Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    Results for the cointegration/ECMs are consistent with Occam's razor; market fundamentals account for much of the variation in oil prices in 139 (or 138) of the 323 quarters in the 1938:1-2018:3 sample period. During the other 184 quarters, the price implied by the cointegrating relation is altered by regimes (Table 2). Most regimes occur after OPEC gains control over the marginal supply of crude oil in the early 1970s (Regime 2). Once the cointegrating relation allows for regimes, UtilOPEC does not have a statistically measurable long- or short-run relation NAtuRe eNeRgy | VOL 5 | FEBrUAry 2020 | 141-149 | www.nature.com/natureenergy with prices. The lack of a significant relation does not indicate that OPEC is unimportant. Rather, the lack of a relation may be caused by changes in OPEC behaviour, such as a change from acting as the marginal supplier to defending a fair share of the market (and vice versa). Such changes alter the relation between UtilOPEC and Price; the relation would be positive when OPEC acts as the marginal supplier and negative when OPEC acts to defend a fair share of the market. Such changes in sign prevent the statistical methodology from quantifying a coefficient for UtilOPEC that applies over the entire sample period.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    Wildfires only constituted a small portion (17.1%) of ambient PM2.5 , compared to non-wildfire sources, with a median concentration of 1.4 (IQR 3.6) µg m-3 and 13.4 (IQR 11.0) µg m-3, respectively. However, wildfire-specific PM2.5 was associated with a significantly greater risk and contributed to a substantial proportion of hospitalizations for all the major types of respiratory diseases examined, compared with non-wildfire PM2.5 (Fig. 4 and Supplementary Tables 10 and 11). The spatiotemporal pattern of annual AF of all-cause respiratory hospitalization due to wildfire-specific PM2.5 varied. We found an overall increasing trend in annual AF. This pattern extended to Australia, Canada, Chile, New Zealand and Taiwan during 2000-2019. Taiwan experienced an exceptional rise during the most recent 5 years. In contrast, the annual AF in Brazil and Vietnam decreased over 2005-2019 and 2000-2019, respectively (Extended Data Fig. 2).

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    The most striking result in Table 1 occurs in the Option Only case, in which the baseload technology is absent from the equilibrium mix. This observation is particularly important because, as discussed above, the options contract is designed to have the same financial impact as the capacity markets currently utilized or under discussion in many real-world markets. A hint as to the mechanism at work is provided by the trades made in the Both Contracts case. The peaker technology prefers to sell options, selling 78.4 GW of options contracts against only 1.2 GW of futures. The baseload technology exhibits the opposite preference, selling 80.7 GW of futures but no options. Tables 2 and 3 show the reason for these trading preferences. Table 2 shows the payouts for the futures contract in the Both Contracts case. The 50 bold cells in the table represent the worst-case realizations of demand and fuel cost for the baseload technology in the No Trading case. As alpha = 0.5 in this example, these 50 scenarios are the worst-case scenarios identified by the CVaR calculation for the baseload investors. Analogously, Table 3 shows the payouts for the option contract in the Both Contracts case along with the worst-case combinations of demand and fuel costs for the peaker technology. The difference in the bold cells between the two tables reflects the risk exposure of the two technologies: although investors in the peaking technology are only concerned about lower-than-expected demand, investors in the baseload technology are concerned about both lower-than-expected demand and lower-than-expected fuel cost. As we discuss in Methods section, employing CVaR is equivalent to modifying the nominal probability distribution under a risk-neutral objective function. In this numerical example, the modified probability mass function for each agent corresponds to placing probability 3 200 I on the bold scenarios and 1 200 I on the regular scenarios in the respective tables (in place of the nominal 1 100 I on all scenarios).

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    Results from Equation 3 indicate that U.S. states' IOL rates among pregnancies to Black women are associated with both the demographic profiles and risk factors of states' Black childbearing populations (Appendix F in the online version of the article). Yet, as shown in Figure 3 (Panel A), changes in these demographics and risk factors between 1990 and 2017 do not account for the upward trend in states' IOL rates among pregnancies to Black women. We see that the mean IOL rate indicated by the “Control Own Characteristics” line (dashed black) is nondifferent from the mean IOL rate indicated by “Observed” line (solid black). Thus, the increases in states' IOL rates among pregnancies to Black women are estimated to occur even while controlling for changes in demographic characteristics and risk factors among states' Black childbearing populations. Results from “Equation (4)-White” (Appendix F in the online version of the article) indicate that changes in the demographics and risk factors of states' White childbearing populations are statistically and substantively associated with states' IOL rates among pregnancies to Black women. Furthermore, changes in risk factors among states' White childbearing populations account for much of the rising IOL rates among states' Black childbearing populations. As shown in Figure 3 (Panel A), the rise in the mean IOL rate indicated by the “Control White Characteristics” line (solid gray) is much lower than the upward trend of the “Observed” line. This suggests that increases in IOL among states' Black women would have been much smaller if the demographic and risk factors of states' White childbearing populations had not changed between 1990 and 2017.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    We conducted a series of additional analyses to assess assumptions underlying our analysis and interpretation. First, a causal interpretation of our results assumes there were no other events occurring at or around the passing of these laws in each state that affected perinatal outcomes for Mexican/ Central American-born birthing people living in the state. To test this possibility, we used a placebo approach and examined the effect of passage of a driver's license law on U.S.-born, non-Hispanic White birthing people (see Table S2 in the online version of the article), a group for whom no effect from the law was expected. In the fully adjusted model, there was no observed association for low birthweight, mean birthweight, or entry into prenatal care and a slight inverse association for preterm birth (RR = .97; 95% CI = [.96, .98]). Second, we fit models stratifying by birthing person's educational attainment (Table S3 in the online version of the article). In fully adjusted models, we observed a slightly stronger protective association among individuals who did not have a high school education for preterm birth, low birthweight, and mean birthweight. However, the observed association with first-trimester entry into prenatal care remained in the opposite direction of our hypothesis (lower probability of entry for individuals exposed to the law since conception). Lastly, to determine whether the COVID-19 pandemic impacted our results, we repeated our analysis excluding births in 2020 to 2021 (Table S4 in the online version of the article).

