Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Despite the lower penetration rates in fluvial regions, introducing risk-based premiums and offering premium dis- counts based on the actual reduction of risk achieved by flood-proofing buildings is expected to decrease the total average residential flood risk (coastal and fluvial) across the USA by about US$1 billion (−7.3%) by 2050. These results highlight the effectiveness of offering a pre- mium discount to implement a variety of DRR types (wet and dry flood-proofing), including through retrofitting.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Our model demonstrates that unaffordability (Methods) is expected to decrease from 4.5 million households (23.8%) to 1 million households (5.6%) for the 18.8 million households at risk of floods nationwide in 2050 following a transition to risk-based premiums. However, the magnitude of the remaining unaffordability increases substantially to an average of US$2,000 per year per household. These findings indicate that although risk-based premiums are lower than current NFIP premiums for many households, moving towards risk-based premiums implies a sharp increase in premiums and unaffordability for a subgroup of households living in high-risk areas.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
As seen in Fig. 1e, continuation of the program without anticipating climate change or socio-economic development will further increase the debt of the NFIP by ~60% (from US$20.5 billion to US$32.8 billion). Introducing risk-based premiums will significantly limit the rise in future debt but will not solve the problem entirely (debt will increase by 28% instead of 60%). An additional markup of premiums might be required to pay off current debt and make the program financially sound in the future.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
This study is based on a new flood risk and agent-based modelling framework (Methods; Supplementary Information), which simulates dynamic decisions by homeowners regarding whether to implement DRR (for example, elevation or flood-proofing of buildings) and purchase flood insurance. We account for heterogeneous consumer behaviour and individual bounded rationality in risk perceptions20,21. Furthermore, governments can decide either proactively (using cost– benefit analysis based on yearly risk projections) or reactively (after a flood event) to invest in regional flood protection infrastructure. In turn, governmental proactive or reactive decision-making will influence the behaviour of homeowners. All the agents are provided with yearly risk projections from an underlying flood risk model, which is driven by climate change scenarios (RCP 4.5) and socio-economic projections (SSP 2) until 2050 (Supplementary Information). We apply this method to the conterminous US on a grid resolution of 30 arcsec.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The core of the modelling framework was developed for the conterminous US, including the entire USA coastline and all main river basins. It simulated flood risk at a yearly time step with representative household adaptation at a resolution of 30ʺ × 30ʺ and government adaptation at the county level. Homeowners could invest in DRR measures (elevation or flood-proofing of buildings) or take out/cancel insurance and governments could invest in elevating dikes. Both these adaptations and the proposed NFIP reform policies were captured in four policy scenarios. The model was run 50 times for each of these policy scenarios while also assuming different climate scenarios and socio-economic scenarios.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Fluvial flood hazard. The GLOFRIS fluvial inundation maps are based on existing research3,33. In brief, daily time series of flood volumes were constructed using hydrological and hydrodynamic modelling at a 0.5° × 0.5° resolution. The GLOFRIS model was forced with EU-WATCH data for the period 1960–1999, representing historic conditions. For future conditions, the GLOFRIS model was forced with five global climate models (GCMs): HadGEM2-ES, IPSL-CM5A-LR, MIROC-ESM-CHEM, GFDL-ESM2M and NorESM1-M.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Fluvial and coastal inundation maps are available for the current and future climate following the RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5. The SSP scenarios27–32 were used to represent the initial population numbers and to project population growth, income and economic growth for 2050. We applied the SSP 2 and SSP 5 scenarios as they matched well with RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5, respectively. SSP 2 was a middle-of-the-road scenario, while SSP 5 was an energy-intensive and resource-intensive scenario.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
A total of four policy scenarios (Sc1–4) were simulated. These consisted of combinations of the following NFIP insurance and governmental policies: Sc1: current NFIP. This scenario simulated the current NFIP market structure as closely as possible. Observed premiums for 100-year flood zones and low-risk flood zones were used. Sc2: NFIP with risk-based premiums. Risk-based premiums were calculated by the flood risk model plus a loading factor of the current NFIP premium setting (estimated at 49.7%). Sc3: reactive government. Re-evaluation of protection standards of levees only occurred after a flood event in a county. Measures were implemented on the basis of a cost–benefit analysis using risk information from the model. Sc4: proactive government. Re-evaluation of protection standards occurred either every 6 years or after a flood event in the respective county. Measures were implemented on the basis of a cost–benefit analysis using risk information from the model.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Insurance schemes must be interlinked with flood adaptation Our results show that additional large-scale flood adaptation investment complements a transition to risk-based premiums and household-level DRR measures22. Table 1 shows four policy scenarios: a baseline scenario (Sc1, current NFIP, reactive government) and three scenarios (Sc2, 3 and 4) with current and risk-based NFIP schemes and proactive or reactive government policies combinations. These are evaluated relative to the baseline Sc1 (see Methods for scenario descriptions and Supplementary Information for additional results).

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Online content Any methods, additional references, Nature Research reporting summaries, source data, extended data, supplementary information, acknowledgements, peer review information; details of author contributions and competing interests; and statements of data and code availability are available at https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-022-01501-7.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Acknowledgements We would like to thank M. Montgomery for sharing data and M. Tesselaar for his feedback. This research received funding from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research VIDI (45214005 to W.J.W.B.) and VICI (016140067 and 453-13-006 to J.A.) grant programmes and ERC advanced grant (884442 to J.A.).

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
There is increasing focus on the role of the private sector in meeting global climate goals1–3. To this end, science-based targets (SBTs) intend to align voluntary company-level emission reduction targets with the global temperature goal of the Paris Agreement4–6. So far SBTs have been set by more than 1,000 companies, including many multinationals7,8. When reporting scope 2 emissions, that is, emissions associated with the generation of purchased energy (primarily electricity, but also including steam, heat and cooling), the Science Based Targets initiative (SBTi) allows companies to use renewable energy certificates (RECs) to claim the use of renewably generated electricity. Companies can then report zero emissions for each unit of electricity consumption covered by purchased RECs9, regardless of the actual emissions produced by the electricity grid at their location; however, RECs do not reflect the physical electricity flow supplied to the companies purchasing them10, and there is evidence that RECs are unlikely to lead to additional renewable energy generation11–18. Consequently, company-level emission reductions reported through RECs are unlikely to reflect real reductions of global emissions, which has the potential to compromise the alignment of SBTs with the Paris temperature goal19,20. In recognition of this issue, several emission accounting standards21,22 restrict or do not endorse the use of RECs, but RECs are nevertheless permitted by the Greenhouse Gas Protocol9 that forms the basis of SBTi’s requirements.

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The sample of companies reported a combined 30.7% reduction in market-based scope 2 emissions between 2015 and 2019 (from 68.9 to 47.8 Mt CO2e per year, see solid black line in Fig. 1e). This corresponds to a substantially higher reduction than the annual 4.2% of base year emissions required by SBTi’s linear 1.5 °C global mitigation pathway (purple line). However, most of this reported emission reduction is caused by the companies’ use of RECs (Fig. 1d), which increased from covering 8% of their purchased energy in 2015 to 27% in 2019.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Without the RECs contribution, market-based emissions would have reduced by only 9.9% between 2015 and 2019, with the resulting emission trajectory closely aligning with the required annual 2.5% base year emission reduction of SBTi’s linear well below 2 °C pathway (compare the dashed black and turquoise lines in Fig. 1e). This real emission reduction is driven by decarbonization of the residual electricity grid (representing the grid mix without the energy production that has been claimed by RECs or PPAs; see Box 1) (Fig. 1b) and to a lesser extent by a net-increase in company use of PPAs (Fig. 1c). By contrast, the increase in energy consumption had a net-positive contribution to the change in emissions (Fig. 1a).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Renewable energy certificates also had a substantial influence on the reported emission trajectories of individual companies; 89% of sample companies purchased RECs in the 2015–2019 period and the sample companies’ median market-based emission reduction changed from 30.2% to 8.5% when removing the contribution from RECs. Likewise, the share of companies aligned with the 1.5 °C goal, aligned with the well below 2 °C goal, and not aligned with either goal changes from 68%, 8% and 24% to 36%, 12% and 52%, respectively, when excluding RECs (Fig. 2). Hence, market-based emission disclosures give the impression that three-quarters of the companies were in alignment with one of the Paris goals.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
This exploratory scenario results in a combined real reduction rate of 3.6% of base year emissions across companies (see the weighted average in Fig. 3c), which is markedly lower than the 7.2% reduction rate for unadjusted market-based scope 2 SBTs (Fig. 3b) and merely complies with the well below 2 °C goal. Moreover, although nearly all (77 of 102) companies pursuing market-based scope 2 SBTs seem to align with the 1.5 °C goal (Fig. 3b), far fewer (38 of 102) companies will in fact align with the 1.5 °C goal if they continue their past pattern of REC usage (Fig. 3c). In that scenario, companies will most commonly not align with either temperature goal (45 of 102), whereas a minority (19 of 102) will align with the less ambitious well below 2 °C goal.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Overall, our results confirm earlier suppositions19,20 and suggest that corporate use of RECs in the pursuit of SBTs is the norm rather than the exception. This is consistent with recent findings for a smaller sample of companies with net-zero targets18. SBTs must cover both scope 1 and scope 2 emissions6, and for many industries scope 2 emissions are the larger of the two (see Supplementary Figs. 11–13 for a contribution analysis of our company sample).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Here we combine information about SBTi-certified company emission reduction targets with data on REC purchases to assess the effect of RECs on the alignment of companies’ reported scope 2 emission trajectories with the Paris temperature goal. We use the climate change disclosures of 115 companies, which represents the subset of companies with SBTs that have also disclosed data which can be used to assess the contribution of RECs to their reported (2015–2019) and potential future emission reductions. Importantly, it was necessary that all companies in our sample reported their past emissions using both market- and location-based emission accounting methods (Box 1).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We also distinguish here between RECs and power purchase agreements (PPAs), which represent a long-term commitment by a company to purchase power from a particular renewable energy project. Although empirical evidence is still needed, we have adopted here the common assumption that PPAs do lead to additional renewable energy production and real emission reductions, as the long-term power price de-risks new projects and allows access to project finance14,15,17,18 (Box 1). By contrast, we assume that RECs and similar market-based instruments are non-additional, that is, not leading to additional renewable generation capacity or real emissions reductions, and we use the term RECs to refer to all non-PPA instruments for that reason (see Methods for details on these market-based instruments and terminology).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Our initial sample was composed of the 813 companies with approved SBTs as per the online SBTi database7 on July 20th, 2021. We first excluded 28 energy generators and utilities (3% of the initial sample) due to our focus on companies that purchase energy. We excluded another 101 companies (12% of the initial sample) that only have intensity-based SBTs covering scope 2 to avoid the additional uncertainty associated with converting intensity targets to absolute emission targets.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The resulting sample of 115 SBTs have been approved by SBTi between 2016 and 2021. We used SBTi’s classification of headquarter regions and industries7 to assess the representativeness of the final company sample (Supplementary Section 4) and estimate combined results at the region level (Supplementary Figs. 7 and 9). For combined results at the industry level (Supplementary Figs. 8 and 10) and the industry-level assessment of scope 2 emissions relative to other emission scopes (Supplementary Figs. 11–13), we used the industry classifications of CDP40 as it involves a more manageable number of industries (10 versus the 49 of SBTi’s classification system7).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We annualized the reported SBTs, formulated as a percentage reduction between the company-specific base year (B) and target year (Y), following Wang et al43: SBT′ = SBT / (Y − B). The resulting annualized SBT (SBT′) indicates an annual percent reduction of base year emissions and assumes a linear emission trajectory between base year and target year. To derive SBTs specifically for scope 2 in these cases, we first calculated the past contribution of scope 2 emission changes to the emission reductions for the emission scopes covered by a company’s reported SBT.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
When removing the emission reductions claimed through RECs, companies’ combined 2015–2019 scope 2 emission trajectories are no longer aligned with the 1.5 °C goal, and only barely with the well below 2 °C goal of the Paris Agreement. If this trend continues, 42% of committed scope 2 emission reductions will not result in real-world mitigation. Our findings suggest a need to revise accounting guidelines to require companies to report only real emission reductions as progress towards meeting their science-based targets.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Our findings have implications for SBTi’s current approach of allowing companies to choose between market- and location-based accounting when setting SBTs and reporting target progress6. In addition to the problem that market-based accounting allows reporting emission reductions that are not real, there is a risk of double counting the emission benefits of renewable energy generation if one company claims the use of specific renewable energy generation using market-based accounting, whereas other companies count that same renewable energy using the grid average emission factor in their location-based accounting. There are at least two alternatives that would make it more likely that all reported scope 2 emission reductions are real and renewable energy generation is only counted once (see Table 1).

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Acknowledgements We are very thankful for the valuable feedback of the three anonymous reviewers. This research was funded by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) Discovery Grants Program (grant no. RGPIN/6956-2017 to S.L. and RGPIN-2017-04159 to H.D.M.), Concordia University Research Chair funding (H.D.M.) and the Concordia University Horizon Fellows Program (A.B.).

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Author contributions A.B. conceived the study idea. A.B. developed the study design with contributions from M.B., S.L. and H.D.M. M.B. synthesized the literature on market-based scope 2 emission accounting.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
In recent years, over 3,500 US economists, including 27 Nobel prize winners1, and 1,600 European economists2 have signed public statements advocating carbon taxation. As a policy tool, carbon taxes offer theoretical cost effectiveness, price stability and administrative simplicity. However, these potential economic advantages can come with a steep political price. Carbon taxes have been rejected in referenda and elections3–7, been reversed after political backlash8,9, been opposed by a substantial proportion of the public10–12 and generated political controversy whenever debated across advanced democracies9,11,13–16. Scholars have identified diverse barriers to public acceptance of carbon taxes, including perceptions that the policy will not reduce emissions, that it is too costly, that it is regressive and that it might undermine economic prosperity10,11,17–20.

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Revenue recycling through lump-sum dividends may help mitigate public opposition to carbon taxes, yet evidence from real-world policies is lacking. Here we use survey data from Canada and Switzerland, the only countries with climate rebate programmes, to show low public awareness and substantial underestimation of climate rebate amounts in both countries. Information was obtained using a five-wave panel survey that tracked public attitudes before, during and after implementation of Canada’s 2019 carbon tax and dividend policy and a large-scale survey of Swiss residents. Experimental provision of individualized information about true rebate amounts had modest impacts on public support in Switzerland but potentially deleterious effects on support in Canada, especially among Conservative voters. In both countries, we find that perceptions of climate rebates are structured less by informed assessments of economic interest than by partisan identities.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Canadian carbon tax support remained relatively stable across our panel. In the rebate province of Ontario, public support by wave 5 was within two percentage points of wave 1. However, between waves 1 and 4, carbon pricing support did increase in the rebate province of Saskatchewan, before declining through wave 5 for a net gain of five percentage points to 32%.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Policy support was concentrated among Liberal Party of Canada supporters (the party that implemented the policy) versus Conservative Party of Canada supporters (the opposition party that strongly opposed it) and remained stable through time. Conservative opposition persisted in both federal-tax (rebate) and provincial pricing (non-rebate) provinces. By wave 5, 75% and 81% of Liberal Party supporters in Ontario and Saskatchewan, respectively, supported carbon pricing, compared with 32% and 13% of Conservative Party supporters in these same provinces.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
In wave 3, immediately after residents of Ontario and Saskatchewan received their rebates, we asked respondents whether they had received a climate-related benefit as part of their federal income tax returns (Supplementary Section 8). Many Canadians did not know, including 17% in rebate provinces and between 33% and 36% in non-rebate provinces. In Ontario, only 55% of residents correctly believed they had received a rebate, while Saskatchewan residents were more aware (75%). By contrast, about 11% and 13% of individuals in the non-rebate provinces of Alberta and British Columbia incorrectly reported rebate receipt.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Receiving treatment led respondents to increase perceptions of their household’s rebate size, suggesting at least partial updating in the treatment group (Supplementary Section 14). However, treatment did not change carbon pricing support (Fig. 4a: Difference-in-Means (DIM) = –0.0342, s.e. = 0.106, P = 0.747). Instead, information about their true benefit decreased respondents’ belief that the rebates were sufficient to cover their tax exposure (Fig. 4b: DIM = –0.136, s.e. = 0.0662, P = 0.0398). As such, Canadians who learned the true value of their rebates were significantly more likely to perceive themselves as net losers even though most Canadians are net beneficiaries.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We evaluate the effect of real-world dividends on public support for carbon taxes in both countries. In Canada, we report an original five-wave panel survey of Canadians from February 2019 to May 2020. Our sample included residents from five provinces, two subject to the federal carbon tax (Saskatchewan and Ontario), one with provincial emissions trading (Quebec) and two with provincial carbon taxes (British Columbia and Alberta).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We surveyed the same respondents after the federal carbon tax was announced but before it was implemented (February 2019), soon after implementation (April 2019), after residents of federal-tax provinces received their rebates (July 2019), after a federal election in which carbon pricing was a prominent issue (November 2019) and one year after policy implementation (May 2020). In wave 4, we embedded a survey experiment exposing respondents to individualized information about their actual rebates. In Switzerland, we fielded a survey of 1,050 Swiss residents in December 2019, which also included an embedded survey experiment where respondents were exposed to information on their actual policy rebates.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Before deploying wave 4, we estimated the objective rebate received by each survey respondent from Ontario and Saskatchewan, using their province of residence, reported marital status (including common law), number of children residing with them as reported in wave 3 and whether their residence is rural (for example, outside a census metropolitan area (CMA)) and thus eligible for an additional rebate. These factors completely determine dividend levels within the current Canadian policy, which we calculated using Revenue Canada income tax worksheets. Note that dividend levels are not a function of income in Canada.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
In our December 2019 Switzerland survey, half of respondents were randomly assigned an encouragement treatment to leave their computers mid-survey and retrieve their health insurance forms; respondents were then asked to report the size of their benefit. All treated respondents were then shown a sample health form with benefit size highlighted (Supplementary Section 15 provides example), irrespective of whether they reported having found their personal form (Supplementary Section 16 shows experimental balance). We then measured respondent support for the existing Swiss policy and their potential support for either a small (from CHF0.25 to CHF0.28 per l heating oil) or large (to CHF0.40 per l heating oil) tax increase (respondents were randomly asked for their preferences on either of these two cost settings).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Our paper draws from four new data sources. First, we report a new survey dataset, the Canadian Climate Opinion Panel (CCOP). Second, we report a survey experiment embedded in the fourth wave of the CCOP. Third, we report a large-n survey of Swiss residents conducted in December 2019.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Overall, our results speak to growing interest in recycling carbon tax revenues in the form of lump-sum rebates to mitigate persistent public opposition to carbon taxes. We explore existing policies, as implemented, in Canada and Switzerland using a new longitudinal opinion panel as well as two survey experiments. We find only limited evidence that these existing policies have reshaped the politics of carbon pricing to date.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
These findings imply that one-time information does not substantially affect policy support. While results from non-climate domains may not extrapolate to carbon taxation19, previous studies suggest learning over time built public support for congestion taxes48–50 and solid-waste charges51. Yet public ignorance of dividends has persisted for more than a decade in Switzerland, and our Canadian panel covered a period in which the carbon tax was highly salient by virtue of the policy’s implementation, court challenges, federal–provincial conflict and partisan debate during a federal election, a most likely case for public learning about the rebate scheme.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Received: 29 October 2020; Accepted: 15 December 2021; Published online: 24 January 2022

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
This research was supported by grants (initials of grant principal investigators in parentheses) from a Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) Partnership Granthad (M.M., E.L. and K.H.), theSmart Prosperity Institute at the University of Ottawa (M.M., E.L. and K.H.), the Economics and Environmental Policy Research Network of Canada (M.M., E.L. and K.H.) and the Centre for International Governance Innovation (#5597, K.H.), the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (#435-2017-1388, E.L.), the Institute for Social, Economic and Behavioral Research at UC Santa Barbara (M.M.) and the Hellman Fellows Fund (M.M.). We thank participants at the UC Santa Barbara Environmental Politics Workshop, Swiss Political Science Association annual meeting, Environmental Politics and Governance conference, L. Fesenfeld, P. Bergquist, C. Fischer, P. Quirk, G. de Roche and C. Hazlett for comments on earlier drafts of this manuscript.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
A familiar theme from research on climate policy and eco-
nomic development is that there is an important trade-off
between climate action and near-term poverty reduction;
this literature is based in part on results from existing cost–benefit
climate policy models1–5, which assume that the burden of a nation’s
climate mitigation must fall to some extent on the poor. If this
assumption were correct, some trade-off between climate action
and poverty alleviation would be inevitable. The key question would
then be to what extent benefitting the future poor through avoiding
future climate damages can justify (from a development or equity
perspective) reduced near-term development for the current poor6,7.

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
There is a similar pattern in all regions: without progressive revenue
recycling, climate action does indeed involve a substantial trade-off
where the poorest lose from climate policy in the short-to-medium
term as they shoulder their share of mitigation costs without com-
pensation. In contrast, with the equal per capita dividend, climate
action involves a synergy with poverty alleviation. Yet even in the
recycling scenario, consumption falls below BAU for several regions
later in the century.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Focusing on inequality—measured by the Gini index (Fig.
2b,d)—also demonstrates the benefits of progressive redistribu-
tion. Equal per capita recycling generates a reduction in inequal-
ity in all regions while revenues are available for redistribution.
Once full decarbonization occurs and revenues disappear, miti-
gation has a regressive impact compared with BAU due to the
relationship reported in Fig. 1 combined with the continued cost
of decarbonization even after there are zero net emissions.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Examining the impact of the equal per capita refund on all quin-
tiles in the United States, China and India—chosen to represent
countries at different levels of wealth—reveals that in all three coun-
tries, more than half the population (namely, those in the lower part
of the distribution) benefits in the near term, particularly those in
the bottom quintile (Fig. 3). In India, the poorest 40% never experi-
ence a loss relative to BAU over the full time horizon. This redistri-
bution towards the lower quintiles has a positive effect on poverty
alleviation by reducing the percentage of the population below the
poverty line (Supplementary Tables 2–4).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Furthermore, the progressive equal per capita dividend increases
aggregate well-being in every region relative to the BAU over the
next decades and in the far future (Supplementary Fig. 3). The inter-
generational trade-off between costs of reducing emissions now
and benefits in the future is weakened over the entire time horizon:
aggregate well-being over time is higher with the equal per capita
dividend than without it in all regions and both are better overall
than BAU. All results presented above assume that revenues raised in a
given region are distributed only within that region.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
With revenue recycling, the model recommends high decarbonization
initially—there are dual benefits of redistributable revenue and
lower future temperatures—but postpones full decarbonization
for many decades as redistribution continues (Fig. 5). Without the
equal per capita revenue recycling, the model at first recommends
more moderate ambition, to protect the current poor from high
mitigation costs, followed by a rapid increase in decarbonization
to avoid extreme warming. Despite this different temporal pattern
of mitigation, the maximum temperature rise is similar in both
scenarios, although it peaks later with revenue recycling, a poten-
tially valuable delay if it reduces the rate of temperature change and
enables more time for adaptation34.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
To confirm this relationship and quantify these dynamics, we
conducted a review of the literature on the initial burden of a car-
bon or gasoline tax (Supplementary Section 1). We included studies
from around the world to capture estimates for regions with differ-
ent levels of wealth. Figure 1 displays the results, reporting the rela-
tionship between gross domestic product (GDP) per capita and the
distribution of the initial burden before redistribution of revenues
(the consumption elasticity of the initial burden, where an elastic-
ity of ϵ means that if a person’s consumption increases by 1%, that
person’s initial burden increases by ϵ%).

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
To investigate the impact of an equal per capita refund of tax rev-
enues on well-being, poverty and inequality, we modify the Nested
Inequalities Climate Economy (NICE), a 12-region global climate
policy model that represents inequality within regions by grouping
the population into five equally populous quintiles, ranked from
poorest to richest. We modify NICE to implement two distinct
policy scenarios. In the first scenario, the ‘no recycling’ scenario,
mitigation costs affect consumption but tax payments do not.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
This is the standard assumption in this type of model and is implemented
by returning tax revenues in proportion to the initial burden. In the
second scenario, the ‘recycling’ scenario, the tax revenue in each
region is redistributed on an equal per capita basis. As a result, some
quintiles are net beneficiaries in the recycling scenario if the refund
is greater than the initial burden; this is in contrast to the no recy-
cling scenario where all quintiles bear a net cost from the climate
policy.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The NICE model52 used here is a modification of the RICE model3,54,
which was developed by W. Nordhaus. RICE is the regional counter-
part to the global dynamic integrated climate–economy (DICE)
model, which is one of three leading cost–benefit models used by
researchers and governments for regulatory analysis, including to
estimate the social cost of carbon55. RICE3,54 and NICE51,52 have been
described in great detail elsewhere.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We assume that gross consumption is distributed across population
quintiles according to a baseline distribution, yielding gross con-
sumptions for each quintile. Under the no recycling scenario, final
consumption of each quintile is computed by subtracting climate
damages and mitigation costs from gross consumption according
to distributions that reflect different exposures and vulnerabilities of
consumption groups to these impacts. Under the recycling scenario,
carbon taxes are raised according to the same distribution as mitiga-
tion costs and redistributed as equal per capita payments within
regions.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We have shown that an equal per capita refund of carbon tax rev-
enues improves the well-being of individuals toward the bottom of
the income distribution and reduces poverty and inequality. The
implication is that adopting strong climate policy need not entail
a trade-off where the people of today (and the poor in particular)
must sacrifice for the benefit of future generations.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
An emerging literature indicates that communicat-
ing the co-benefits of climate action may increase policy support,
in particular for co-benefits that lead to economic development
and more compassionate communities36,37. Similarly, bundling
climate policy with social and economic programmes, a feature
of widely discussed strategies across the political spectrum from
the Climate Leadership Council to the Green New Deal, may also
increase support for action38. Overall, the literature suggests that
progressive redistribution may have relatively broad appeal, at least
given effective communication of the benefits, although this may
be tempered by evidence from Pigouvian taxation studies which
indicates that people may be resistant to policies that start with
high tax rates19,21,39–42.

Category:

Answer: Policy Implications


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Online content Any methods, additional references, Nature Research report-
ing summaries, source data, extended data, supplementary infor-
mation, acknowledgements, peer review information; details of
author contributions and competing interests; and statements of
data and code availability are available at https://doi.org/10.1038/
s41558-021-01217-0.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Acknowledgements This article has received funding from the NAVIGATE project of the European Union’s
Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant no. 821124 (S.F., M. Fleurbaey, U.K., A.M., F.W. and S.Z.) and the NIEHS-funded HERCULES Center
P30ES019776 (N.S.). We thank C. Burnham and the Climate Futures Initiative at
Princeton University for support.

Category:

Answer: None


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Approximately 11% of the world population in 2017, or 821 million people, suffered from hunger1. Undernourishment has been increasing since 2014 due to conflict, climate vari-ability and extremes, and is most prevalent in sub-Saharan Africa (23.2% of population), the Caribbean (16.5%) and Southern Asia (14.8%)1. Climate change is projected to raise agricultural prices2 and to expose an additional 77 million people to hunger risks by 2050 (ref. 3), thereby jeopardizing the UN Sustainable Development Goal to end global hunger4. Adaptation policies to safeguard food security range from new crop varieties and climate-smart farming to reallocation of agricultural production2,5. International trade can be an important adaptation mechanism6,7.

Category:

Answer: Policy Problem


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
International trade enables us to exploit regional differences in climate change impacts and is increasingly regarded as a potential adaptation mechanism. Here, we focus on hunger reduction through international trade under alternative trade sce-narios for a wide range of climate futures. Under the current level of trade integration, climate change would lead to up to 55 million people who are undernourished in 2050. Without adaptation through trade, the impacts of global climate change would increase to 73 million people who are undernourished (+33%). Reduction in tariffs as well as institutional and infra-structural barriers would decrease the negative impact to 20 million (−64%) people. We assess the adaptation effect of trade and climate-induced specialization patterns. The adaptation effect is strongest for hunger-affected import-dependent regions. However, in hunger-affected export-oriented regions, partial trade integration can lead to increased exports at the expense of domestic food availability. Although trade integration is a key component of adaptation, it needs sensitive implementation to benefit all regions.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
In the baseline trade scenario, price changes across RCP 8.5 sce-narios lead to a reduction in global food availability of −0.2% to −3% compared with the baseline. The corresponding hunger effects are large—an additional 7–55 million people are projected to become undernourished (+6% to +45%). Across the RCP 8.5 scenarios, global cropland area changes by −2% to +3% and the share of irrigated area increases from +1% to +7%. Total agricul-tural trade volume increases by +1% to +7% across RCP 8.5 sce-narios through an expansion at the intensive and extensive margin (new flows representing 1–3% of total trade volume; Supplementary Table 1). Hunger impacts under intermediate climate change range from a decrease of 1 million to an increase of 14 million undernour-ished people.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
When adap-tation through trade is constrained in the fixed imports scenario, hunger exacerbates across all of the RCP 8.5 scenarios, up to an additional 73 million undernourished people compared with the baseline (+60%). By preventing endogenous market responses to climate change, the fixed imports scenario results in lower global crop production efficiency (−1% to −2.5%), lower global food avail-ability (−10 to −37 kcal per capita per day) and higher agricultural prices (+2% to +17%) across the RCP 8.5 scenarios compared with the baseline trade scenario (Supplementary Table 2). The pre-Doha tariffs scenario leads to up to 81 million additional undernourished people compared with the baseline scenario (+67%), highlighting the importance of trade integration that has already been achieved through the Doha Round in alleviating the potential long-term impacts of climate change on hunger.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
The facilitation and tariff elimination scenarios reduce the global risk of hunger from climate change to a comparable extent, and the facilitation + tariff elimination scenario can even compensate for the impact of all but the most extreme climate change scenario. Trade liberalization and facilitation reduce hunger by enhancing climate-induced trade adjustments—across RCP 8.5 scenarios, total agricultural trade increases by 166% to 262% under the facilita-tion + tariff elimination scenario—by reducing agricultural prices, and by increasing food availability and crop production efficiency (Supplementary Tables 1 and 2). The hunger effect under extreme climate change (RCP 8.5 without the CO2 effect) is reduced by 31% under the facilitation scenario, 11% under the tariff elimination sce-nario and 64% under the facilitation + tariff elimination scenario.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
Regression results revealed that a 5.4% reduction in crop yields within a region leads to an average food availability reduction of 11 kcal per capita per day (95% confidence interval (CI), 15–8 kcal per capita per day) and an additional 0.52 million people at risk of hunger (CI = 0.25–0.79 million). For a 23% decrease in trade costs, we project an increase in average food availability within a region of 13 kcal per capita per day (CI = 9–16 kcal per cap-ita per day) and a decrease in undernourished people of 1.22 million (CI = 1.52–0.93 million). When excluding regions that experience negative impacts in some trade scenarios (SAS and SEA), we found a significant negative interaction effect between trade costs and crop yields (P = 0.014). For example, under extreme climate change (that is, a 20% crop yield reduction), the positive effect of a 23% reduc-tion in trade costs is 1.97 million fewer people undernourished, consisting of a direct (−1.50 million) and a climate-induced trade effect (−0.47 million). These results confirm the existence of posi-tive trade effects on food availability and hunger alleviation13,32 and reveal an additional climate-induced effect of lowering trade costs.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Findings


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We focused on global hunger projections to 2050 and analysed how climate change and trade interact in their impact on hunger. Our economic (Global Biosphere Management Model (GLOBIOM)) and crop (Environment Policy Integrated Model (EPIC)) modelling approach (see Methods) is well established for investigating agricul-tural climate change impacts22–25. We advance on the current litera-ture by analysing 60 integrated scenarios that capture variability in trade barriers and in climate projections originating from general circulation models (GCMs), emissions scenarios (Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs)) and assumptions about CO2 fer-tilization.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods


Question:
You are given a sentence or paragraph from a scientific research paper. Classify the text into one of the following five categories relevant to policy briefs:

    1. Policy Problem - Describes the societal or strategic issue that the research aims to address.
    2. Scientific Research Findings - Reports key empirical results, model outcomes, or discoveries from the study.
    3. Scientific Research Study Methods - Details the data sources, methodologies, models, or analytical procedures used.
    4. Policy Implications - Explains how the research findings can inform, influence, or support policy decisions.
    5. None - Does not fit into any of the above categories.

    Your response must be exactly one of the following:
    Policy Problem | Scientific Research Findings | Scientific Research Study Methods | Policy Implications | None

Text:
We used the GLOBIOM, a recursive dynamic, spatially explicit, economic partial equilibrium model of the agriculture, forestry and bioenergy sector with bilateral trade flows and costs that can model new trade patterns38. The model computes a market equilibrium in 10-year time steps from 2000 to 2050 by maximizing welfare (the sum of consumer and producer surplus) subject to technological, resource and political constraints. In each time step, market prices adjust endogenously to equalize supply and demand for each product and region.

Category:

Answer: Scientific Research Study Methods