 weeks of the vaccine rollout (December 14, 2020, to February 15, 2021).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
To analyze the spatial distribution of these sites, an address location was provided for each site, and we geocoded these to a point-level location in ESRI’s ArcMap. Furthermore, because we were primarily interested in how these inequalities relate to urban dynamics, not differences between urban and rural locales, we focused on the five largest counties in the state, which are also the core counties of the five largest cities in the state. These included Bexar County (San Antonio), Dallas County (Dallas), Harris County (Houston), Tarrant County (Fort Worth), and Travis County (Austin).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We combined these data with sociodemographic data and data on establishments from two census products. First, for sociodemographic data, including our measures of racial-ethnic clustering, we used the 2014 to 2018 American Community Survey 5-year estimates at the ZIP code tabulation area level. We also combined this with data on establishments from the 2016 County Business Patterns (CBP) ZIP Code Industry Detail File.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Thus, for this analysis, we used a geographic clustering score that considered two pieces of information: the concentration of a group in an area (ZIP codes) and the extent to which that group is geographically clustered. To be more precise, we refer to this as clustering rather than segregation throughout the discussion of this analysis, and we conceptualized this as a neighborhood-level measure of segregation. We used the following formula: C x w x i i j j i n ij j = = ≠ ∑ 1, , where x i is the variable for ZIP code i, x j is the variable for ZIP code j, and w ij is the spatial weight between ZIP codes i and j (Anderson 2017).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
To model these two different dependent variables, we present two sets of models, one for each outcome. First, for the number of vaccine distribution sites, we estimated a series of spatial error models. For the second set of models for the week-by-week allocation of vaccine doses, we present a series of hierarchical linear growth models (Raudenbush and Bryk 2002; Singer and Willett 2003) with a correction for spatial dependency using a queen contiguity spatial weight matrix (Savitz and Raudenbush 2009).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Not having health care infrastructure in place means that when confronted with a public health catastrophe, the existing inequalities in our health care system are deepened. The COVID-19 pandemic is, for many people, one of the most disruptive and challenging public health events of our lifetimes. Vaccination in this context represents a lifeline to spare further human suffering and loss of life and a potential return to normalcy.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Although state public health officials implemented eligibility systems that prioritized health care workers, the elderly, and those with medical comorbidities, the geographic component of the vaccine rollout and allocation of the vaccine over time has not been equal. This highlights the necessity of creating more equitable access to care broadly so that in crisis times, the infrastructure is available to equitably meet the needs of the affected communities.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Kathryn Freeman Anderson is an associate professor in the Department of Sociology at the University of Houston. Her research focuses on understanding the social sources of health disparities in the United States. In particular, she examines the role of race-ethnicity and urban neighborhood dynamics to analyze how these factors may affect individual health.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Darra Ray-Warren is a graduate student in the Department of Sociology at the University of Houston. Her research interests are in the socioeconomic determinants affecting mental and physical health, social status, and the public policies that may impact human flourishing. Her current research focuses on criminal law and punishment rationale, emerging progressive prosecutorial and indigent defense styles, and the social factors that drive criminal case outcomes.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
One important question about the links between education and health that remains unanswered, however, is whether these links are robust for individuals who pursued schooling at a stage of the life course when education has normatively been completed (as reflected in formal definitions of nontraditional students, as well as institutional expectations and structures): prior to having children (Macmillan 2005; Marini1984). This question of whether “out-of-sequence” education can promote greater health is particularly salient for women with children, who (based on estimates from 2015 to 2016), represent over 15% of all students enrolled in college and 70% of all student parents (Cruse et al. 2019). This question is also relevant to current public health policy given that scholars from across disciplines have argued that one of the most powerful policy levers for reducing population-level health disparities is promoting higher education (Frieden 2010; Hahn and Truman 2015).