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    Higher IRSAD scores (indicating a relative lack of disadvantage and greater advantage in general) are correlated with higher likelihood of having life-support protections, guaranteed service levels, disconnection reporting requirements and clear complaints processes. Higher IRSAD scores are likewise correlated with lower likelihood of being underserved overall. Higher population is not associated with any differences in legal protections.The models in Table 1 interpret settlements as having life-support protections in cases where life-support registration and prepay use are mutually exclusive (Fig. 3a and associated text provide additional detail). However, in practice, prepayment customers in remote areas may still face practical challenges associated with registering for life support and associated payment plan changes. We include an additional analysis in Supplementary Table 3 that treats life support and prepayment incompatibility as being consistent with an absence of protection. As with our main analyses in Table 1, Indigenous and remote settlements are less likely to have life-support protections and more likely to lack protections across multiple dimensions.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    We ran several linear regression models to determine what factors best explain monthly normalized (per 1,000 registered consumers) LPG sales by distributor and what drives the observed fluctuations in sales patterns (see Supplementary Note 8 and Supplementary  Fig. 11). We find that a standard deviation (s.d.) increase in distributor (up-front) price reduces normalized monthly sales by 0.27 s.d. We also see a comparable effect of seasonal factors in explaining the variation in refill sales. A shift from 'no cropping' season to cropping or harvest season increases monthly refill sales by 0.22 or 0.26 s.d. respectively, everything else remaining equal. Refill rates in summer, when agricultural activity is limited, are ~10% lower than rates during cropping and harvest seasons when people are busy with agricultural work. During the cropping season, people are busy preparing fields, planting and weeding. They place a high value on their time and meals tend to be quick, which is conducive to cooking with LPG. Later, during the harvest season, people have cash in hand, making LPG purchases easier33. In contrast, during the summer, people have more time and less income. The climate is hot and dry, so people have easy access to dry biomass as well as crop residues from after the  harvest period. During the cropping season, which coincides with the monsoon, wood is wet and crop residues have been consumed34. Notably, there are three active distributors in Koppal and the regression results indicate that customers procuring from one distributor purchase fewer cylinders than those procuring LPG from the other two, other predictors remaining constant. On the basis of several interviews, we found that the worst performing distributor (D3) provides home delivery to all villages in its coverage area, while the other two do not, which appears counter-intuitive as home delivery should facilitate purchases23,28. Whether the comparatively higher normalized  monthly sales for D1 and D2 is due to greater sales acumen of the distributors or better socio-economic/behavioural perspectives of the consumers under the catchment area of these distributors cannot be determined, given the limitations of the data.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    The ranking of health benefits and labour costs shown in Fig. 3 across supply-side policies occurs because each policy targets different aspects of crude oil production and thus the sequence and timing of well entry, production and retirements across oil fields. To explore this further, we sort oil fields according to the characteristic directly targeted by each policy. Specifically, these characteristics, shown on the x axis across the columns of Fig. 4, include an oil-field cluster's: (1) area share near sensitive sites, (2) per barrel cost of extraction per barrel and (3) GHG emissions intensity per barrel. These characteristics are directly affected by a setback, an excise tax and a carbon tax. Under each policy, oil fields on the left of the x axis retire first, moving rightward as stringency tightens. For example, for a particular setback distance (2,500 feet in Fig. 4a,d), fields with a greater share of their area near sensitive sites will experience greater reduction in oil production than fields with areas less affected by the same setback. The latter fields that  are farther from sensitive sites will be increasingly affected as setback distances increase. Likewise, under a low excise tax, the oil fields that initially phase out production are those with higher extraction costs. As the excise tax increases, oil fields with lower extraction costs incrementally phase out production. A similar pattern holds for carbon taxes and their effect on oil fields with varying GHG intensities.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    Our estimates of how costs paths affect policy support, along with 95% and 99% robust confidence intervals, are shown in Fig. 3a.  Moving from an increasing to a constant cost path caused a  significant increase in policy support by 7 percentage points compared to the widely discussed option of ramping up costs over time (the reference category), even when we explicitly specified and fixed the cost level of the policy proposal. At the same time, decreasing cost schedules also raised climate policy support compared to the increasing cost path. The causal effects estimated from the conjoint analysis show how cost paths changed the average level of support, but may as such not be informative about the level of support for a particular policy package, which was 50% across all profiles by design in the forced-choice, paired-profile conjoint experiment. We also note that the causal effect estimates are a function of both the preference for a policy feature and the intensity of that preference, which contrasts to the analysis above in which the estimates are simply a function of the number of individuals who prefer a given cost schedule (Fig. 2). Understanding the rationale for the positive estimate of the decreasing cost path in the conjoint experiment seems a productive inquiry for future research, but we focus primarily on the comparison between constant costs and increasing costs in the remainder of this paper because constant costs are preferred to an increasing time path across both measurement strategies.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    In comparison to setbacks on only new wells, applying setbacks to all wells predictably results in greater oil-production declines and emissions reductions. As discussed earlier, setbacks applied to only new wells result in a continuous decline in oil production and GHG emissions (Fig. 6). In contrast, setbacks applied to all wells induce an immediate drop in statewide oil production and associated GHG emissions in 2020 as existing wells within the setback distance fall out of production. This drop is then followed by a gradual decline thereafter that tracks the BAU trajectory. Oil production and GHG emissions reductions increase as setbacks get longer. Although a 1-mile setback, the largest considered in this study, applied to all wells achieves a substantially greater GHG emissions reduction (81%) by 2045 compared with the same setback on new wells (72%), it still falls short of meeting the 90% reduction target (Fig. 6b). However, the cumulative GHG emissions reduction over 2020-2045 for the 1-mile setback applied to all wells is on par with those of excise and carbon taxes that result in a 90% annual GHG emissions reduction in 2045 (Fig. 2c).

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    Table 3 presents the results of the OLS regression analyses of psychological distress. Model 1 shows that between-wave increases in distress are significant, independent of controls. To demonstrate the strength of this difference, we examined the semistandardized difference, in which the metric difference is divided by the standard deviation of distress (McClendon 1994), thereby expressing this difference in units of standard deviations of distress. When semistandardized, this difference was .069. It should be emphasized that this difference was observed in the population of working adults in a relatively short six-month period, and subsequent analyses will demonstrate that this increase is a combination of much stronger and much weaker age-variegated changes in distress.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    Importantly, different weather and demand conditions would result in a different reaction of electricity prices to natural gas prices. In years with high demand and low wind and hydraulic reserves, for example, increases in the price of natural gas would lead to a more intense reaction in electricity prices than in opposite conditions. Interesting insights can be obtained by comparing the value of this sensitivity between two pre-defined scenarios (for example, a high wind and rain year versus a low wind and rain year). Our interest, however, is to provide a measure of the sensitivity of electricity prices to gas prices across the stochastic range of possible scenarios. For this, we define the β-sensitivity metric as the projected change in the annual average electricity price when the annual average price of natural gas increases by 1 euro. β-sensitivity is derived from the linear regression of the average annual price on the price of gas and other control variables across all Monte Carlo simulations (Methods and Supplementary Section 5 provide further details on the rationale and estimation of β-sensitivity).

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    Using a simple reduced-form climate model (Hector; Methods)15 we study the implications of the emissions pathways for end-of-century and peak global mean surface temperature changes (Fig. 2). Our results show—consistent with other studies—that if countries achieve their 2021 NDCs, official LTSs and net-zero pledges as stated, global surface temperature change can be limited to <2 °C warming this century5,6,9-12. In addition, many of our high ambition pathways with the NDC+ and NDC++ emission levels in 2030 result in <1.5 °C temperature change in 2100. Even if ratcheting of ambition is delayed to beyond 2030, end-of-century temperature change can be returned to <1.5 °C. However, that would require substantial ratcheting of post-2030 ambition beyond historically observed decarbonization rates (Methods)—as in the pathways in which countries achieve the NDC emission level in 2030 followed by an 8% minimum decarbonization rate.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    The optimal decarbonization pathway is not exclusively driven by the motive to redistribute. To demonstrate this, the 'no damages' scenario depicts the optimal carbon tax with revenue recycling but where climate damages are artificially set to zero regardless of warming (Fig. 5, black line). In this case, the only benefit of a carbon tax is the redistribution it allows. Global decarbonization that is optimal purely from this motive is substantial and ranges between ~50 and 60%, as this ensures maximum redistribution to the poor. Still, this is much lower than the case where climate benefits exist Nature Climate ChaNge alongside redistributional benefits, demonstrating that substantial incentive to decarbonize further remains even at such high levels of decarbonization. An equal per capita global redistribution leads to similar decarbonization trajectories to those reported in Fig. 5 (which assume within-region redistribution only), a result driven largely by the carbon Laffer curve (Supplementary Fig. 5). However, it would lead to far greater improvements in global well-being, particularly for Africa, India and Other Asia (Supplementary Fig. 6 and associated text).

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    The stringent 2 °C constraint means that the world will rapidly decarbonize and so there will be less and less revenue from carbon taxation to recycle. This highlights an important caveat to our storyline: the positive effect of the carbon tax through progressive redistribution is initially strong but diminishes once the economy decarbonizes enough for revenues to decline. In short, there is a 'carbon Laffer curve'. Conceptually, the Laffer curve is the widely recognized fact that tax revenue does not monotonically increase with the tax rate—in the case of sufficiently large taxes, market transactions  (for example, fossil fuel use) reduce to the point where there is little taxable activity to generate revenue33. As a quantitative illustration of the carbon Laffer curve in NICE, Fig. 4 shows this nonlinear relationship between global near-term (2025) decarbonization  and tax revenue. Total revenue is highest in the 55-75% decarbonization range and decreases thereafter until full decarbonization ultimately implies that no revenue is generated (under full decarbonization there are no industrial emission to be taxed).

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    Our focus in Model 1 is on the within and between effects of education and the squared term for the possibility of diminishing returns of education. The focus of our research questions is on the within measures at the individual level, while the between measures capture aggregate differences in average SES only but must be controlled. Table 3 shows that the within differences in education are negatively related to depression, while the between differences are not. This is consistent with expectation. State-level differences in SES are likely to be smaller than individual differences within countries. The squared education term at the individual level is also significant in the expected positive direction, indicating a diminishing return to high levels of education. This model also shows a significant random slope component of the effect of education between countries and within countries, signaling that this association does vary across countries, and this may signal important variation in the effect of SES due to state-level differences. Finally, the random effect for the squared education term is only significant at the between-country level.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    We combine the linear correlation between OC and Hg in all coastal sediments (N = 819) generated from our regional observational data (Fig. 1c) and the Blue C stock in the top metre of sediment in different Blue C ecosystems compiled by others to roughly estimate the Hg stock in global Blue C ecosystems (Methods). We find that over 95% of the Hg stock in global Blue C ecosystems is stored in VCEs (Fig. 1d). The Hg stock in global Blue C ecosystems (mean = 73,162 Mg, minimum-maximum: 21,306-125,018 Mg) is ~15 times the Hg pool in the

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    All NDCs and NAPs included at least half of the six elements used to assess coverage (Fig. 2d). However, coverage was more complete in NAPs than in NDCs (P < 0.001, N = 15 and N = 53, respectively), with mean scores of 0.7 and 0.9, respectively (Extended Data Table 1). Only four (4) or less than 10% of the NDCs, but more than half (8) of the NAPs, included information on all six elements: Angola, Burundi, Sierra Leone and Uganda (NDC); and Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Liberia, Madagascar, South Africa and Togo (NAP). Elements most featured, in descending order, were climate hazards and systems at risk (all NDCs and NAPs), adaptation actions (95% and 100% of NDCs and NAPs, respectively), objectives (70%, 93%), goals (47%, 87%) and indicators (23%, 67%) (Fig. 3a,b). We provide detailed summaries of observations by element type, country and document in Extended Data Table 4.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    We recognize that a speculative bubble may be a catch-all for the inability to describe the effect of market fundamentals (or some other non-market force) on prices during Regime 7. But it is difficult to relate a speculative bubble to a concrete measure. Theoretical models indicate that a speculative bubble moves prices away from fundamentals by increasing the risk premium for arbitrageurs25. Consistent with this mechanism, Regime 7 is associated with an increase in the risk premia that is caused by and causes a complex series of changes in long and short positions by both non-commercial and commercial traders26. These complex sequences may be one reason that simple measures of trader positions fail to validate the importance of speculation1,2

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    We also consider three technology constraints based on what prior research has shown to be most pivotal in determining future mitigation costs (Fig. 6)27,28. For all three policy approaches, we find much higher mitigation costs under: (a) limited electricity infrastructure investment and production, (b) no investment in carbon capture and storage (CCS) and (c) limited availability of biomass. The greatest impacts on mitigation costs come from constraining CCS and biomass because this restricts the role of BECCS and forces greater reliance upon extremely expensive technologies outside the electricity and refinery sectors (cf. Extended Data Fig. 6 with Fig. 4), such as hydrogen use in transport and industrial sectors. Relaxing the biomass constraint, by contrast, significantly lowers the mitigation costs (Supplementary Figs. 11 and 12). Limiting electricity production has a lesser impact on overall costs because, in the face of such constraints, reductions in energy demand through efficiency measures, increases in natural gas use coupled with CCS, as well as more mitigation in the refinery sector through BECCS, can provide additional decarbonization. Detailed discussions are included in Supplementary Note 3. Although these technology constraints raise the total national cost of mitigation, our main finding remains robust: a heterogeneous policy approach, relative to a uniform approach, is only slightly  more expensive.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    Regression models predicting the speed of Grim aging are shown in Table 2. Model 1 presents the estimates of the association between incarceration exposure and the speed of aging net of the full array of confounds. The results show that incarceration is associated with accelerated epigenetic aging in this African American sample, with exposure predicting a greater accelerated aging score by about 2 years (b = 1.970; p ≤ .001). After applying IPTW (Model 2) to the model, the association between incarceration exposure and the speed of aging is slightly reduced but remains statistically significant. Exposure to incarceration is associated with a 1.719 difference (approximately 1 year and 9 months) in accelerated aging (p ≤ .001). This finding is illustrated in  Figure 1—formerly incarcerated individuals are roughly 11 months (12 x .902) older biologically than expected based on their chronological (or calendar) age, whereas those who have never been incarcerated are 10 months younger biologically (12 x -.816) than expected based on their chronological age. In Model 3, we restricted the sample to respondents with propensity scores that fall within the range of propensities calculated for both the incarcerated and never incarcerated respondents. Similarly, in Model 4, we exclude all respondents with atypical propensities— propensity scores within the fifth percentiles. Both models reveal a stronger association between incarceration exposure and the speed of Grim aging, indicating a conservative estimate in Model 2.3 Together, the evidence from Table 2 indicates that among the African American respondents in our sample, incarceration exposure is associated with an acceleration in biological aging by 21 to 28 months.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    Table 2 summarizes results for these four PDMP variables by the same five outcomes previously described and heroin. Simply put, we find no evidence that overdose mortality was associated with policies that specifically grant prescriber/dispenser access to the PDMP system. Although almost all the lag coefficients are in the hypothesized negative direction for access, the only evidence of a significant reduction is for the effect of prescriber access on psychostimulants, but only in the first lag, and a coterminous effect for heroin. Given the significant lead, there is even some evidence that fatal psychostimulant overdoses were already on the decline when states implemented dispenser access.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    We investigated the importance of consumption smoothing and discounting by regressing cost path choice on a dichotomized  smoothing parameter variable, a measure of patience (both set to one for respondents with above-median values and zero otherwise), and a full set of sociodemographic predictors in a multinomial probit model. We find that individuals with a higher desire to smooth consumption are significantly more likely to select the constant cost path over the increasing and decreasing climate cost paths. Similarly, respondents who were more patient were significantly more likely to support a constant climate cost schedule over time-varying cost paths such as the ramping-up approach (Supplementary Table 2). Overall, the predictive patterns indicate that, consistent with the results from our analysis of respondents' answers to our open-ended question, general attitudes towards time seem to play a systematic role in understanding mass preferences for constant over dynamic cost paths.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    Reduced crude oil production from supply-side policies have associated health benefits, labour-market impacts and benefits from avoided climate change damages. We estimate statewide health benefits from cumulative avoided mortality resulting from lower air pollution levels, costs from lost total labour compensation and benefits from avoided climate change damages due to abated GHGs, priced at the social cost of carbon31, both total (Fig. 3a-c) and per unit of cumulative avoided GHG emissions over 2020-2045 for each scenario (Fig. 3d-f). The costs and benefits are relative to the BAU scenario and estimated in net-present-value terms, valued in 2019 US dollars (Supplementary Notes 13-15).

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    Finally, we link the savings associated with energy audits to a financial consideration that is often overlooked in the retrofit decision: the cost burden of the audit itself. According to the US Department of Energy, the cost of a building energy audit ranges between $0.12 and 0.50 ft-2 (ref. 47), whereas NYC market-specific estimates set the cost at $0.15 ft-2 (refs 11,48). Given the average energy savings attributed to audits from the Bayesian model discussed above, combined with building fuel mix and energy cost estimates from the US Environmental Protection Agency49, we find that the average annual energy cost savings due to auditing for the NYC building stock are $0.121 ft-2 for office and $0.038 ft-2 for residential buildings. Therefore, especially for residential properties, the relatively high payback period of the energy audit (four years or more, on average) is an important consideration in the cost-benefit analysis of mandatory audit policies.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    Table 3 presents four logistic regression models analyzing the likelihood of reporting a high risk of depression based on work and family trajectories. Model 1 indicates that women in the entrepreneur familist trajectory have significantly lower odds of being at high risk of depression compared to those in the homemaker archetype. By contrast, stable job, family diverse women exhibit approximately 16% higher odds. In Model 2, which adjusts for average GDP per capita from ages 15 to 50, a 1 SD increase in defamilization exposure is associated with a 5.8 percentage point rise in the likelihood of depression. Notably, this association is considerable, especially when compared to the effect size of educational attainment; the difference in the predicted probability of reporting more than three depressive symptoms between women with less than upper secondary education and those with tertiary education or more is 3.0 percentage points, as estimated from Model 2. Furthermore, the significant magnitude of this association appears evenwhen controlling for country-specific unobserved heterogeneity by including country fixed effects, indicating that the observed relationship is robust and sizable within countries.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    Climate zones also influenced the probability of a same-day disconnection occurring (Fig. 4b and Supplementary Information). For households with the highest electricity use in the southern-most climate zone (that is, hot persistently dry grasslands shown in Fig. 4b), a one in seven chance (probability of 0.14) of same-day disconnection for temperatures between 20°C and 25 °C, increased to one in three (probability of 0.31) for the coldest temperatures (0°C to 10 °C) and one in four (probability of 0.23) for the hottest temperatures (30°C to 40 °C). For the households with the highest electricity use in the savannah tropical climate zone, there was a one in four chance (probability of 0.23) of disconnection for temperatures between 20°C and 25 °C, which increased to one in three (probability of 0.37 to 0.39) for the hottest temperatures (3°C to 40 °C).Only a weak relationship between temperature and multi-day disconnections was found. The estimation results are provided in Supplementary Table 12. While rarer (approximately one-tenth as common), multi-day disconnection events lasted for an average of 4 days (Table 2).

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    The additional Russian profits are sizeable compared with Russia's pre-invasion GDP, which was about €3.7 billion per day. The EU's tax cut increases Russia's GDP by ~1% in the very short term versus 0.2% in the short term and the long term. We can also compare them with Russia's military spending, which was about €160 million per day pre-invasion (based on ref. 13, the average yearly military spending in 2015-2020 was US$65 billion; a $ to € exchange rate of 0.9 makes this €160 million per day). The daily profit increase then corresponds to 23, 5 and 5% of military spending in the very short term, short term and long term, respectively.Almost all of these revenues stay in the Russian economy as 93% of Russian production is owned by Russian companies14 (both state owned and privately owned). Rosneft and Gazprom—the two main majority state-owned companies—produce ~46% of Russia's oil. The average government take for oil (that is, combined state taxes, tariffs and so on) in Russia is 50% of total revenues14. Hence, almost all oil revenues stay in the Russian economy while 50% goes directly to the Russian state as taxes and fees and an additional 23% goes to state-controlled companies.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    Counterintuitively, we did not find involvement of women in household decisions to purchase durable goods to be a reliable predictor of household use of LPG after adoption. Further research on the involvement of women in cooking energy-related decision-making and its impact on fuel choice is warranted.Distance travelled to procure LPG was not significantly associated with higher odds of using LPG for primary or exclusive use. However, households that travelled one kilometre less to procure LPG in wave 2 than in wave 1 had somewhat higher odds (OR, 1.04; 95% CI, 1.01-1.08) of moving up from minority use than those for whom distance did not change (Supplementary Table 3).

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    Tests of differences in deforestation rates between late- and early-enrolled countries before 2016 suggest that the former provide a plausible counterfactual for the latter, as there are no significant differences in deforestation in this pre-alert period (Supplementary Tables A3-A5). If we assume that time trends continue in a similar way across comparison groups in the absence of the alerts, then our results are not likely to be biased. There is no robust evidence of any impact of alert availability  on average or in any particular region (Fig. 2 and Supplementary Table A2). Results using the alternative outcomes of per cent forest loss and winsorized per cent forest loss are qualitatively similar to the binary outcome estimates (Supplementary Tables A6 and A7). As it is plausible that countries may take time to adapt to the availability of alerts, we also examine a specification with a 1 yr lag of alert availability (Supplementary Tables A8-A10). Although results from this specification are not statistically different from zero, the sign of the average effect switches to become negative.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    Most providers aspire to offer equal access to all contraceptive varieties in alignment with their patients' preferences. To do so, they employ a range of strategies to navigate and minimize potential bias that may undermine this goal—the most salient of which we found to be couching bias within scientific rationale, speaking about these risks using safe biases that avoid the explicitly raced and classed language, adopting standardized approaches, and employing patient-centered care. However, we find that providers' efforts to provide equitable care paradoxically perpetuate this bias.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    We investigate the first two years of implementation of the BERDO program with a particular focus on rule-making, the process through which the City of Boston developed rules and regulations for implementing and enforcing BERDO. We use a mixed-methods approach that combines 5 months of participant observation within the City of Boston's Environment Department, 20 interviews with city staff and community leaders involved in the implementation of BERDO and a systematic content analysis of over 200 policy documents related to rule-making. We find that policy implementation served as an important site of political contestation and resistance around climate justice. Contestations about justice, equity and fairness were mobilized by different actors to advance their interests in rule-making, ultimately shaping the implementation of BERDO itself. We provide insights into the complex challenges that cities may face as they begin to operationalize climate justice on the ground, and argue for a shift in scholarship to politicize policy implementation and reframe climate justice as a practice that continues beyond policy planning.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    Another note is that the carbon price only internalizes the carbon value, omitting other adverse side effects, such as unsustainable freshwater use, biodiversity loss51 or LUC in low-carbon ecosystems (such as savannahs). For instance, about 300 Mha of non-forest natural land is converted into cropland by 2100 in UCP, one third of that due to bioenergy (Extended Data Fig. 3). The EF does not capture N2 O emissions from fertilization of bioenergy crops52 or the impact on food prices53 and also ignores benefits from fossil fuel substitution. For example, we find that within the UCP policy framework, agricultural commodity prices increase sharply by 50-120% from 2010 to 2100 (higher values for pessimistic crop yield assumptions), with half of that being attributed to bioenergy (Extended Data Fig. 9). Furthermore, our results depend on techno-economic assumptions of BECCS and DACCS technologies. In particular, more optimistic assumptions on DACCS might reduce the demand for bioenergy. Lastly, it is noteworthy that the carbon price as an indicator of mitigation effort is not equivalent to total mitigation costs of a policy.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    From Fig. 1, we observe a clear decrease in EUI for audited (treatment) multifamily buildings in the post-audit period, when compared to non-audited buildings. For office buildings, there is a reduction in EUI for audited properties between the pre-audit and  intervention periods, after which EUI values between the control and treatment groups converge, with audited properties exhibiting greater uncertainty. Given higher initial average EUI, office buildings experience larger absolute decreases, on average, in energy use over time when compared to multifamily residential buildings. The ANOVA results, as shown in Table 1, demonstrate statistically significant coefficients for the interaction term (time period and intervention) for both office and multifamily buildings at the 95 and 90% confidence levels, respectively. Although these results suggest that audits do have an impact on energy use over time, they represent a relatively coarse quantification of the audit policy's impact because they do not account for other factors that could influence building energy use in the postaudit period. The Bayesian regression results discussed below account for both the effect of energy audits and the dynamic control variables that affect building energy use over time.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    Our results suggest that certain demographic groups are significantly more likely to adopt community solar than rooftop solar. Specifically, we find that community solar adopters in 11 states are about 6.1 times more likely to live in multifamily buildings, 4.4 times more likely to rent, and earn 23% less annual income than rooftop solar adopters, on average. These results suggest that community solar has expanded solar access by removing adoption barriers for renters and multifamily building occupants, and to a lesser extent for LMI households. We cautiously infer from these results that other alternative clean energy adoption models that remove such adoption barriers could similarly expand clean energy access. For instance, community wind programmes—though less common—could provide similar clean energy access benefits as community solar.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    The RD estimation provides a robust identification of the causal effects, which are, however, only local. We complemented it with an estimation of the heterogeneous impact of the primes by the number of thumbs up that customers receive (equation (3) in Methods). We obtained similar results: although the descriptive prime does not influence consumption on average (coefficient = 0.088, s.e. = 0.149, P = 0.554; Table 3, column 1), it led to a negative and statistically significant decrease in consumption among customers who received three thumbs up (coefficient = -0.959, s.e. = 0.284, P < 0.001; Table 3, column 4). This negative effect was persistent over 6, 12 and 18 months (Supplementary Note 4 and Supplementary Table 14). Interestingly, the effect of the descriptive prime on the entire group of customers who received three thumbs up is smaller than the RD estimates for the three versus two thumbs-up threshold combined with the descriptive prime. Although these simple heterogeneity results should be taken with caution, as thumbs up are correlated with customers' characteristics (Supplementary Table 10), they can be interpreted in light of our conceptual framework and suggest a potential determinant of the strength of descriptive information. The sample of customers who received three thumbs up includes the most efficient users, who are far from the three versus two thumbs-up threshold. The further customers are from the threshold, the larger the deviation between their own consumption and the average electricity use, and therefore, we argue, the larger the strength of the descriptive norm contained in the standard eHER. In other words, we suggest that in our setting conformity motives become more influential the further away individuals are from the descriptive norm.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    It has long been acknowledged that risk aversion could lead to a suboptimal investment in generation capacity9,11,12. However, prior studies do not demonstrate any consistent technological shift. In energy-only markets, peaking units face substantial risk due to their dependence on the occurrence of high prices in a small number of hours. At the same time, several authors emphasized the natural hedge enjoyed by gas generators, which often set the price of electricity13-16. The ability to trade risk is a key element of this discussion. With complete risk trading, along with the standard assumptions of competitive markets, an equilibrium would achieve the (risk-aware) social optimum17-20. The connection between equilibrium and optimum implies that the impact of risk aversion on the generation mix can be in any direction depending on the types of risk that most concern market participants. This theoretical result, however, depends on the presence of 'complete' markets, which include a security that corresponds to every possible future state of the world. In this context, our focus is less on incompleteness than on asymmetry: the introduction of a capacity market amounts to a trade against a subset of future world states that peaking plants are particularly concerned about. In the PJM interconnection (PJM), for example, a unit with a marginal cost of US$10 MWh-1 could expect to earn 17% of its operating profits from the capacity market, whereas a unit with a US$100 MWh-1 marginal cost could expect 90% (Supplementary Note 2). Along these lines, our results suggest a different interpretation of the natural hedge of gas. By itself, the hedge does not confer an advantage. It is only when combined with a capacity mechanism, which removes risk related to the frequency of scarcity events, that the hedge becomes an advantage.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    We find no statistically significant correlation between the size of either the oil and gas sector or the financial sector and re-risking scores. The central banks of economies with high exposure to stranded asset risks through either a large oil and gas sector and/or a large financial sector do not appear to engage more in re-risking than economies with low stranded asset risks.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    In many developing regions, cooking is still the most energy-intensive activity in homes. Figure 2 shows future total cooking energy demand by scenario. We see a decline in biomass use over time in all reference scenarios with a faster phase out under SSP1 compared with the other reference scenarios (Fig. 2a). Under the COVID scenario, we observe a much larger share of solid fuels, and higher total cooking energy demand because of the inefficiency of these fuels. This large COVID effect could result in an increase in biomass use until 2030, with a light rebound in 2040, when income levels are assumed to go back to the reference SSP3 trend. Climate mitigation policies could attenuate the transition away from polluting stoves by making oil and gas-based fuels more expensive. The higher prices could also result in lower average per capita final cooking energy  demand under the climate mitigation policy scenarios as compared with the reference scenarios and a much smaller proportion of gas in the cooking energy mix.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    Most documents provided evidence of only half of the linkages defining consistency (mean = 0.53, s.d. = 0.28). NAPs registered higher consistency scores than NDCs (P < 0.001, N = 15 and N = 53, respectively) with a narrower spread (Fig. 2e). Eleven documents were fully consistent, indicated by maximum consistency scores. These included 5 NDCs (less than 10%), that is, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Guinea, Sierra Leone and Uganda, and 6 NAPs (less than 50%), including Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Liberia, Madagascar and South Africa. Most often, countries link climate risk and impact assessment and action implementation (87% and 100% of NDCs and NAPs, respectively) (Fig. 4a,b). Less often, climate risk and impact assessment intentionally link to planning (72%, 87%) or planning to implementation (68%, 87%). MEL is the least consistent component across the adaptation cycle, partly due to indicators being featured less overall (see 'Coverage' section). Fewer documents provided linkages between climate risk and impact assessment and MEL (23%, 60%), suggesting a potential disconnect between assessments of climate risks and measurements of the impacts of adaptation on risk reduction. Less frequent linkages were also observed between planning and MEL (17%, 67%) and implementation and MEL (15%, 40%), as few documents included indicators explicitly linked to planned goals, objectives or actions (Extended Data Table 5).

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    Table 1 details the variables used in the study, with 30% reporting over three symptoms. The average age of respondents is 62 (SD ≈ 9 years). Socioeconomically, half have upper secondary/ vocational education, and the average household income is around EUR 33,000. Predominantly, women's childhood households had blue-collar breadwinners. Health-wise, 17% smoke; 40% drink weekly; current and childhood self-rated health averages are 2.97 and 3.26, respectively; and 10% had an illness before age 50. The standardized averages for defamilization and economic development exposure are .17 and 10.35, respectively.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    Finally, we examine the impact on local demographics. Because CBRS designations transfer the costs of development and disasters to state and local governments and property owners, the policy may attract homeowners who are more able to bear these costs. Using data from the American Community Survey, we find that CBRS designations increase median household income by US$15,000, or 19%, relative to control areas, and increase the rent-to-income ratio by 2 p.p., or 6%. Thus, CBRS areas tend to attract more affluent residents and have become less affordable for renters. Indeed, the CBRA raises the barrier to entry in designated areas by, for example, necessitating self-insurance against floods31,32. Other land-use regulations, such as the California coastal boundary zone, have led to similar demographic shifts29.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    Over the full 2000-2023 period, 80% of all reforms were price reforms and 20% were fixity reforms. This ratio changed over time. From 2000 to 2015, we found an average of just 0.024 new fixity reforms per country year. From 2016 to 2023, however, they occurred at a rate of 0.13 new reforms per country year, a fivefold increase. Fixity reforms accounted for most of the overall rise in the frequency of reforms after Paris. The advantages of fixity reforms are self-evident: floating prices are not automatically eroded by inflation, currency depreciation or global oil shocks. In theory, fixity reforms should be more durable than price reforms. In practice, governments found it politically difficult to allow prices to float, especially when world oil prices rose too far. As a result, fixity reforms were no more durable than price reforms. While fixity reforms were more likely than price reforms to survive in their first year, they were less likely to survive after 12 months. The mean duration of price reforms was 1.8 years, while the mean duration of fixity reforms was 1.5 years. By December 2023, when our data end, three countries still had floating prices in place: Myanmar, which is the poorest country in our sample; United Arab Emirates, which is the second wealthiest; and Nigeria, which falls near the middle. We discuss these cases below.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    Our analysis shows that in 2021, the average PCR of banks in the EU was substantially lower for high-carbon (1.8%) than low-carbon sectors (3.4%), as reported in Table 1. Such a difference has substantial implications for banks' return on capital and profitability, and therefore heavily influences management incentives and behaviours. Our analysis shows that this result is consistent for banks of different portfolio sizes and across countries of the banks' headquarters, with the only exception being Italy. Looking at the results by the size of banks, this effect is exacerbated for smaller financial institutions in absolute terms, but in relative terms, there is no correlation between the difference in PCR and bank size. This finding is also consistent across countries, regardless of the large variation in terms of absolute PCR between Nordic and Southern/ Eastern European regions.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    Another possibility is that policy preferences remain conditioned primarily by partisanship. We find that Conservative Party supporters are more likely than Liberal Party supporters to acknowledge having seen negative ads about carbon pricing and to report that these ads made them less supportive of this policy (Supplementary Section 18). Similarly, respondents who report having voted for the Conservative Party in the Fall 2019 election  were more likely to underestimate their rebates, even when exposed to information about their true rebate amount in our survey experiment (Supplementary Section 19). More broadly, in the two federal-tax provinces, supporters of the Liberal Party of Canada were three to eight times more likely to support the carbon tax than were Conservative Party supporters. Similarly, in Switzerland, left-leaning voters were 48% more likely to support rebates relative to right-leaning voters. In short, partisanship does structure both carbon tax preferences and patterns of rebate responsiveness.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    We found an array of marine-climate interventions being proposed, trialled and deployed globally (Table 2). Practitioners' awareness of novel marine-climate interventions varied substantially across the types and sub-types identified (Table 2). Overall, practitioners were most aware of interventions concerned with marine bioengineering and coastal and marine restoration. Awareness was highest for artificial habitat manipulation (79%, n = 332), a sub-type of marine bioengineering intervention, followed by regrowing targeted underwater species  (for example, coral and kelp), a sub-type of coastal and marine restoration intervention (76%). Other sub-types of interventions with elevated levels of awareness included regrowing targeted coastal species (for example, mangroves), assisted evolution of marine species (for example, coral hybridization) and natural stabilization of reefs and coasts (66%, 66% and 62%, respectively). By contrast, awareness of marine geoengineering interventions was low, with the notable exception of interventions to shade and cool water and habitat (40%). Awareness of marine socio-institutional capacity-building interventions was exceptionally low (4%) (Table 2).

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    We then simulate the impact of allocating each sector partially to the low-carbon and to the high-carbon cluster depending on their median share of CPRS found among banks in the European Union taking part in the EBA risk assessment exercise. This robustness analysis simulates a partial divestment of only the high-carbon portion of investments in each NACE level 1 and allows us to better investigate the heterogeneity of high-carbon/low-carbon sectors within each NACE level 1 section. This is because the underlying CPRS classification leverages a much more granular sectoral classification (NACE level 4), which better captures whether economic activities are high carbon or low carbon. Once again, we find that our main results persist. Moreover, our results are robust after controlling for different time periods. If we use quarterly average levels from March 2020 to June 2022 (maximum temporal depth of the data), the impacts are similar (100% increase in PCR, 33% increase in provisions, 14% impact on previous 5-years profits).

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    We developed a protocol (Supplementary Tables 2-4) and reviewed 53 NDCs and 15 NAPs available as of 30 September 2022 from which we extracted more than 7,000 data points on countries' intentions for adaptation. These include information on climate risk and impact assessment, planning, implementation and MEL (Box 1). Despite variation among countries and documents, our results show that most NAPs and NDCs provide only a fraction of the information required to enable adaptation tracking. Examination of the three criteria—coverage, consistency and robustness—identified pervasive gaps and opportunities for informing ongoing discussions on the GGA framework and opportunities to enhance depth and breadth of future NDCs and NAPs.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    Beyond seasonal effects, the need for heating and cooling can influence the daily use of electricity. The hot persistently dry grassland climate zone is the region that predominantly determines the all-regions result (Fig. 3b). It is the combination of the Central Australian climate zones shown in Fig. 1a. For this climate  zone, which unlike the other regions experiences cold nights, the households with the highest electricity use (top tenth percentile of average daily load) increased their electricity use by 30 kWh (on average) on the coldest of nights (between 0°C and 10 °C). The average increase was 17 kWh across all houses in this climate zone. Extremely hot days with average temperatures between 30°C and 40 °C corresponded to a 16-19 kWh increase (on average) for the households with the highest electricity use. When considering all houses, the average increase was 6-8 kWh.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    Both TOU rates resulted in bill increases for all participants (P = 0.000; Fig. 1, Tables 2 and 3 and Supplementary Note 1). The triple difference term TOUxVulnerablexPilot in each model gives the estimated effect of the TOU assignment for vulnerable individuals during the pilot year (Methods). As expected, households vulnerable on the disability indicator assigned to TOU1 (P = 0.011) or TOU2 (P = 0.022) and households vulnerable on the elderly indicator assigned to TOU2 (P = 0.001) saw greater baseline-topilot-year bill increases compared to non-vulnerable counterparts. Contrary to expectations, for households vulnerable on the lowincome (P = 0.012) and Hispanic indicators (P = 0.014), assignment to TOU2 versus control is associated with a smaller increase in bills relative to non-vulnerable households. Other groups (African American and young children) saw no difference in TOU assignment impacts versus their non-vulnerable counterparts. The remaining model terms primarily serve as controls, and are discussed in Supplementary Note 1.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    After adjusting for year and month; individual, county, and state characteristics; and state ICI, Central American- and Mexican-born individuals residing in states at delivery with a license law in place since the estimated date of conception had lower risks of preterm birth (fully adjusted relative risk [RR] = .90; 95% CI = [.89, .92]) and low birthweight birth (adjusted RR = .93; 95% CI = [.91,  .96]), a slight increase in mean birthweight (adjusted β = 5.2; 95% CI = [1.6, 8.7]), and lower probability of first-trimester prenatal care (adjusted RR = .98; 95% CI = [.97, .98]) compared to individuals residing in a state without a license law implemented prior to conception (Table 3). Additionally, varying the lag in the exposure (i.e., classifying individuals as exposed only if the law was in place 6, 12, 18, or 24 months prior to conception) did not change the results for first-trimester prenatal care (Table 4). For preterm birth, low birthweight, and mean birthweight, the estimated associations were slightly stronger the greater the lag time, with the greatest change occurring for birthweight.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    In addition to income, our analysis shows a clear urban-rural divide in fuel choice, with even richer households in rural areas likely to continue relying on solid fuels because of their easy access and the poor accessibility to cleaner alternatives. Indeed, as we can see from the example of CPA, there are stark differences in the choice of cooking fuels between urban and rural households even at the same income levels. We observed this in other regions of the world as well (Supplementary Fig. 3).

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    One source of flooding in this 'no local rain' situation can beattributed to the increased water levels in open channels causing thewell-known phenomenon of fluvial flooding (Fig. 1, FC1). Under thismechanism, the water levels exceed the confines of the riverbanks,and streamflow spills into floodplain areas. Additionally, simulatedresults show that runoff from the surrounding land areas (where rainfall occurs) can flow along roadways into the Warren area, leading to alocalized pluvial flooding (denoted by FC2 in Fig. 1). A third likely causeidentified is related to backwater surcharge through the stormwaterpipe network and the catch basins in source areas. Specifically, extremewater levels within open channels induce backwater flow at stormwateroutfalls, causing a substantial surge of reverse flow into topographicallyupstream source areas of the drainage system, leading to surcharge atmanholes and flooding in areas that did not experience rainfall. Thisflooding mechanism reflects concept FC3—infrastructure-inducedflooding that can impact areas distant from open channels.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    Summarizing the results of our statistical analysis, we find that the living situation of a household and its electricity consuming amenities as well as its income level and the number of children seem to play a role in whether a change from the reference scenario to a tariff scheme charging for peak demand is associated with benefits or additional burdens. Our results indicate that, ceteris paribus, households with higher income are better off when tariffs charging for measured peak demand are introduced. Among others, ref. 44 showed that photovoltaic panels in combination with home storage appliances reduce the peak loads of households significantly, while at the same time also reduce the volumes of electricity purchased via the grid. Higher-income households are likely to install photovoltaic panels and related peak-load-reducing equipment at higher rates than lower-income households45,46. Shifting the burdens of recovering network costs towards lower-income households may therefore become an even more pressing issue in the future.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    We compare normalized and adjusted monthly refill sales for PMUY and general consumers (see Methods). Figure 3 shows monthly sales from January 2016 to December 2018 (equally split between the pre-PMUY and post-PMUY period) normalized by the number of registered consumers. In recent months, PMUY refill sales have fluctuated around 100 cylinders per 1,000 consumers (suggesting rare use), while the monthly refill sales for general consumers is around 400 cylinders per 1,000 consumers. This suggests that average general consumers use LPG as a secondary or primary cooking fuel. Considering that the national (urban + rural) monthly average is about 600 cylinders per 1,000 consumers, there is considerable scope to encourage more regular use among general consumers in rural areas.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    Our simulations of loss-of-load events using climate data from 71 years shows that the 2021 event was a record one. In total, we estimate that eight other severe power deficit events would have occurred in the current system if it had existed from 1950 to 2021, assuming the climate conditions of 1950-2021 (Fig. 2). The second largest power deficit event at 1.26 TWh is predicted when using  climate data from 1983, assuming installed generation capacities as in February 2021. Furthermore, we observe 17 minor events. However, as the sum of the deficits of all 17 minor events is less than 1% of the sum of the deficits of the nine largest events, we exclude them from further analysis.In our model simulations, the loss-of-load event has a duration of 106 hours and causes an aggregated deficit of 1.49 TWh, at a peak capacity deficit of 31.3 GW. There are several events with similar peak capacity deficits identified in the 1950-2021 period, and also events with a comparably long duration, but none with a comparably high amount of loss of load. In the largest events before 2021 (1962 and 1983), 250 GWh less lost load results from our simulation (Fig. 2). The year 1989 was the last time a similar freeze event occurred.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    Figure 1 illustrates that battery system costs, broken down by source categories, may decline by 64% to 75% until 2050. We observe rapid and consistent cost reductions per annum (p.a.), with similar patterns for all source categories. We find cost reductions (CRs) of around 5% p.a. (scientific and others) to 6.5% p.a. (near market) until 2030 and 3.3-4.5% p.a. over an extended 2020-2050 period. Notably, near-market estimates (blue) are more optimistic, less heterogeneous and more stable compared with the other categories. This consolidates into expected cost estimates, where near-market estimates project a decrease from around €2020275 kWh-1 in 2020 to €2020140 kWh-1 by 2030 and around €202070 kWh-1 by 2050. In contrast, scientific estimates (green) indicate a drop from roughly €2020310 kWh-1 in 2020 to €2020180 kWh-1 by 2030 and around €2020100 kWh-1 by 2050. Other estimates (purple) also project more conservative progress, cutting €2020200 kWh-1 by 2030 and approximating €2020115 kWh-1 by 2050. The cross-category projection (black) closely aligns with scientific projections.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    Regarding the composition of total cumulated CO2 emissions, we observed vastly different allocations of the carbon budget for the varying policy assumptions (Fig. 3a). We found that a large fraction of  biomass is used in combination with CCS (58-95% in 2100), particularly when total production is reduced by a bioenergy tax (Extended Data Fig. 6). In the absence of comprehensive LU sector emission regulations, however, a large fraction of carbon dioxide removals (CDR) from BECCS is used to compensate the additional LUC emissions (Fig. 3b). Without LU mitigation, for instance, in 2100 only 15% of cumulated CDR from BECCS remain after subtracting bioenergy-induced LUC emissions. Before 2050, cumulated bioenergy-induced LUC emissions even exceed BECCS savings by far for all policy settings except UCP (Extended Data Fig. 5). Note that this only compares LUC emissions with direct CDR but does not account for fossil fuel substitution. While the substitution effect plays an important role in reducing emissions from fossil fuels, quantifying the avoided emissions attributed to the bioenergy part of BECCS is inherently ambiguous, as there are also other substitution options such as direct electrification in the integrated systems perspective.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    In Tables 2 and 3, R2 is consistently <0.10, which suggests that factors not included in the model contribute to bill variation. Regional fixed effects analysis confirms that changes in on-peak use predict bill changes (Supplementary Note 2 and Supplementary Tables 1-3).  In a separate triple difference analysis (parallel to the billing analysis (Methods)), we found that households vulnerable on the disability indicator saw a smaller decrease in on-peak use from baseline to pilot year when on TOU1 versus control, compared to their non-vulnerable counterparts; no differences were observed for other groups (Supplementary Tables 7 and 8; the mean on-peak use reported by group and time period is given in Supplementary Table 6).  Additionally, examining reported behavioural efforts to curtail on-peak air conditioning (AC) use (Table 4), low-income, young children, Hispanic and African American households reported a greater curtailment compared to their non-vulnerable counterparts, whereas households with elderly members reported less curtailment; no differences were observed for households with versus without a disability (Wilcoxon rank sum tests (Methods)).

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    We track two varieties of subsidy reform. The most common type is price reform, which we define as an increase in the nominal price of gasoline by 10% or more in local currency units in a single month. For robustness, we also track an alternative measure that indicates a nominal increase of 25% or more over 3 months (Extended Data Fig. 5). Price reform ends (or 'fails') if the subsidy returns to its pre-reform level, which can happen through two mechanisms: the government may explicitly reverse the price increase, a process we call backtracking; or the government may maintain the post-reform price, but its value disappears through inflation, a falling exchange rate or rising global oil prices. We refer to the latter process as erosion. The second type is fixity reform, which occurs when a government stops using fixed prices and subsidies altogether, allowing gasoline prices to fluctuate in response to changing oil prices for at least three consecutive months. A fixity reform can fail in two ways: if the government reimposes fixed prices for three or more consecutive months; or if the government interferes with the market price to restore a substantial subsidy (which we define as a subsidy exceeding 20 cents per litre in constant 2015 US dollars) for three consecutive months.

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    The main drivers of green hydrogen costs are electricity prices and electrolyser investment costs (Fig. 5a-d). For electrofuels produced from green hydrogen and renewable carbon, these two factors dominate the overall costs (Extended Data Fig. 5g-l). Although electrolyser investment costs have recently surged1,17, this trend is expected to reverse soon due to learning by doing and economies of scale. Note again that to estimate the volume of required subsidies, we considered a scenario where all project announcements until 2030 are realized on time, while after 2030, cost reductions are driven by the median electrolysis capacity in 1.5 °C scenarios (Methods and Supplementary Fig. 11). This leads to rapidly falling electrolyser costs (Supplementary Fig. 12). We used a payback period of 15 years to calculate the levelized costs (Methods), as well as to estimate the required subsidies (Extended Data Fig. 3); this period represents the typical length of implemented policy support such as auctions42 and is therefore more relevant for investment decisions than the technical lifetime. Our 2030 levelized costs of green hydrogen (LCOHs) are consistent with recent studies (Extended Data Fig. 4).

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).


Question:
You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the research findings.

    Summarize the specific findings using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:
    - Clearly state the result(s) presented in the passage
    - Use plain and direct language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)
    - Focus only on what is present in the passage

    Scientific Text:
    Results in Table 3 differentiate between diagnosed upper-SES children who did versus did not receive medication following diagnosis. Results are consistent with hypothesis 3 on two of the three outcomes and run counter to hypothesis 4. Among diagnosed upper-SES children, ADHD diagnosis is associated with poorer approaches to learning and externalizing problems irrespective of medication use, but is only significantly tied to poorer academic self-competence for those who are receiving medication. Among middle-SES children, diagnosis is tied to poorer outcomes on all three measures irrespective of medication receipt. Specifically, both “diagnosed and medicated” and “diagnosed and unmedicated” upper-SES children respectively exhibit .46 points (.67 SD) and .30 points (.43 SD) significantly poorer positive approaches to learning in fifth grade than their undiagnosed counterparts (model 1). They also respectively exhibit .18 points (.32 SD) and .38 points (.67 SD) significantly poorer externalizing problems in fifth grade (model 4). Similarly, both “diagnosed and medicated” and “diagnosed and unmedicated” middle-SES children respectively exhibit .31 points (.41 SD) and .42 points (.56 SD) significantly poorer positive approaches to learning (model 2) and .17 points (.26 SD) and .20 (.31 SD) significantly worse externalizing problems than their undiagnosed matches (model 5).

    Summary:

Answer: None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).