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Analyses involve random intercept and fixed effects models and diverse health measures. Findings suggest that postsecondary education does not improve mother’s health, except for reduced smoking among mothers with high school degrees or less that earned bachelor’s degrees. These findings inform health policy debates and theories linking education to health.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The results of this modeling step (see Table 6, Models 3–5) revealed few significant associations between the time-varying measures for postsecondary education and maternal health (10 of 12 models). There were two exceptions. Among mothers with a technical/trade degree or less at baseline, those who earned an associate’s degree reported significantly higher levels of overall health, and mothers with some college or less who subsequently completed a bachelor’s degree reported significantly lower likelihoods of smoking.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Following this approach and specifying fixed effects, the inclusion of the first covariate, child overall health, attenuated the association between mothers’ associate’s degree completion and overall health and between mothers’ bachelor degree completion and reduced smoking to nonsignificance. Additional fixed effects models did not produce any significant positive effects of postsecondary attainment on the four health outcomes. These estimates suggest that observed associations in random intercept models were not robust to unobserved, fixed sources of heterogeneity.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Given the lack of significant findings, I performed several auxiliary analyses to determine whether a significant association may emerge under alternate conditions. These included among certain subpopulations, for other health outcomes, or using measures of school enrollment. None of the models produced significant findings.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Overall, mothers’ pursuit of higher education did not improve their health. This pattern held true across a variety of outcomes that reflected physical, mental, and behavioral aspects of health; population subgroups; and measures of higher education that reflected increased years and degrees and institution types. Although these findings stand in contrast with the general consensus of much of the research and theory linking education to health, they are consistent with several recent studies that have explored the connections between nonnormative educational trajectories and health outcomes.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Data came from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study: a national birth cohort study of 4,898 children born between 1998 and 2000 in 20 U.S. cities. Mothers were recruited from hospitals immediately after the study child’s birth and interviewed about family background and demographic characteristics, including highest level of schooling. Follow-up interviews conducted one, 3, 5, 9, and 15 years after the birth using telephone and in-home surveys provided data on maternal health factors and mothers’ schooling since the last interview.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Using this information, I created three time-varying, binary variables for completed a vocational program, completed an associate’s degree, and completed a bachelor’s degree. Once mothers reported degree completion, mothers were assigned a value of 1 on that measure for all subsequent waves. This coding technique captured a pooled estimate of the association between additional education and health that used all available data and provided an average of mothers’ health before versus after completing additional education.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Overall health was based on a measure of self-reported health in which respondents described their health on a scale ranging from 1 (poor health) to 5 (excellent health). Global mental health was captured by mothers’ reports of whether they felt sad, depressed, or anxious for a two-week period over the past year (1 = yes, 0 = no). Parenting stress, which was based on the average of mothers’ responses to four questions, was a shortened version of the original Parenting Stress Index, and smoking was based on self-reports of whether the mother smoked in the last month.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
To account for sources of confounding among mothers’ education and health, I included several covariates. The first set of factors included the mothers’ race-ethnic background, age at first birth, current age, her mother’s education, immigrant status, whether she grew up with both parents in the home, and whether the study child was her first birth. Additional sets included time-invariant family resources at baseline and time-varying factors such as changes in employment, family structure, and residential moves.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The main analytic technique involved random intercept models. These models took advantage of the longitudinal data by incorporating all six waves, accounted for the hierarchical structure of the data in which individual observations are nested within time, adjusted for nonindependence among the repeated observations, modeled time-invariant key variables, like maternal education at the baseline wave, and accounted for random variability in mothers’ health. As a final analysis step, I turned to fixed effects modeling techniques to examine the robustness of any significant associations to unobserved, fixed sources of heterogeneity.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
As to social policy, these findings suggest that efforts aimed at improving maternal health may be more efficacious if they target women prior to transitioning into adult roles. This does not mean that additional education cannot help some mothers. Rather, providing mothers with educational opportunities may not lead to reductions in population-level disparities in maternal health—at least not until more knowledge is acquired to help scholars identify and intervene in the factors that explain why the health benefits of additional education for mothers are low.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
This study focused on an emerging yet understudied phenomenon among health researchers—mothers’ return to school to increase their education—to investigate the policy-relevant issue of whether mothers’ reentry into school can improve their health outcomes. Contrary to much research and theory, the findings suggest that in general, the answer is no. It also speaks to the limits of current public health and two-generation policy approaches, points to alternative prescriptions for social policy, and highlights a new research frontier that explores the social and structural constraints that limit the health returns to additional education among women with children.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Author’s Note
Previous versions of this article were presented at the 2018 annual meeting for the Interdisciplinary Association for Population Health Science and the 2019 annual meeting for the Population Association of America.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Author Biography
Jennifer March Augustine is an associate professor in the Department of Sociology at the University of South Carolina. Her research applies life course and ecological approaches to studying the connections among parents’ socioeconomic circumstances, their health and well-being, and the health and development of their children. She is particularly interested in understanding the significance of parents’ education, its implication for other related life course outcomes, and the combined impact of these factors on various dimensions of family life.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Yet beyond recognizing the presence of bias in providers’ patient counseling and decision-making, minimal research has explored how providers then navigate bias in their care to minimize its effects. By exploring this process, we demonstrate the ways that various provider approaches to reduce bias reflect and reproduce this inequality in care. Elucidating these coping strategies simultaneously reveals not only providers’ individually held biases but also the social forces that engender such discrimination and disparities within their clinical encounters.

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
To better understand what drives this persistent bias, how it manifests within the clinical encounter, and its potential consequences for women’s reproductive autonomy, we explore how providers negotiate and manage bias within their contraceptive decision-making and counseling. In doing so, we observe four primary strategies providers implement to justify, rationalize, minimize, and/or deny bias: first, couching their bias within scientific rationale; second, employing “safe” biases to minimize differential counseling; third, standardizing their approaches to patients as a means of denying differential care; and finally, using the tenets of patient-led care to distance themselves from responsibility for patients’ final contraceptive decisions.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Providers frequently evade claims of bias in their care by utilizing data, especially around pregnancy risk, to rationalize their differential contraceptive counseling. These data function to produce and reinforce biases about patients that then inform provider practices. Scientific arguments have long been used to encourage and validate eugenicist beliefs about who should reproduce, especially regarding women of color (Roberts 1997).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
In addition to couching bias within scientific rationale, providers employ what we term safe biases as a minimizing strategy. Safe biases are like coded language in that both convey multiple layers of meaning and target a specific group of people to whom the term becomes associated, such as thug or criminal. In this context, safe biases include using medically acceptable, often professional terms like Medicaid, at risk, insured, or underserved to safely express race-, class-, or gender-based beliefs about patients and their behaviors.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Medical care has become increasingly standardized in response to nationwide reports of inconsistent treatment and outcomes (Smedley et al. 2002). This standardization may encourage objectivity and neutralize biased clinical encounters by offering similar contraceptive counseling to each patient. However, as reflected through Mark’s quote, this approach may actually promote prejudicial thinking.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
To gain such an understanding, we drew on 51 semi-structured interviews with health care providers. This research was part of a larger evaluation of a statewide initiative focused on improving access to and delivery of contraceptives, particularly LARCs. We recruited provider participants through phone, email, and letters to their workplace.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Twenty-three (45%) were physicians, 19 (37%) were nurse practitioners, 8 (16%) were nurse midwives, and 1 (2%) participant was a nurse. These providers specialized in pediatrics, family medicine, obstetrics care, gynecological care, and obstetrics/gynecology. Forty (78%) participants were from private clinic sites, and 11 (22%) were from Title X-serving clinic sites.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The average age of respondents was 46 years old, ranging from 26 to 74. On average, providers practiced for 16 years, with a range between 2 and 47 years in practice. Thirty-eight (74%) providers identified as white/white non-Hispanic, 9 (18%) as African American or black, 3 as Indian/Asian (6%), and 1 (2%) as Hispanic.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Most interviews were held in private offices at the clinic sites, and participants provided informed consent prior to interview initiation. Interviews lasted, on average, 71 minutes, with a range between 38 minutes and nearly 2 hours. The interview inquired about providers’ history practicing medicine, their contraceptive prescribing patterns, and details about how they engage in dialogue with their patients about contraception.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
A diverse research team of five conducted and analyzed the interviews, collaborating to construct a rigorous analytical process. Codes were developed inductively, similar to a grounded theory approach, through an iterative process of reading transcripts to identify patterns and themes, many of which centered around questions that we posed to participants, such as if and how they counsel patients from different backgrounds about contraception (Charmaz 2014). We then entered codes such as “specific contraceptive for specific patient” into a qualitative research software program and further refined them into hierarchical coding schemes using line-by-line coding.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Rather than assuming these biases do not exist, clinicians would benefit from acknowledging biases and identifying techniques to actively challenge and undermine dominant stereotypes. Providers deserve tools to help them respond when patients make different choices than they might prefer. One such strategy is to do more within contraceptive initiatives to explicitly address individually held biases around reproduction and connect them to the social forces that engender them.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Provider bias remains a poignant issue in American health care as well as within contraceptive counseling. As RJ activists and scholars continue to underscore, bias and the social forces that engender it persist and continue to disproportionately affect the reproductive autonomy of marginalized women as well as their health care generally. Understanding how providers manage this bias is key not only to minimizing differential treatment within medicine but also to reducing related health disparities and achieving reproductive justice for all women.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We extend our thanks to Brianna VanArsdale and Virginia Berndt for their research assistance and discussion as we conceptualized this article. We also thank the anonymous reviewers and Miranda Waggoner for their thoughtful and instructive comments on previous versions of the article.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by a research grant from a private philanthropic foundation that had no involvement in the analysis and interpretation of the data or the decision to submit the article for publication.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Mass incarceration has increasingly been recog-
nized as a pressing public health challenge. Nearly
6.5 million adults—1 in 40—are under correctional
supervision in the United States (Maruschak and
Minton 2020). More than 2.1 million are currently
serving sentences in prisons and jails. An additional
4.9 million individuals in the population were for-
merly imprisoned (Shannon et al. 2017). This
decades-long expansion of the penal system has
occurred without the structures in place to facilitate
reintegration. Although the policies of mass incar-
ceration have been far-reaching, their imprint has
been concentrated among marginalized groups.
Black adults account for 33% of individuals incar-
cerated in prisons—almost triple their share of the
adult population—and they are incarcerated at rates
that are three to five times higher than whites
(Carson 2020; Zeng 2020).

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem