Polity.Name,Polity.Date.From,Polity.Date.To,Crisis.Case,Crisis.Period,decline,collapse,epidemic,downw.mob,extermination,uprising,civil.war,century.plus,fragmentation,capital,conquest,assassin,depose,Severity,Notes,References, 
Sassanid Empire,499,642,Muslim conquest of the Sasanian Empire,VII c,1,0,1,1,0,0,1,0,1,1.inf,1,1,1,9,"Ruler killed: Khosrow II deposed and executed by nobles in 628 (Shapur Shahbazi 2005). After that, the empire disintegrated: ""A plague devastated western provinces killing [Khosrow II's son] Šērōya and half of the population"" (Shapur Shahbazi 2005). Coded for population decline, though I have not found precise figures. Fragmentation: ""The highest aristocracy gained full independence, each carving a state for himself within the empire"" (Shapur Shahbazi 2005). External conquest: Sasanian Empire conquered by Arab armies (Shapur Shahbazi 2005). Some elite downward mobility seems likely but the old Sasanian elite was not exterminated or dispossessed fully: ""Sasanian soldiers and local notables who defected to the Muslims, possibly as a consequence of local conflicts, secured a position in the new regime. Notables who survived by virtue of agreements they made for tribute during the conquest collected it in their own districts"" (Morony 1986).","Morony 1986: M. Morony. 1986. �Arab ii. Arab conquest of Iran, Encyclopaedia Iranica, II/2, pp. 203-210, available online at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arab-ii (accessed on 26 January 2021). $ Shapur Shahbazi 2005: A. Shapur Shahbazi, �Sasanian Dynasty, Encyclopedia Iranica, online edition, 2005, available at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sasanian-dynasty (accessed on 26 January 2021).",
French Kingdom - Late Bourbon,1660,1788,French Revolution,XVIII c,1,0,1,1,1,1,1,0,0,1,0,1,0,8,"The causes of the French Revolution are agreed to have been social, political and economic issues which the Ancien Regime were unable to rectify and manage. It began in 1789 with the Estates General, an assembly representing the estates of the realm: the clergy (First Estate), the nobility (Second Estate), and the commoners (Third Estate), which had been called to discuss the financial crisis but fell into debate about it's own structure of governance. The Third Estate formed the independant National Assembly to protest the voting by power rather than by head (as they had double the representation but was not counted as such) against the wishes of King Louis XVI, which signalled the beginning of the French Revolution. Members of the First and Second Estates later joined them and it was converted to the National Constituents Assembly on 9th July 1789 though Louis XVI attempted to shut down the assembly. This was followed by the Storming of the Bastille on 14th July 1789 , the armoury, fortress and political prison which represented royal authority and to the rebels, the abuse of the monarchy's power. After this French nobles and royalty began to leave France as émigrés. Revolts and panic known as the Great Fear spread across the country while 'popular sovereignty' became widespread and parallel structures of civic goverment and militias began to be established. At the same time, Paris and the north of France suffered an outbreakof influenza. The National Constituents Assembly passed the August Decrees between 4-11 August 1789, several radical reforms with strong support from the public which included the right to vote for tax-paying men over the age of 25 years, the abolition of feudalism, and the end of the exemption of taxes of nobles, essentially abolishing the Ancien Régime. In November 1790 the church was brought under state control. By 1790 the Bastille had been demolished. During this period France also suffered the breakout of the French Revolutionary Wars which pitted France against Great Britain, Austria, the Holy Roman Empire, Prussia, Russia, and were divided in two periods: the War of the First Coalition (1792-97) and the War of the Second Coalition (1798-1802). The First French Republic was formed on 21st September 1792 and officially abolished the monarchy in France. Louis XVI was put on trial for crimes of high treason, convicted on 16th January 1793 and executed on the 21st January, shortly followed by the execution of his wife, Marie Antoinette. In the same year the Reign of Terror began amid anticlerical sentiments, rebellions against conscription, and ongoing food riots and mass hunger. to eradicate counter-revolutionaires. By the time the Terror ended in July 1794, around 17,000 peoplehad been executed and an estimated 10,000 more died in prison. Royalist and Jacobin revolts ensued in the following years. The Revolution ended with the formation of the French Consulate, the new government of France, in November 1799.","Richard Cobb and Colin James. The French Revolution. Voices From a Momentous Epoch 1789-1795. $ M. J. Sydenham. 1965. The French Revolution. London: B. T. Batsford Ltd. $ Simon Schama. 1989. Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution.  $ Livesey, James (2001). Making Democracy in the French Revolution. Harvard University Press. $ Doyle, William. 1990. The Oxford History of the French Revolution (2002 ed.). Oxford University Press. $",
Valois France,1328,1449,Hundred Years' War,XIV-XV c,1.inf,0,1,1,0,1,1,1,1,0,1,0,0,8,"The Hundred Years' War between England (House of Plantagenet) and France (House of Valois) began due to disputes over the claim to the French throne. There were in fact three seperate wars which were broken by periods of truce: the Edwardian War (1337-1360), the Caroline War (1369-1389), and the Lancastrian War (1415-1453). The House of Valois were ultimately victorious and kept control over France. The Black Death (bubonic and pneumonic plague) hit both France and England in 1348 during the Edwardian Wars, which killed an estimated one-third to a half of both populations. The resulting decline in population and resource production after the plague led to revolts in both rural and urban areas due to the fianancial reforms and taxes that the crown imposed to make up for the loss of revenue. During the Lancastrian War, Henry V of England invaded and conquered Normandy in 1415 and secured himself as heir to the French throne in the Treaty of Troyes of 1420 (which passed on to his son Henry VI). However in 1429 the Valois claimant Charles VII of France regained his positions and drove the English out of all of their French territories, except Calais, between 1449-1453. Charles VII (r.1422-1461 CE) began the process to modernize the crown-instituting reforms to change the government from a feudal to bureaucratic system, which was continued by his successor, Louis XI (r.1461-1483 CE)","Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. $ Watts, Sheldon. 1997. Epidemics and History: Disease, Power, and Imperialism. New Haven; London: Yale University Press. $ Kohn, George C. 2001. Encyclopedia of plague and pestilence: from ancient times to the present. New York: Facts on File $ Ann Curry. The Hundred Years War, 1337-1453. In John Andreas Olsen and Colin S. Gray (eds.) The Practice of Strategy: From Alexander the Great to the Present. Oxford: Oxford University Press.",
Valois-Bourbon France,1450,1588,French Wars of Religion,XVI-XVII c,1,0,1,1,1,1,1,0,0,1,0,1,0,8,"The French Wars of Religion took place during the reign of Charles IX (r.1560-1574) and then the regency of his mother Queen Catherine de' Medici, and were a series of conflicts fought between the Catholics and Huguenots (Reformed/Calvinist Protestants). The majority of the conflicts revolved around the succession for the throne of France, which pitted the wealthy and ambitious Catholic ducal House of Guise (supported by Habsburg Spain and the Duchy of Savoy) against the House of Condé, a branch of the House of Bourbon, who were princes of blood but were Calvanist sympathisers and less wealthy (supported by Tudor England). In total there were seven wars and many more targetted massacres during this period. Several peace treaties which punctuated the wars granted significant religious freedoms and privileges to the Huguenots. As the royal capital, Parisian citizens suffered considerably during the wars as the rulers imposed taxes on them to support themselves and their battles, as well as a huge number of troops stationed at the city, which led to famines and later epidemic diseases such as Diptheria in 1576 and Whooping Cough 1579 among other illnesses that affected a highly populated and unsanitary city. During the War of the Three Henrys (1587-1589) King Henry III had Henry of Guise murdered (some believed assasinated as at this point he was a choice for king) and he joined forces with his cousin, the  Huguenot, King Henry of Navarre (House of Bourbon). In response the Catholic League incitied violence against the king and in July 1589 Henry III was assasinated by a friar. Henry of Naverre succeeded to the French throne as Henry IV, which was followed immideately by a four year civil war against the Catholic League who recognised Henry's cardinal uncle, Charles of Bourbon, as the rightful heir. Henry IV, held the south and west of France, and the Catholic League the north and east, including Paris. However when Charles died in 1590 and Henry converted to Catholicism in 1593, as he recognised that he needed to reunite the kingdom and simply could not as a Protestant, he was recognised across the kingdom as king and conflicts ceased. It is estimated that three million people died from the violence of the conflicts, famine or disease during this period.","Knecht, R.J. 1989. The French Wars of Religion, 1559-1598. Longman. $  Knecht, R.J.  2001. The Rise and Fall of Renaissance France, 1483-1610. Oxford: Blackwell. $ Buisseret, David. 1990. Henry IV, King of France. New York: Routledge. $  Baird, Henry M. (1886). The Huguenots and Henry of Navarre (2 volumes). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. $ Holt, Mack P. (2005). The French Wars of Religion, 1562-1629. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press $ Kohn, George C. 2001. Encyclopedia of plague and pestilence: from ancient times to the present. New York: Facts on File. 294.",
Ilkhanate,1263,1335,Fall of the Ilkhanate,XIV c,1,0,1,1,1,0,1,0,1,U.susp,0,1,1,8,"Civil war over the succession after the death of the ruler Abū Saʿīd in 1335 (Wing 2007: 77-82). He was allegedly poisoned by his wife and her ex-husband (Lane 2012: 265). The Ilkhanate disintegrated and the Chinggisid elite lost their authority to military governors (Hope 2016: 196): coded for elite extermination, though more reading on this would be helpful. Epidemic: Black Death struck the region after Abū Saʿīd's death. This new strain of Yersinia pestis ""'seeded' a new reservoir of plague that broke out devastatingly in the western Mongol territories (the Ilkhanate and the Golden Horde), causing plague outbreaks from at least 1346 in Tabriz, Azerbaijan, Saray, Khorazm, and, of course, in Caffa"" (Green 2018). Inferred population decline from mention of epidemics and warfare in this period (Green 2018; Wing 2007: 16). After Abū Saʿīd, ""No one had general control or widespread acknowledgement of legitimacy"" (Morgan 2009: 433).","Green 2018: Green, Monica H. 2018. �Climate and Disease in Medieval Eurasia. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History. June 25, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.013.6. $ Hope 2016: Hope, Michael. 2016. Power, Politics, and Tradition in the Mongol Empire and the Ilkhanate of Iran. Power, Politics, and Tradition in the Mongol Empire and the Ilkhanate of Iran. Oxford: Oxford University Press. $ Lane 2012: Daryaee, Touraj, and George E. Lane, eds. 2012. �The Mongols in Iran. In The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. $ Morgan 2009: Morgan, David. 2009. �The Decline and Fall of the Mongol Empire. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 19 (4): 427-37. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1356186309990046. $ Wing 2007: Wing, Patrick. 2007. �The Decline of the Ilkhanate and the Mamluk Sultanate's Eastern Frontier. Mamluk Studies Review 11 (2): 77-88.",
Inca Empire,1400,1531,Inca decline and civil war,XVI c,1,1,1,1,0,0,1,0,0,1,1,1,0,8,"Inca decline, civil war, Spanish conquest. Population collapse, in large part due to introduction of smallpox, measles and other diseases (Cook 2004: 62, 114). Estimates for the pre- and postconquest population of Peru vary, but Cook (2004: 114) argues for a figure of 9 million before the Spanish arrival, falling to 1 million within 50 years and 600,000 by 1620. Civil war between the Inca nobility (Rowe 2015). Elite downward mobility but not extermination: Spanish officials replaced Andean nobles in many areas, but because the European population was initially low, the Spanish relied on indigenous elite to rule the population (Covey 2020: 351-2, 418; Nair 2007: 53). Ruler assassinated: Atahuallpa executed on Pizzarro's orders (Covey 2020: 253). The Inca Empire collpased abruptly at the beginning of the sixteenth century. Smallpox, introduced by European invaders, was already raging throughout the empire. When the Sapa Inka, Huayna Khapaq, died of smallpox in 1528, his sons both claimed the throne, throwing the empire into civil war. Many elites died due to the epidemic and so there was chaos, competition and internal conflicts between them. Many potential candidates for Inca were often put in place by their mothers, the elite 'chosen women' of the court. This also led to these individuals seeking military support and making deals with the Spaniards who arrived in 1532, which led to further conflicts and outbreaks of smallpox. The Inca empire had been so weakened by disease and war, that they were conquered in just a few years.",Personal Communication with Alan Covey 19/09/22,
"Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty",1776,1917,Russian Revolution,XX c,1,0,0,1,1,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,0,8,"The Russian Revolution began during World War I in the former Russian Empire. It consisted of two revolutions, the first with the overthrow of imperial governement and the fall of the Romanov dynasty in 1917 and secondly in 1923 when the Soviet Union was established by the Bolsheviks. The Russian Army had mutinied after major losses during the war, and parliament established the  Russian Provisional Government which had the interests of the elite classes in mind, while grassroots socialist movements led the lower classes and increasingly leftist urban middle classes, resulting in a dual power in the country. The period was rife with mutinies, protests and strikes. Unable to supress the revolution, Tsar Nicholas II, abdicated on behalf of himself and his son and heir. Nicolas and his family were imprisoned and sent into exile in Siberia by the Provisional Governement. In 1917 the October Revolution saw armed citizens and soldiers overthrow the Provisional Government and Soviets took power. the capital was relocated to Moscow. Nicolas and his family were all executed on 17th July 1918 while being held under house arrest in  Yekaterinburg. A federal government was established, which reorganised Russia into a socialist state, practicing soviet democracy. They fulfilled their promise to end participation in the war with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918. The Cheka, a secret police force, was formed to find and punish those who opposed the new government. Religion was banned and members of the Russian Orthodox Church were persecuted. The Russian Civil War broke out between the Bolsheviks (The Reds) and counter-revolutionaries (The Whites) and rival socialist parties on 7th November 1917 and lasted until the overall Bolshevik victory in 1923 when they reconstituted themselves as the Communist Party. There was an estimated 7-12 million casulites during the war.","King, Charles (2008). The Ghost of Freedom: A History of the Caucasus. New York City: Oxford University Press. $ King, Charles (2008). The Ghost of Freedom: A History of the Caucasus. New York City: Oxford University Press. $  Wallace, Donald Mackenzie . 1910. ""Alexander II (1818-1881)"". The Encyclopaedia Britannica. 1: pp159-61 $ David Moon, The Abolition of Serfdom in Russia: 1762-1907 (2001) pp 70-83. $ Terence Emmons and Wayne S. Vucinich, eds. The Zemstvo in Russia: An Experiment in Local Self-Government (Cambridge UP, 1982). $ Terence Emmons and Wayne S. Vucinich, eds. The Zemstvo in Russia: An Experiment in Local Self-Government (Cambridge UP, 1982). $ Terence Emmons and Wayne S. Vucinich, eds. The Zemstvo in Russia: An Experiment in Local Self-Government (Cambridge UP, 1982). $ Saunders, Russia in the Age of Reaction and Reform 1801-1881 (1992) pp 250-52, 257-58 $  Seton-Watson, Hugh. The Russian Empire 1801-1917 (Oxford UP, 1967) pp 332-429.",
Late Illinois Confederation,1717,1778,"French-British colonization, attacks by Haudenosaunee, internal conflict",XVIII c,1,1,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,0,1,0,U.susp,8,"In 1717, Illinois territory was incorporated into the French colony of Louisiane, claiming the region as part of their North american possessions. The Illinois Country became split administratively into two different 'regimes': the Domaine du Roi, the area around the French settlements where French law applied, and the larger 'Indian country', where the Illinois and other groups largely maintained their sovereignty. In 1763, at the end of the Seven Years' War, France ceded the part of their Louisiana colony that lay east of the Mississippi to the British. The Illinois resisted British incursions into the region for several years but the British eventually managed to occupy Fort de Chartres, the main French military and administrative centre. In 1765, they too were unseated by the Virginia militiaman, George Rogers Clark, who in 1778 also captured the British-held fort of Kaskaskiaa following a Revolutionary War skirmish. The Illinois suffered drastic population losses in the post-contact period, falling from around 12,000 people in 1680, to 1,900 by 1763, and to just a village of about 300 people by 1778. This was largely due to epidemic diseases brought to their lands by Europeans as well as the ongoing warfare with both Europeans and other tribes.","Warren, Robert E., and John A. Walthall. 1998. ""Illini Indians in the Illinois Country 1673-1832."" The Living Museum 60 (1): 4-8. $ Illinois State Museum. 2000. ""The Illinois Indians: Society: Neighbors: The British."" MuseumLink Illinois. http://www.museum.state.il.us/muslink/nat_amer/post/htmls/soc_british.html $ Hauser, Raymond E. 2015. ""Illinois."" In Colonial Wars of North America, 1512-1763: An Encyclopedia, edited by Alan Gallay, 299-300. Abingdon: Routledge. $ Rogers, Gerald A. (2009). The Changing Illinois Indians under European Influence: The Split between the Kaskaskia and Peoria. West Virginia University. $ Sweatman, Dennis (2010). ""Comparing the Modern Native American Presence in Illinois with Other States of the Old Northwest Territory"". Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society. 103 (3/4): 252-315 $",
Austro-Hungarian Monarchy,1918,1938,"World Wars, First Austrian Republic",XX c,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,0,0,0,1,7,"Population decline: from 6.61 million in 1910 to 6.46 million in 1920, based on modern country boundaries (Clio Infra 2016). Epidemic: many, including typhus, typhoid fever, smallpox, cholera (all peaking in 1915), dysentery (1917) and the Spanish flu of 1918 (Schmied-Kowarzik 2016). Elite downward mobility: ""during the interwar years the Austrian and German gentry were dispossessed, and a modern capitalist class and proletariat began to form"" (Eyal et al. 1998: 25). The Habsburgergesetz of 1919 abolished the system of noble titles and privileges in Austria, but the nobles were not exterminated. Revolution and reorganization: foundation of the Republic in 1918, though historians disagree about how transformative it was (Stangl n.d.). Civil war between right- and left-wingers in 1934 (City of Vienna n.d.). Fragmentation: breakup of Austro-Hungarian Empire,  various regions declared independence but control of some territory passed to existing external powers, e.g. Kingdom of Romania (Schmied-Kowarzik 2016; Mutschlechner n.d.). Dated to 1934 and fall of First Austrian Republic","Eyal et al. 1998: Eyal, Gil, Ivan Szelenyi, and Eleanor R. Townsley. 1998. Making Capitalism Without Capitalists: Class Formation and Elite Struggles in Post-Communist Central Europe. London: Verso. $ Clio Infra 2016: https://clio-infra.eu/Indicators/TotalPopulation.html",
Later Jin,1127,1234,Unrest & flooding,XIII c,1.inf,0,0,0,1,1,1,0,0,0,1,1,1,7,"This period was marked by decades of warfare with the Southern Song and Mongols, rebellions, and assasination, as well as economic inflation and flooding. Wanyan Liang usurped the throne and came to power in 1150, which was shortly followed by unrest and war. Liang killed Jurchen nobles and 155 princes to supress any dissent against him. In 1161 he attacked the Southern Song dynasty in an attempt to gain control over the entire of China, though this was unsuccessful. At the same time two rebellions were raised; one by Liang's cousin, Wanyan Yong, and the other by the Khitan tribe. At this point Liang was forced to pull back troops from the south in order to quell the uprisings and the Song defeated the remaining troops in battle. Liang and his son were assasinated by his own generals in 1161. In the same year Wanyan Yong became Emperor Shizong. The Khitan rebellion was not fully supressed until 1164 and due to the weakened military, a peace negotiation with the Southern Song was established. This led to 40 years of peace which was broken in 1207 by the Song with an attempted invasion, though they were repelled by the Jin. the the beginning of the thirteenth century, after being vassals of the Jin for centuries, the Mongols under Ghengis Khan began to attack Jin terrority. This culminated in the invasions of Jin in 1211, when Khitan and Jurchen rebels were absorbed into the Mongols, and victories were won over the Jin armies. This led to twenty years of violence at the hands of the Mongols who won overall victory and ended the Jin dynasty in 1234.","Dorothy Perkins. 1999. Encyclopedia of China. New York: Routledge.$ Beck, Sanderson. ""Liao, Xi Xia, and Jin Dynasties 907-1234"". China 7 BC To 1279.",
Ming Dynasty,1368,1643,Fall of the Ming Dynasty,XVII c,1,0,1,0,0,1,1,0,0,1,1,0,1,7,"The Battle of Shanhai Pass on 27th May 1644 was the decisive battle that led to the eventual fall of the Ming Dyansty and the beginning of the Qing dynasty rule in China. The conquest of the entire of China by the Qing took several decades until the supression of the Three Feudatories rebellion in 1683 when the south was finally captured. Epidemic plague ravaged the country in the 1640s which was closely followed by a severe famine. These disasters led to a massive population decline, with some cities such as Hangzhou suffering up to a 50% loss of its people. Peasant rebellions became rife in the 1640s and in 1644 rebels breached the walls of Bejing, leading the emperor to commit suicide. The Little Ice Age is likely to have contributed to the Ming fall as it caused droughts and famine across China in what was the coldest and driest period of 1660-1680. Revolution: unsuccessful revolution involving non-soldiers, supressed by Manchu who then took over","Xiao, Lingbo, Xiuqi Fang, Jingyun Zheng, and Wanyi Zhao. Famine, Migration and War: Comparison of Climate Change Impacts and Social Responses in North China between the Late Ming and Late Qing Dynasties. Holocene 25, no. 6 (June 2015) $ Smith, Richard J. (2015). The Qing Dynasty and Traditional Chinese Culture. Rowman & Littlefield. $ Brook, Timothy (1999). The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China (illustrated, reprint ed.). University of California Press.",
Qin Empire,-338,-207,Civil unrest and the collapse of the Empire,III c bce,0,0,0,1,0,1,1,0,0,1,1,1,1,7,"Between 210-207 BCE rebellions were raised all over China against the new (second) Qin Emperor, Qin Er Shi, due to his incompetence, overspending and tyranny. The chancellor Zhao Gao forced Qin Er Shi to commit suicide, though upon his acesension to the throne, Ziying, a nephew of Qin Er Shi, immediately had Zhao Gao executed. The third and final ruler of the Qin dynasty, Ziying (posthumously Emperor Shang of Qin), held power for just 46 days from October-December 207 BCE, amidst popular uprisings, until he was attacked and defeated in battle, and later executed by the rebel leader Xiang Yu. The Qin dynasty was overthrown, the capital was destroyed, and the Chu state was restored.","Bodde, D. 1986. The state and empire of Ch'in, in D. Twitchet and M, Loewe, eds. The Cambridge History of China Volume 1: The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC-AD 220. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 20-102.",
Tang Dynasty,763,907,Fall of the Tang Dynasty,VIII-IX c,0,0,0,1,1,0,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,7,"Towards the end of the Tang dynasty, control over the empire had largely been passed to regional states. In 901 CE members of one of the autonomous states, the Liang family, led by Zhu Wen seized the capital and the royal family members. He assasinated Emperor Zhaozong and put his young son, Ai on the throne, keeping control for himself. In the years that followed he killed Ai's brothers and mother along with many officials. In 907 Zhu deposed the Emperor Ai (who he had poisoned a year later) and made himself Emperor, establishing the Later Liang dynasty.","Mote, Frederick W. 2003. Imperial China: 900-1800, UK: Harvard University Press $ Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. 2006. East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, Boston: Houghton Mifflin $ Roberts, J. A. G. 1996. A History of China. Volume I. Prehistory to c1800. Alan Sutton Publishing Limited. Phoenix Mill.",
Plantagenet England,1144,1485,Wars of the Roses,XIV-XV c,1.inf,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,0,0,0,1,1,7,"The Wars of the Roses was a series of dynastic civil wars between the English houses of Lancester and York, both of which claimed descendancy through the sons of Edward III who had died in 1377. The Lancastrians had occupied the throne since 1399, however, the reign of Henry VI (first reign 1422-1461, second reign 1470-1471) saw political and royal instability as he suffered from mental illnesses, and was generally considered a weak leader and pliable king, who was dominated by his wife, Margaret of Anjou and his top advisor, Duke of Somerset. Poor leadership, broken treaties and battles with France had lost England almost all territory in France and left English forces weak and disparate.  While Henry VI was suffering a complete mental breakdown the Lord Chancellor, Cardinal John Kemp died in March 1454, however as Henry was unable to name a successor, the governement could not function under constitutional law. A Regency Council was created and Richard of York - second cousin to Henry VI and a powerful member of the nobility who had a competing claim to the throne - was made Lord Protector. Richard of York removed Somerset from his position due to his failures in France, and imprisoned him in the Tower of London. In 1455 Henry made a recovery, freed Somerset, and exile Richard from court. From this point there were constant skirmishes between the Lancastrian and York armies and a power struggle between Henry VI, who was constantly captured and recaptured by the opposing sides,  and Richard of York, who had made his ambitions to rule clear and was backed by any powerful allies. But in a battle in 1460 Richard was killed and his eldest son, Edward, inherited the Dukedom of York and with it the claim to the throne. Edward was popular and considered a good choice for king (especially in contrast to Henry VI who was physically and mentally frail) and after a victorious battle Edward, along with his closest advisor and cousin, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick ('The Kingmaker') marched to London where he was proclaimed Edward IV of England 4th March 1461. On 28th March the largest and bloodiest battle in England's history was fought between the two sides which resulted in a decisive victory for Edward IV and broke the Lancastrian troops in the north with the majority of their leaders either being killed or fleeing into exile. Edward IV was confirmed the uncontested ruler of England. He secretly married Elizabth Woodville, a non-royal who was the widow of a Lancastrian noble, while Warwick had been in negotiations with France for a marriage between Edward and the king's daughter. This caused damage to Warwick's reputation and relationship with Edward, while the Woodville family became increasingly powerful at court. This was despised by many royals including Warwick, and Edwards brother George, Duke of Clarence, who was attempting to secure a marriage contract with Warwick's daughter Isabel Neville, which Edward denied. Warwick instead had them married secretly in France and it became clear that he wished to deposed Edward, put George on the throne and keep power for himself. In a complete reversal, Warwick then joined forces with Margaret of Anjou, married his other daughter Anne Neville to her son Edward of Westminster and raised a rebellion against Edward IV. Edward was forced to flee to Flanders with his brother Richard, and was dethroned, while Henry was restored to the throne with Warwick in full control, and George was made Duke of York. However in-fighting was rife on the now Lancastrian-Warwick side, given the deaths that had come of so many in previous battles at the hands of Warwick, and George who had now become politcally disadvantaged on both sides decided to defect back to his brother. Edward raised his army, and despite Warwick being severly weakened without Margaret's troops, the two met in battle on 14th April 1417, where Warwick was killed, his troops destroyed and Edward was reinstated as king. Henry was once again imprisoned in the Tower of London. A final unsuccessful campaign by Margaret of Anjou saw her imprisoned, her son Edward of Westminster killed in battle, and afterward Henry VI died, though it is generally believed that Edward IV ordered his murder to quell further uprisings. In the years that followed George continued to abuse his power and fell out of favour with Edward, while Richard married Anne Neville. The two brothers had acquired many rich estates through their marriages which were untouchable by Edward as they were not gifted by him, but inherited through Warwick. Eventually George's bad favour and persistent rumours that he was plotting to revolt against Edward led to his imprisonment and execution in February 1478. Meanwhile, Richard who had always been loyal to Edward, had become a powerful and popular noble, particularly in the north and York. Edward fell ill in 1483 but before he died he named Richard as Lord Protector to act as regent over his twelve year old son and successor, Edward, until he came of age. There was backlash from the Woodville family who had thought they would look after the young king and Elizabeth sent her brother, Anthony with the king and an escort of 2,000 men to London, even though Richard had intended to escort the king. With support from powerful nobles, Richard had Anthony and their brother Richard Grey, and chamberlain Thomas Vaughan sent north and despite promises, he later had them executed in June 1483. In the meantime he had Edward and his younger brother, Richard of Shrewbury made residents of the Tower of London and kept stalling on Edward's coronation despite the king's councillors urging him to do so. Richard later accused Lord chamberlain the Baron of Hastings, a staunch supporter of Edward, of treason and had him executed, and he believed rumours that Edward IV and Elizabeth Woodville's married was void and therefore Edward V and his siblings would be illigetimate. So, on 22nd June, the date on which Edward V was supposed to be coronated, Richard ordered a sermon to be preached ourside St Paul's cathedral which declared him the righful king and he was crowned Richard III on 6th July 1983. During this time, the princes in the tower had not been seen and had disappeared by the time of Richards coronation. Their fate remains a mystery but it is widely believed that Ricahrd had them murdered to cement his claim to the throne. Betrayed, alone and stripped of her titles and power, Elizabeth Woodville attempted to ally with the Lancastrian Margaret Beaufort, whose son was a great-great-great-grandson of Edward III and so had a tenous claim to the throne, which Woodville proposed to be strengthened if he married her own daughter, Elizabeth. With this alliance and many disaffected nobles abandoning Richard, Henry's claim was supported and he raised an army from Brittany where he had been exiled for protection since Edward IV had regained the throne in 1471. The first uprising was unsuccessful and Henry was forced to retreat back to France. However, Charles VIII of France supported his claim, gave him refuge and resources to prepare for a second attack. In the meantime King Richard's wide, Anne Neville, dies and rumours spread that she had been murdered so that Richard could marry his niece, Elizabeth and stop the Tudor plans. Finally the Tudor forces from both England and France gathered against Richard's army on 22 August 1485 at the Battle of Bosworth, where Richard's army was decisively defeated. King Richard was killed in battle and Henry claimed the throne by the right of conquest. Shortly after he and his troops arrived back in London, the 'Sweating Sickness' broke out - possibly brought back from being spread at the battlefield - which killed thousands of people by late October. Many people believed that the sickness was sent by God as punishment for supporting Henry's reign. Regardless, he was crowned Henry VII of England on 30th October 1485. He married Elizabeth of York on 18th January 1486, which united the houses of Lancaster and York as their children would be descendants of both dynasties.","Webster, Bruce (1998). The Wars Of The Roses. Routledge. $ Pollard, A. J. (2001), Pollard, A. J. (ed.), ""The Causes of the Wars"", The Wars of the Roses, British History in Perspective, London: Macmillan Education UK. 41-67. $ Grummitt, David (30 October 2012). A Short History of the Wars of the Roses. I.B. Tauris. $ Carpenter, Christine (1997). The Wars of the Roses: Politics and the Constitution in England, c. 1437-1509. Cambridge University Press. $ Roberts, L (1945). ""Sweating Sickness and Picardy Sweat"". British Medical Journal. 2 (4414): 196 $",
Ashanti Period Ghana,1702,1895,Series of Wars against the British (Anglo-Ashanti Wars),XIX c,U.susp,0,0,1,1,1,1,0,0,1,1,0,1,7,"The Ghanian coast was exploited by Europeans for its gold and by the 19th century, the British were the strongest European force in the region. Throughout the 19th century the British fought several wars against the Asante people (in 1823-1831, 1863-1864 and 1873-1874). At the end of the first war in 1831, a peace treaty was signed that allowed trade in all ports. By 1844 the British had gained control of all criminal matters in and around their trade forts. By 1872 the British had taken full control of the region. When they refused to recognise Asante sovereignty, the Asante attacked, but the British were victorious. There was an uprising in 1883 and a civil war in 1884-1888.  Following a final defeat against the British in 1895, the Asante king and chiefs were exilled. In 1905 the entire region was declared a British territory.","Gilbert, Michelle, Robert O. Lagac�, and Ian Skoggard. 2000. ""Culture Summary: Akan."" eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000",
Mughal Empire,1526,1740,Fragmentation of the Mughal Empire,XVIII c,1.inf,0,1,1,0,0,1,0,1,0,1,0,1,7,"The Mughal Empire began to break up during the rule of Muhammud Shah (1719-48) due to dynastic warfare and factional rivalries. Upon Muhammud's death, Marathas forces (Hindu warrior dynasty) began to conquer most of northern India, leaving only Delhi under Mughal rule. However, this was also taken under Maratha control in 1785 and then by the British in 1803. India was hit by the Influenza pandemic of 1781-2. Three Carnatic Wars were fought between 1740-1763 and the Bengal War between the Mughals and the British East India Company took place between 1756-65.","Bose, Sugata; Jalal, Ayesha (2004). Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy (2nd ed.). Routledge. 41. $ John F. Richards. 1995. The Mughal Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.",
Aztec Empire,1427,1519,Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire,XVI c,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,0,1,1,0,0,7,"In 1519 Spanish conquistadors, led by Hernán Cortés, landed in Yucatán and immediately began to incite violence against and between different city states, rulers and indigenous people in order to bring down the Aztec Empire. Cortés formed alliances with the Tlaxcalans, Texcocans, Totonacs on his journey to the Basin of Mexico, and fabricated lies to justify the killings of some people and rulers in whose towns and cities they stayed in en route. In 1520 there was a smallpox outbreak in the Tenochtitlan after an assault by the Spaniards and their allies. This first smallpox outbreak killed more than 50% of the regions population. While the region was dealing with the devestation of the disease, Cortés and his army marched back into the Basin of Mexico, and through a series of battles and sieges with local groups, he conquered many city-states. In 1521 Cortés laid siege to the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan, and after several months his final devestating assault on the city defeated the Aztecs and brought down the empire.","Diaz del Castillo, Bernal, The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico (1576), Cambridge, MA, Da Capo Press, 2003. $ Smith, Michael (1984). ""The Aztec Migrations of Nahuatl Chronicles: Myth or History?"". Ethnohistory. 31 (3): 153-168.",
"Grand Principality of Moscow, Rurikid Dynasty",1480,1613,Time of Troubles,XVI-XVII c,1,0,1,0,0,1,1,0,0,0,1,1,1,7,"This was a period of political crisis which began after the fall of the Rurik dynasty whic Tsar Fyodor's death in 1589 and lasted until the ascension of the Romanov dynasty in 1613. The suceededing tsar was Fyodor's brother-in-law Boris. The country faced famine in 1601-03. There was a pretender to the throne who claimed to be Dmitry the half-brother of Fyodor. When Boris died in 1605, the mob killed his son and heir, and made “Dmitry” tsar. However Dmitry was assasinated in May 1606 when the boyars (upper elite in Russian society and high-office) realised they could not control him. A nobleman, Vasily Shuysky, was then placed on the throne, but his rule was plagued by revolts and a peasant rebellion and a second false-Dmitry who was supported by the Polish, Russian landholders and peasants who wanted radical change, and later many of the boyars. The second Dmitry beseiged Moscow for two years, however, Shuysky gained aid from Sweden and drove Dmitry's forces out. In September 1609 the Polish king, Sigismund III, attacked Russia and defeated Shuysky’s forces in June 1610. Shuysky was deposed by the boyars and Władysław (son of the Polish king) was named tsar-elect, though Sigismund wanted direct control of Russia so continued his invasion. The Russians reunited to prevent this, defeating Polish forces in October 1612 and electing a new tsar, Michael Romanov, in 1613. It is estimated that some areas of Russian experienced population declines of 50% with the death toll randing from 1-1.2million.","Turchin, Peter. 2009. Secular Cycles. Princeton University Press. pp. 256-258. $ Dunning, Chester, S. L. 2001. Russia's First Civil War: The Time of Troubles and the Founding of the Romanov Dynasty. Pennsylvania State University Press.",
Eastern Roman Empire,395,607,Sixth Century Crisis & Justinian Plague,VI c,1,1,1,1,0,0,1,0,1,1,0,0,0,7,"In 542 CE the Justinian Plague (named after the Emperor) arrived in Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire. The number of residents in Constantinople grew from about 300,000 in 400 CE to 500,000 a century later, but then fell back sharply to about 200,000 due to the troubles of the 6th century. It is estimated that in Constantinople alone 300,000 people died in the first year of the plague. Emperor Justinian fell ill though he recovered and the devestation caused by the plague prevented him from quickly recapturing the western provinces that had been lost to the Persian Sassanids in their ongoing war over the previous century. From 535-554 CE the Romans also faced the Gothic Wars (535-554) against the Ostrogoths in Dalmatia and Italy, and in 546 CE the Ostrogoths captured Rome, known as the Sack of Rome, weakening its defenses, before leaving to attack Byzantine forces in Apuila. Revolution: Nika rebellions might count (depends on threshold for 'mass mobilization')","Preiser-Kapeller 2015, Personal Communication $ Barker, John W. 1966. Justinian and the Later Roman Empire, University of Wisconsin Press. 160-161.",
Ottoman Empire IV,1839,1922,First World War and fall of the Ottoman Empire,XX c,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,0,0,0,1,7,"Population decline: from 15 million within Turkey's modern borders in 1910 to 13.88 million in 1920 (Clio Infra 2016). Cholera epidemics from 1910 to 1913 (Unat 1995). Revolution, reorganization, fragmentation: abolition of the Sultanate, foundation of the Republic, and loss of Ottoman possessions beyond Anatolia (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2021; GeaCron 2011). Downward mobility of elite: with the founding of the Turkish Republic, the Ottoman Dynasty was exiled (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2021) -- more reading needed to find out to what extent the rest of the elite were dispossessed or suffered downward mobility. Civil war: Turkish War of Independence, fought between Turkish nationalists and Ottoman loyalists, backed by external powers (Itzkowitz n.d.). Revolution: Arab revolutionary element in fall of Ottomans","Unat 1995: Unat, E. K. 1995. �Cholera epidemics in the Ottoman Empire during 1910-1913 and relevant events. Yeni Tip Tarihi Arastirmalari / The New History of Medicine Studies 1: 55-65. $ Itzkowitz n.d.: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Kemal-Ataturk/The-nationalist-movement-and-the-war-for-independence $ Clio Infra 2016: https://clio-infra.eu/Indicators/TotalPopulation.html",
Qing Dynasty,1796,1912,Chinese Revolution,XIX-XX c,1,0,0,1,1,1,1,0,0,0,0,0,1,6,"Between 210-207 BCE rebellions were raised all over China against the new (second) Qin Emperor, Qin Er Shi, due to his incompetence, overspending and tyranny. The chancellor Zhao Gao forced Qin Er Shi to commit suicide, though upon his acesension to the throne, Ziying, a nephew of Qin Er Shi, immediately had Zhao Gao executed. The third and final ruler of the Qin dynasty, Ziying (posthumously Emperor Shang of Qin), held power for just 46 days from October-December 207 BCE, amidst popular uprisings, until he was attacked and defeated in battle, and later executed by the rebel leader Xiang Yu. The Qin dynasty was overthrown, the capital was destroyed, and the Chu state was restored.","Rhoads, Edward J. M. (2000). Manchus & Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861-1928. University of Washington Publishing. $ Li, Xiaobing. [2007] (2007). A History of the Modern Chinese Army. University Press of Kentucky. $ Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Loewe, Michael. ""Wang Mang"". A Biographical Dictionary of the Qin, Former Han and Xin Periods (221 BC - AD 24). Leiden: Brill. pp. 536-45. $ Rudi Thomsen, Ambition and confucianism : a biography of Wang Mang, Aarhus University Press, 1988.",
Mamluk Sultanate,1348,1411,Plague to Assassination of Sultan Faraj i,XIV - XV c,1,0,1,0,0,1,1,0,0,0,0,1,1,6,"Between 1348 and 1412 there was a 'great crisis' in the Mamluk Sultanate. It began when the Black Death struck in 1348, killing up to one-thrid of the population of Egypt and bringing an era of prosperity to an end. This was followed by the upper Nile flooding in 1354, a famine in 1375, the return of the plague between 1379-1381, civil war in 1389, a lower Nile flood and a grain shortage in 1394 and 1403, and another famine in 1403-1404. During this period the Mamluk ruling class carried out extravagant construction projects and mismanaged the disasters that befell the population and several rebellions were raised in Cairo. The result of these major crises was the end of Turkish rule in Egypt. Sultan Faraj was assasinated in 1412 while being held prisoner in Damscus after a conflict with the Syrian Emirs.","Andr� Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. $  M. W. Dols. 1977. The Black Death In The Middle East. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. $  Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.",
Neo-Assyrian Empire,-911,-627,Fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire,VII c bce,0.inf,0.inf,0,1,1,0,1,0,1,0,1,U.susp,1,6,"There was a ""population explosion"" in the Assyrian heartland in the late eighth and early seventh century BCE, but this was unsustainable, argue Schneider and Adalı (2014), and this contributed to the collapse of the empire. This implies it was followed by a population decline or even collapse, but I haven't found direct evidence for this. No mention of epidemics found in the literature, though presence of famine and drought makes them seem plausible. Multiple civil wars, but intermittent over the course of the seventh century, and after 609 BCE the region was under control of the Neo-Babylonian Empire (external conquest) (Schneider and Adalı 2014). Territorial fragmentation preceding final fall of Assyria, e.g. successful rebellion of Babylon (Schneider and Adalı 2014). Extermination of the elite: whole towns abandoned, palaces and temples destroyed, complete collapse of state structure (Sinha et al. 2019). Ruler assassinated: Sennacherib (Cogan 2009).","Cogan 2009: Cogan, Mordechai. 2009. �Sennacherib and the Angry Gods of Babylon and Israel. Israel Exploration Journal 59 (2): 164-74. $ Schneider and Adalƒ± 2014: Schneider, Adam W., and Selim F. Adali. 2014. No Harvest Was Reaped: Demographic and Climatic Factors in the Decline of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Climatic Change 127 (3): 435-46. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-014-1269-y. $ Sinha et al. 2019: Sinha, Ashish, Gayatri Kathayat, Harvey Weiss, Hanying Li, Hai Cheng, Justin Reuter, Adam W. Schneider, et al. 2019. �Role of Climate in the Rise and Fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Science Advances 5 (11): eaax6656. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aax6656.",
Seleucid Kingdom,-312,-144,Seleucid Dynastic Wars,I c bce,U.susp,0,0,0,0,1,1,0,1,0,1,1,1,6,"The end of the empire was characterized by a decline from the former power of the kings, to the extent that after 129 BCE, when King Antiochus VII committed suicide, the kingdom became increasingly unstable and triggered the Seleucid Dynastic Wars between competing branches of the Seleucid royal household. After many years of civil war, assasinations, and usurping of the throne, between the descendants of  Demetrius I Soter and Seleucus IV Philopater, Demetrius II Nicator eventually declared undisputed ruler of the Seleucid Kingdom in 145 BCE. However, he inherited a fractured empire which he was unable to control due to ongoing unrest from within the kingdom, such as the rebel warriors, the Maccabees, who had established their own independence from the Seleucid kingdom and a revolt raised by military commander Diodotus Tryphon in the name of Alexander Balas’ son, Antiochus VI Dionysus, who then murdered the child and declared himself king (141-138 BCE).  Demetrius II was captured and imprisoned and his brother, Antiochus VII Sidetes (r.138- 129), took the throne and defeated Diodotus Tryphon in the same year. His reign was initially successful as he recaptured parts of the empire. However in 129 BCE he was ambushed and killed by the Parthians at the Battle of Ecbatana and all the territories he had recovered were taken by the Parthians. Meanwhile, in the west the Romans posed an ongoing threat. While the power within the Selecuid Empire had collapsed, the nobles continued to play kingmakers and partake in factional disputes and civil war, until the last remnants of the kingdom were finally overtaken by the growing Roman empire in 64/63 BCE.","Aperghis, G. G. 2004. The Seleukid Royal Economy: The Finances and Administration of the Seleukid Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p27 $ Kosmin, P. J. 2013.686. In, Potts, D. T. (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p686",
Ashikaga Shogunate,1336,1466,Transition to Sengoku period,XV c,1.inf,0,1,1,0,0,1,0,1,0,0,1,0,6,"No fine-grained demographic data available for this period, so population decline is possible but difficult to prove. Epidemics of small pox, measles and influenza common in the years between 1450 and 1540; less severe afterwards (Farris 2009: 172). Civil war lasting over a century, including territorial fragmentation: ""Rivalry between contending daimyo, or provincial warlords, causes increasing instability, which culminates in the Ōnin War (1467-77). With the resulting destruction of Kyoto and the collapse of the shōgunate’s power, the country is plunged into a century of warfare and social chaos known as the Sengoku, the Age of the Country at War"" (Metropolitan Museum of Art 2002). Reorganization and elite downward mobility due to interelite conflict of the Ōnin War and Sengoku period: feudal system collapsed (Lu 2020). Ruler assassination: Ashikaga Yoshinori assassinated in 1441 (Streich 2013: 257).","Farris 2009: Farris, William Wayne. 2009. Japan to 1600: A Social and Economic History. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press. $ Lu 2020: Chen, Lu. 2020. �Retelling the History of the Sengoku Period and the Era Name System: The Year in Japan. Biography 43 (1): 109-13. https://doi.org/10.1353/bio.2020.0017. $ Metropolitan Musem of Art 2002: �Japan, 1400-1600 A.D. In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000-. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/?period=08&region=eaj (October 2002)",
Tokugawa Japan,1603,1868,Meiji Restoration,XIX c,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,0,0,0,0,1,6,"Imperial rule was restored to Japan in 1868. There had been emperors before the Meiji Restoration but this restored practical rule and brought the political system under the Emperor of Japan as stipulated in the Charter Oath. The revolution began in order to strengthen Japanese rule which was percieved to be under threat from colonisation. In 1866 the elite (daimyōs) leaders of the reform began to challenge the Tokugawa shogunate, and pushed forward when Emperor Kōmei died and his son Emperor Meiji ascended to the throne on 3rd February 1867. In the January 1868 Boshin War, the daimyōs forces defeated the shogunate and put their lands under imperial control. The daimyōs also returned their domain to the Emperor to create a centralised rule in 1869. Shogunate forces tried to escape and set up the Republic of Ezo but the emperors forces defeated them at the Battle of Hakodate, ending the Tokugawa shogunate and restoring the Emperor's power. By 1872 all 280 domains were returned to imperial rule which were then turned in to 72 prefectures, control by state governors. The Asiatic Cholera pandemic and other infectious diseases were also present throughout the nineteenth century, which devestated the population.","William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. $ Henshall, Kenneth (2012) A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.  $ ""Meiji Restoration | Definition, History, & Facts"". Encyclopedia Britannica. $ https://cross-currents.berkeley.edu/e-journal/issue-30/johnston",
Angkor Empire,1220,1431,Collapse of Angkor,XV c,1,0,1,1,0.inf,0,0,0,1,U.susp,1,U.susp,1,6,"Decline of Angkor Empire during fourteenth century, eventual collapse in the fifteenth. Penny et al. (2019) argue for slow population decline during the fourteenth century CE, not an ""abrupt demographic collapse."" Epidemic: this is controversial. Possible smallpox, bubonic plague and cholera epidemics (Gundersen 2015: 64), but documentary evidence is lacking and other scholars discount disease as an explanatory factor for the collapse of Angkor. Collapse of elite power: ""Elite political power shifted out of the region and many temples fell out of use""; ""Many of Angkor’s sociopolitical elite left the region, but the area was not entirely depopulated or forgotten"" (Carter et al. 2019). Civil war between elite factions seems likely but I have not found references to it in the sources consulted. Possible external conquest, but this is disputed: One narrative identifies the sack of Angkor by Thai forces from Ayutthaya in 1431 CE as the coup de grâce—“definitive, complete, and irremediable” ...—preceded by a protracted decline in state power and influence from the 14th century CE. Although Ayutthayan forces are believed to have occupied Angkor for a period between 12 y and 15 y, historical sources are both equivocal and contradictory regarding these events"" (Penny et al. 2019). Fragmentation seems likely: kings could not retain control over the territories that were part of the empire at its height (Polkinghorne 2018: 254). Ruler assassination: possible but unknown.","Carter et al. 2019: Carter, Alison K., Miriam T. Stark, Seth Quintus, Yijie Zhuang, Hong Wang, Piphal Heng, and Rachna Chhay. 2019. �Temple Occupation and the Tempo of Collapse at Angkor Wat, Cambodia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116 (25): 12226-31. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1821879116. $ Gundersen 2015: Gundersen, Lawrence. 2015. �A Reassessment of the Decline of the Khmer Empire. International Journal of Culture and History 1: 63-66. https://doi.org/10.18178/ijch.2015.1.1.011. $ Penny et al. 2019: Penny, Dan, Tegan Hall, Damian Evans, and Martin Polkinghorne. 2019. �Geoarchaeological Evidence from Angkor, Cambodia, Reveals a Gradual Decline Rather than a Catastrophic 15th-Century Collapse. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116 (11): 4871-76. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1821460116. $ Polkinghorne 2018: Polkinghorne, Martin. 2018. Reconfiguring Kingdoms: The End of Angkor and the Emergence of Early Modern Period Cambodia. In Angkor: Exploring Cambodia's Sacred City, edited by Theresa McCullough, Stephen A. Murphy, Pierre Baptiste, and Thierry Z�phir, 252-71. Singapore: Asian Civilisations Museum.",
Turkic Khaganate,583,630,Division of Turkic Khaganate into western and eastern halves,VI c,1,0,1,1,0,0,1,0,1,U.susp,0,1,0.inf,6,"First Turkic Khaganate split in two after civil war in the late sixth century CE (western and eastern halves) (Ganiev and Kukarskih 2018). Chinese sources mention a famine and epidemic among the Turks in the late sixth century, noting that ""half the population has died of hunger and disease"" (Ganiev and Kukarskih 2018): coded for population decline and collapse and epidemic, though we maybe shouldn't trust the written sources too much on this. Elite downward mobility (but not extermination) inferred from protracted civil war. Ruler assassinated: Dulan Khagan murdered in 599 (Stark 2016: 5).","Ganiev and Kukarskih 2018: Ganiev, Rustam, and Vladimir Kukarskih. 2018. �Climate Extremes and the Eastern Turkic Empire in Central Asia. Climatic Change 149 (3): 385-97. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-018-2236-9. $ Stark 2016: Stark, S.. 2016. T�rk Khaganate. In The Encyclopedia of Empire, edited by N. Dalziel and J. M. MacKenzie, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe430.",
Classic Maya,550,900,Classic Maya collapse,IX - X c,1,1,1.inf,U.susp,U.susp,U.susp,U.susp,1,1,1,0.inf,U.susp,U.susp,6,"Many theories have been put forward to explain the collapse of Classic Maya, including over-population, drought, inter-city warfare and incompetant rulers, however these issues were not uniform across the entire region and were dependant on location, though they are generally accepted as contributing factors. Monument building had increased steadily by 750 CE, with around forty monuments being built per year, however, it quickly declined after this, returning to approximately ten per year by 800 CE and zero builds by 900 CE. The population followed a similar pattern, such as in the Copan Valley, where numbers peaked between 750-800 CE when it is estimated to have been 28,000, but by 900 CE the population fell to around 15,000.","David L. Webster, Ann Corinne Freter, Nancy Gonlin. 2005. Copan: The Rise and Fall of an Ancient Maya Kingdom. Wadsworth Publishing Company. $ Acemoglu, Robinson, Daron, James A. (2012). Why Nations Fail. pp. 143-9.  $ Nichols et al. The Oxford Handbook of Mesoamerican Archaeology. Oxford University Press, 2012.",
Early Colonial Period Iroquois,1714,1848,Iroquois Civil War,XVIII c,1,0,0,1,0,0,1,0,1,1.inf,1,0,0,6,"At the begnning of the American Revolutionary War, the Iroquois Confederacy attempted to remain neutral. However, the nations were forced to take sides in the conflict particularly as they were not able to remain entirely neutral due to their trading relationships, to protect their remaining lands the and proximity to the fighting. Eventually the Oneida and Tuscarora nations supported the American colonists and the remaining nations of Cayuga, Mohawk, Onondaga, and Seneca supported the British. The revolutionary war broke the Iroquois Confederacy that had lasted for hundreds of years. At the end of the war (1783) there were no provisions made for the Iroquois in the Treaty of Paris. In 1784 the Iroqouis were forced to cede most of their lands to the United States in the Treaty of Fort Stanwix and in 1794 under the Treaty of Canandaigua they were forced to surrender even more land. American policies encouraged and forced the Iroquois to give up their traditional hunting and farming patterns and to become more settled on their remaining land.","Graymont, Barbara. 1972. The Iroquois in the American Revolution. New York: Syracuse Univeristy Press. $ Graymont, Barbara (2005). The Iroquois. Chelsea House Publishers. $ Johnson, Michael. 2003. Tribes of the Iroquois Confederacy. Osprey.",
Habsburg Empire II,1453,1740,"Seventeenth Century Crisis, Thirty Years' War",XVII c,1,0,1,1,1,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,5,"The Thirty Years' War was fought within the Holy Roman Empire. The war was largely driven by the Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs and the French House of Bourbon who were vying for power, as well as religious divisions that had seen the rise of Protestantism that threatened Catholic imperial authority. Until 1635 the war was mainly fought as a civil war between German states of the Holy Roman Empire, but after this it became a wider European war between France supported by Sweden and Spain supported by Austria. The immense movement of troops from across Europe led to the outbreak of several epidemics including typhus fever, bubonic plague, dysentery, other infectious diseases such as scurvy. The war concluded in 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia which agreed Dutch independance from Spain and   greater autonomy for Bavaria and Saxony among other conditions. The habsburgs were weakened by the war and the treaty. It is estimated that 4.5-8million people died in the conflict across the Empire. Revolution: some would consider eg Czech rebellion as failed 'nationalist liberation' revolution","Parker, Geoffrey. 1984. The Thirty Years' War (1997 ed.). Routledge. $ Sutherland, NM (1992). ""The Origins of the Thirty Years War and the Structure of European Politics"". The English Historical Review. CVII (CCCCXXIV): 587-625. $ Kohn, George C. 2001. Encyclopedia of plague and pestilence: from ancient times to the present. New York: Facts on File.",
Eastern Han,25,219,Yellow Turban and Five Pecks of Rice rebellions,II c,1,0,0,1,1,1,1,0,0,0,0,0,0.inf,5,"The Yellow Turban Rebellion was an uprising by peasants against the Eastern Han dynasty due to flooding on the Yellow River and an agrarian crisis in north China which led to famine and the corruption of the royal court. Peasants were forced to move south where they were exploited by large landowners and highly taxed. Armed groups began to be formed from 170 CE and the first uprising broke out in 184 CE comprising of ten of thousands of peasants, small landowners, unemployed veterans, and even some allies at court. High governement offices were looted and destroyed, officials were killed, and districts were cut off from the central government.  It was supressed the following year, however local resistance and smaller rebellions continued for 21 years until it was fully quashed in 205 CE. Military leaders and local governors had gained more power and on the death of Emperor Ling in 189 CE a power struggle led to the assasination of general He Jin by the eunachs. In response his support Yuan Shao killed all of the palace eunachs and set the palace on fire. Over this time the population was devestated, with hundreds of thousands of rebel deaths, non-combantants were left homelessness and destitue, and the economy and resources suffered greatly. Meanwhile, the Celestial Masters, led by Zhang Lu (grandson of the founder), who controlled a Taoist theocratic state in Hanzhing valley, rebelled against the Han dynasty in 184 CE in a movement known as the Way of the Five Pecks of Rice. There is little evidence available for this event.","Rafe De Crespigny trans. 2003. Emperor Huan and Emperor Ling, Zhongping1: 184 AD Y from Zizhi tongjian by Sima Guang. $ Smitha, Frank E. ""DYNASTIC RULE and the CHINESE (9 of 13)"". Macrohistory and World Timeline.  $ Ropp, Paul S. 2010. China in World History. Oxford University Press. $",
Late Qing period Southern China Hills,1701,1895,Hmong uprisings against Qing state,XVIII - XIX c,1,0,0,0,0,1,1,1,0,0,1,0,0,5,"A series of uprisings by the Hmong people and other ethnic groups of southern China, who had been subjugated through violence and forced assimilation by the Chinese, were sweeping across the region during this period. There were three major Hmong uprisings in the seventeeth and eighteenth centuries. The first in 1735-36 was raised in rebellion against the misrule of the Qing. At first local Qing administrators sought to come to an agreement with the rebels but the Qianlong Emperor sent in armies who supressed the uprising, killing 18,000 warriors. Thereafter fifty years of peace in the region persisted until 1795 when the Hmong in Hunnan rose up again against Han Chinese immigrants who were forcing them out of their traditional lands and were quickly followed by the Chinese state who put a strain on local resources and established their own settlements there. Again military action was taken, and in the aftermath in 1806 policies banning Hmong traditional dress and ethnic segregation were put in place, as well as their lands being confiscated. Tensions simmered and culminated with the largest Miao Rebellion in Guizhou 1854-73. This rebellion was a string of uprisings by multiple rebel groups who won some battles against the Chu army and captured several towns as well as attacking the capital of Guiyang. With the Taiping Rebellion also happening at the same time, the Qing armies were stretched, however once the Taiping Rebellion had been supressed, the Qing government turned their attention fully to the Hmong rebels, defeating them one by one. In the aftermath many areas of Guizhou were depopulated and the destroyed towns and overgrown farmlands led many of the Hmong and other ethnic groups to migrate to Vietnam and Laos. Some estimates consider the death toll in the province to be as high as 4.9 million (out of a population of 7 million) thought it is believed that this is an over estimate.","Diamond, Norma. 2009. Culture Summary: Miao. eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ae05-000 $ Jenks, Robert D. (1994-11-01). Insurgency and Social Disorder in Guizhou: The ""Miao"" Rebellion, 1854-1873. University of Hawaii Press.  $ Platt, Stephen R. (2018). Imperial Twilight: The Opium War and the End of China's Last Golden Age. New York: Vintage Books. $ Platt, Stephen R. (2012). Autumn in the Heavenly Kingdom: China, the West, and the Epic Story of the Taiping Civil War.",
"State of Jin, S-A Period",-780,-404,Civil War,V c bce,U.susp,0,0,1,0,0,1,1,1,0,1,0,0,5,"The Spring and Autumn period was a period of the Eastern Zhou dynasty saw constant warfare among vassal states, clans and dynasties who were competing for dominance, power and territory. After the reign of Duke Zhao of Jin (531-526), the clans of Fan (范) , Zhonghang (中行), Zhi (智), Han (韓), Zhao (趙) and Wei (魏) began fighting among themselves. The Zhi clan eventually eliminated the Fan and Zhonghang clans and were dominant until the Han and Wei, breaking their alliance with the Zhi against the Zhao clan, switched sides and the three smaller clans defeated the Zhi. The Partition of Jin in 453 BCE saw Zhi lands and the rest of Jin divided between the three successor states who were later known as the Three Jins.","Han, Zhaoqi (2010). ""House of Jin"". Annotated Shiji (in Chinese). Zhonghua Book Company. pp. 3093-3094",
Northern Wei,386,557,Rebellions and Civil War,VI c bce,U.susp,0,0,0,0,1,1,0,1,0,0,1,1,5,"In 523 CE a rebellion in the six northern border garrison towns broke out due to major famine and years of drought. This rebellion kick started several others that spread throughout the region and would last for a decade. Civil War broke out in 530 CE when Emperor Xiaohuang had Erzhu Rong (of the Erzhu clan who dominated power at court) killed in an ambush. The Erzhu clan were victorious in their counter attack, and assasinated the emperor, but later resumed war with those who resisted their rule. Rebellions broke out under Ge Rong between 526-528 CE in Hubei, under Xiao Baoyin in Guanzhong in 527 CE. Eventually, as a result of deposed and interred emperors on opposite sides of the conflict, the Wei state was divided into the Eastern Wei and Western Wei and would remain divided until 581 CE.","Tsiang, Katherine R. ""Changing Patterns of Divinity and Reform in the Late Northern Wei"" in The Art Bulletin, Vol. 84 No. 2 (June 2002), pp. 222-245. $ Jenner, W. J. F. Memories of Loyang: Yang Hsuan-chih and the lost capital (493-534). Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981.",
Late Qing,1796,1912,Taiping Rebellion,XIX c,1,0,0,0,0,1,1,0,0,0,1,0,1,5,"The Taiping Rebellion in 1850-1864 was a rebellion and civil war between the in-power Qing dynasty and the Hakkan Han-led Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. The rebellion is considered the worst civil war in history which left an estimated 20-30 million people dead. The Taiping, led by Hong Xiuquan, established the Heavenly Kingdom as an oppositional state, who wished to overthrow the Qing dynasty and convert people to the Taiping version of Christianity (Xiuquan claimed to be the brother of Jesus Christ). In the first few years of the war, the Taipings invaded and captured lands in Guangxi, Yuezhou, Wuchang and lands along the Yangtze River, including the city of Nanjing in 1853 which was declared the Taiping capital, and later the wealthy regions of southern Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces. Both sides carried out massacres: The Taiping against the Manchu people, and the Wing government against the civilians of Nanjing. The Qing dynasty were ultimately victorious although they were severely weakened and collapsed just 50 years later.","Reilly, Thomas H. (2011). The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom: Rebellion and the Blasphemy of Empire. Seattle: University of Washington Press. $ Michael, Franz H. (1966), The Taiping Rebellion: History and Documents, Seattle: University of Washington Press",
Song Dynasty,1127,1279,Fall of the Song Dynasty,XIII c,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,1,1,1,0,1,5,"The Mongols began their attacks on China in 1211, and by 1250 Kablai Khan had advanced into Song territory. Kublai and his forces worked thier way across the Song states, beseiging major cities and capturing land as they went. In 1271, after several key victories, Kublai declared the creation of the Yuan dynasty. War between the two sides continued on until 1276 when the Northern Song capital of Lin'an was seized by the Mongols and in 1279 the Yuan army defeated the final resistance of Song forces at the Battle of Yamen on the Pearl River Delta and the Song dynasty came to an end.  Emperor Huaizong of Song committed suicide but the rest of the imperial family were unharmed and many lived in the Yuan dynasty. Despite thousands of lives being lost in the ongoing wars there is no outright evidence of notable overall population decline.","Rossabi, Morris (1988), Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times, Berkeley: University of California Press",
Western Jin Dynasty,265,317,Revolts of the Imperial Princes,IV c,0,0,0,0,0,1,1,0,0,0,1,1,1,5,"Revolts of the Imperial Princes was a period of complex power struggles, intense civil wars and intervals of peace between princes of royal dynasties and Empress Jia, following the death of Emperor Wu of Jin in 290 CE. Empress Yang Zhi, the stepmother of the Emperor, Hui of Jin (who was developmentally impaired) and her family wielded the most power at court. In 291 CE Hui of Jin's wife, Empress Jia Nanfeng, enlisted the help of Sima Liang (Prince Wencheng of Ru'nan) Sima Wei (Prince Yin of Chu) and sought to take control by having Yang Zhi's father executed for treason, imprisoning and starving Empress Yang Shi to death, and executing 3000 other members of the Yang clan. Sima Liang (the emperor's grand-uncle) became regent, but because of his threats to Sima Wei over his conduct, Wei and Empress Jia accussed Liang of treason and Wei led a coup to kill Liang. After Liang's death, Jia spread rumours that Wei had forged the royal edict to have Liang killed. Wei was deserted by his followers, captured and executed. Empress Jia ruled the court, under the name of her husband, until 300 CE by which time her behaviour (both personally and politically) caught up with her. In 299 CE Jia orchestrated the arrest and pushed for the execution of Sima Yu who was heir to the throne, however Emperor Hui instead had him deposed and kept him under house arrest. Following this, Sima Lun (Prince of Guangling) advised Jia to have Sima Yu assasinated as he was still a threat to the succession. However, Sima Lun later used Jia's assasination of Yu to overthrow her in 300 CE, placed her under house arrest and forced her to commit suicide. He welcomed back Yu's sons, Sima Zang and Sima Shang. However, in 301 CE Sima Lun usurped the throne from Emperor Hui, who was placed under house arrest, and killed Crown Prince Zang. Sima Yun ( Prince of Huainan) rebelled against Lun, but was killed by one of Lun's supporters. Four princes then allied to oppose Lun; in Xuchang, the Prince of Qi, Sima Jiong; in Chang'an, the Prince of Hejian, Sima Yong; in Chengdu, the Prince of Chengdu, Sima Ying; and Sima Ai, Prince of Changsha. In May 301 CE, after violent battles, betrayals, rebellions and executions, the coalition's troops entered the palace and arrested Lun, who was executed a few days later. Hun Hui was restored later that year. Sima Jiong became regent in August 301 CE. In 302 CE Jiong made the Emperor's nephew, Sima Tan, the crown prince and Sima Yue, Prince of Donghai, as director of the Central Secretariat. Later that year, after receiving an apparent imperial decree to eliminate Jiong, Sima Yong, along with Sima Ying, rasied a rebellion against Jiong. Sima Ai was wrongly implicated and fled to the imperial palace for protection where he defended the palace against Jiong with personal and imperial guards. Jiong's own officers betrayed him and he was captured and killed. Sima Ai siezed control of the capoital but deferred authority to his brother, Sima Ying. In April 304 CE Ying deposed his nephew, Sima Tan, and appointed himself crown prince. Sima Yue led a rebellion to restore Tan to his position however he was defeated in battle. After this, many rebellions were raised against Sima Ying, including some by leaders of the Han clan, who had a force three times that of Ying. Ying's remaining 15,000 troops deserted him and he was forced to flee to Luoyang, where Emperor Hui was taken into care by military general Zhang Fang. They were taken tho Chang'an where Ying was imprisoned and stripped of his titles by Sima Yong. Sima Chi (another grandson of Emperor Wu) was given the title of Crown Prince. In mid-305 CE Sima Yue and several other princes raised an army and rebelled against Sima Yong with the intention to take Emperor Hui back to Luoyang. Yong freed Sima Ying in order to gain his assistance in the rebellion. In battle, Yue defeated Yong's forces. Yue negotiated by offering the divide the empire with Yong, however Zhang Fang advised against this and urged him to keep fighting. Yong then had Zhang Fang executed and sent his head to Yue as part of a peace offering. However Yue then decided to keep fighting, conquered Chang'an, and secured his place as the real power over the imperial court, which he moved back to Luoyang. Sima Yong fled to Chaoge and was put under house arrest by Sima Xiao, however Xiao died mysteriously a month later and his successor, Liu Yu, forged an edict to execute Ying. Lu Zhi then took up a position at court with Sima Yue. Meanwhile, Sima Yong had raised another rebellion and captured Chang'an. In January 307 Emperor Hui died of poisoning and his brother, Sima Chi (posthumously Emperor Huai of Jin) suceeded as Emperor. Sima Yong was summoned to court, which he believed was for a pardon, but en route he was killed in an ambush. The last remaining prince, Sima Yue, had won victory in the War of the Princes, but died a year later of stress among court plots on his life.","di Cosmo, Nicola (2009), Military Culture in Imperial China, Harvard University Press. p.116-136 $ Graff, David A. (2001), Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900, Routledge $ Institute of Advanced Studies, Australian National University (December 1991). ""East Asian History"" (PDF). eastasianhistory.org.",
Ayyubid Sultanate,1171,1259,Decline and fall of Ayyubid dynasty,XII - XIII c,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,1,0,1,0,1,5,"Following Saladin's death in 1193, a succession crisis broke out between his sons and brother due to the divisions of hereditary ownership that Saladin had put in place throughout the empire which had been split into four kingdoms: Egypt, Damascus, Aleppo and Mosul. After two years of internal conflict over territories, Uthman demanded the sultanate after being lobbied by his father's emirs, which was later settled after a series of assaults against his brother, Al-Afadl's domain of Damascus. Uthman's other brother, al-'Adil became a lieutenant under him and weilded considerable influence. Upon Uthman's death in 1198, al-Afdal was made sultan again in Al-Adil's absense. Al-Adil returned from campaign and the two entered into a two year war, which resulted in al-Adil's victory in 1200. A devestating famine hit in 1200, which forced some parts of the population into cannabilism. During al-Adil's reign, he also had to contend with assaults by the Kingdom of Georgia and the Crusader campaigns between 1217-1218. Al-Adil died after the loss of Damietta to the Crusaders. His sons Al-Kamil and al-Mu'azzam proclaimed themselves sultan of Cairo and Damascus respectively. After failed negotiations with the Crusaders for the return of Damietta, the Ayyubids won a battle which drove the Crusaders out of the territory. In 1227 al-Mu'azzam died and his son, An-Nasir, became ruler of Damascus. However, al-Kamil almost immediately waged war on him and together with his brother, Al-Ashraf, took the lands of Damascus and Palestine which they divided between them. After further battles between al-Kamil and al-Mu'azzam, al-Kamil's son, as-Salih Ayyub, was appointed governer and later deposed his uncle to become sultan. Sultan As-Salih Ayyub (r. 1240-1249) enhanced his power through purchasing Mamluks (high-ranking slave soldiers) who served him as a military and in the government. However, after his death in 1249, the increasingly powerful Mamluks murdered As-Salih's son and heir and seized the throne for themselves. While the Ayyubid dynasty retained some power in Syria, in 1260 the Mamluks defeated the invading Mongols and were recognised as the popular and rightful rulers of the kingdoms.","Shillington, Kevin (2005), Encyclopedia of African history, CRC Press $ Humphreys, R.S. (1991). ""Mas≈´d b. Mawd≈´d b. Zangƒ´"". In Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E. & Pellat, Ch. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume VI: Mahk-Mid. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 780-782. $ Burns, Ross (2005), Damascus: A History, Routledge $ Burns, Ross (2005), Damascus: A History, Routledge $ Gibb, H. A. R. (1969). The Aiy≈´bids (PDF). A History of the Crusades (Setton), Volume II. $",
Ptolemaic Egypt,-217,-32,Roman conquest of Egypt,I c bce,0,0,0,1,0,0,1,0,0,0,1,1,1,5,"Conquest of Ptolemaic Kingdom by Rome. Bubonic plague was likely present in Ptolemaic Egypt, but no sign of a large-scale epidemic in Egypt before the sixth century CE (Scheidel 2012). Downward mobility for native Egyptians at least: in the Ptolemaic period many Egyptians had held high office (Lloyd 2000: 412), but under Roman rule they were barred from administrative positions (Peacock 2000: 432). Long civil war (or recurrent civil conflicts), involving elites and urban ""mobs"", from the late third century BCE until the Roman conquest (Lloyd 2000: 418-20). Ruler assassination: e.g. Queen Berenice IV in 55 BCE (Clayton 1994: 215).","Lloyd 2000: Lloyd, Alan B. 2000. �The Ptolemaic Period (c.1650-1550 BC). In The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 395-421. Oxford: Oxford University Press. $ Peacock 2000: Peacock, David. 2000. �The Roman Period (30 BC-AD 311). In The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 422-45. Oxford: Oxford University Press. $ Scheidel 2012: Scheidel, Walter. 2010. Age and Health. In The Oxford Handbook of Roman Egypt, edited by Christina Riggs, 305-16. Oxford: Oxford University Press.",
Spanish Empire II,1716,1814,Mexican War of Independence,XIX c,U.susp,0,0,1,0,1,1,0,0,0,0,1,1,5,"Mexico's civil war and independance from Spain was not a single centralised war, but a succession of simultaneous regional and local conflicts. Calls for independance had been simmering for some time, but when Napolean Bonapart invaded Spain, deposed Charles IV, and placed his own brother, Joseph on the Spainish throne. In 1810 this led to a crisis surrounding the legitimacy of crown rule and the instability that occured in Europe and in turn in New Spain triggered the first rebellions by Penninsula- and American-born Spaniards against Spanish rule. The very first uprising, led by the Catholic priest, professor and viceroy Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla in September 1810, saw almost 90,000 men join the quickly powerful, albiet disorganised, forces against the government. They captured towns along their marching route to Mexico City, had several successful battles against the royalist forces, and were joined by more people as they went.  However they suffered a devestating loss at Guadalajara in January 1811, and in July Hidalgo was arrested, found guilty of treason and executed. Although conflict in the north waned, the rebel forces eventually regrouped under José María Morelos who was organised and created a clear plan and demands for independance. In the meantime the Peninsular War saw Napolean defeated and Ferdinand VII succeeded the Spanish throne, who reneged on his promises to rule constitutionallly and reinstated absolutism. Back in New Spain, after several successful campaigns, Morelos was captured by the royal army in November 1815 and was tried and executed. Guerilla warfare continued throughout the region, particularly in southern Mexico, and Vicente Guerrero emerged as a leader for the insurgency. As conventional warfare has ended, the Spanish government offered a pardon to any insurgent who laid down their arms. Many did, but later returned to the rebel forces, particularly in the countryside which the government did not have under full control. In 1820, the failed royalist expedition of Oaxaca coincided with the overthrow of Ferdinand VII by Spanish liberals in a military coup in 1820. In New Spain conservatives and rebels saw an opportunity to cement their independance and allied under the Plan of Iguala, creating their own army, the Army of the Three Guarantees. Many royalists and soldiers, seeing that the Spanish cause was lost, defected to the Army of Three Guarantees. In August 1821 the  Treaty of Córdoba was signed by Spanish representatives On 27th September 1821 the Army of the Three Guarantees marched into Mexico and the following day the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire was proclaimed. Mainland New Spain was reorganised as the Mexican Empire, however it lasted only two years, the Catholic monarchy was overthrown and it was declared a federal republic in 1823.","Noll, Arthur Howard; McMahon, Amos Philip (1910). The life and times of Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla. Chicago, IL: A.C. McClurg & Co.  $ Van Young, Eric (2001). Other Rebellion: Popular Violence and Ideology in Mexico, 1810-1821. Palo Alto, California, U.S.: Stanford University Press. $ Archer, Christon I. ""Insurrection-Reaction-Revolution-Fragmentation: Restructuring the Choreography of Meltdowwn in New Spain during the Independence Era."" Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos 10, no 1. Winter 1994:63-98. $ Anna, Timonty E. ""The Army of New Spain and the Wars of Independence, 1790-1821"". Hispanic American Historical Review 61:4 (Nov. 1981). $ Timothy J. Henderson (2009). The Mexican Wars for Independence. Macmillan.",
Napoleonic France,1804,1870,"Franco-Prussian War, collapse of Second French Empire, foundation of Third Republic",XIX c,0,0,0,1,0,1,1,0,0,1,0,0,1,5,"The Second French Empire, the 18 year imperial regime under Napoleon III, came to an end on 4th September 1870 during the Franco-Prussian war when Napoleon was captured by the Prussian army  and dethroned by French republicans. The war continued on despite the Prussian victory being assured and on 28th January 1871 after besieging Paris for four months, the capital fell, and ended the war. This brought an end to imperial rule in France and the Third French Republic government was established. The Treaty of Frankfurt granted the French territory of Alsace-Lorraine to the now-united German Empire. The soldiers of the National Guard, who had defended Paris during the seige, and the working-class, had developed radical revolutionary ideals and established the Paris Commune, seizing control of the capital for two months between 18 March to 28 May 1871. The Commune was supressed by the French Army and thousands of rebels were killed in the conflict, executed, deported or fled into exile.","Edwards, Stewart (1971). The Paris Commune 1871. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode. $ Gluckstein, Donny (2006). The Paris Commune: A Revolution in Democracy. London: Bookmarks. $ Cobban, Alfred (1961). A History of Modern France: From the First Empire to the Fourth Republic 1799-1945. Pelican Book. II. London: Penguin. $ Howard, Michael (2001). The Franco Prussian War. New York: Routledge. $ Grenville, John. 1976. Europe reshaped 1848-1868. p339-353.",
Middle Merovingian,543,687,Division of Merovingian kingdom (after Clovis I),VI c,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,1,1,U.susp,1,0,1,5,"After the death of Clovis I in 511, the kingdom was divided into four seperate realms under his four sons, Theuderic I, Chlodomir, Childebert I, and Chlotar I. There was frequent violent conflict between the brother kings but not to any extent that affected the population. They also united to conquer Burgandy and Provence. The last surviving son, Chlotar I, reclaimed all four teritories on each of his brother's deaths, and fully reunited the realm in 558. However it was divided again upon Chlotar I's death in 561 when his sons, Charibert I, Guntram, Sigebert, and Chilperic I, vied for territory once more. It was not until 613 that Chlotar II, son of Chilperic I, inherited the final two kingdoms and reunited the Frankish lands again. ""On the death of Chlotar’s son Dagobert I in 639, the realm was divided yet again, but by that time the kings of the two regions, Neustria and Burgundy on the one hand and Austrasia on the other, had been forced to yield much of their power to household officials known as mayors of the palace. The later Merovingian kings were little more than puppets and were enthroned and deposed at will by powerful mayors of the palace."" (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Merovingian-dynasty). In 679 Theuderic III also became king of Austrasia (on the death of Dagobert II) unifying the Frankish realms. However in 686 the new Mayor of the Palace of Austrasia made war with Pepin of Heristal who Theuderic had previously made peace with. ""In 687, Pepin defeated them at Tertry in the Vermandois. Many fled to the nearby abbeys of Péronne and Saint-Quentin. Berthar and Theuderic III withdrew themselves to Paris. Pepin followed them and eventually forced a peace treaty with the condition that Berthar leave his office.""","Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman.  $ Anderson, Perry. 2013. Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism. London: Verso. S",
Early Modern England,1642,1836,English Civil War,XVII c,1.inf,0,0,1,0,1,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,5,"The English Civil War was a series of conflicts that took place between the Royalist ""Cavaliers"" who supported Charles I and and the Divine Right of Kings, and the Parliamentarian ""Roundheads"" who sought a governance that was led by a permenant Parliament to whom the monarch was answerable.  Initially there had been concerns over Charles I's marriage to the French Catholic Henrietta Maria and his sympathies (and own beliefs) towards Catholics, while England was a Protestant country. Charles also dissolved parliament whenever they raised concerns over his governance and essentially only called them when he required financial assistance and otherwise imposed 'forced loans' or compelled citizens to accomodate, feed and clothe his soliders. Failiure to do either resulted in imprisonment which gained mass opposition across society. In 1628 he called parliament to raise funds for and in exchange he reluctantly accepted the Petition of Right which stated that no person is compelled to priovide gift, loan, or tax, nor house soldiers in private accomodation. Charles did not call parliament for a further decade, known as Personal Rule of Charles I or Eleven Years' Tyranny, and instead raised money by creating fines, naval taxes, and reviving outdated systems. He also began introducing elements of Catholicism into the churches. Puritans who compained about this were arrested and punished. When Charles attempted to apply the same religious changes in Scotland, the rebellion of the Bishops War broke out in 1639 and again in the mid-1640s. Charles' unsuccessful attempts to surpress the rebeillions led to the Scottish occupation of Northumberland and Durham, and put an even bigger drain on his already depleting funds. He finally called parliament again in 1640 to raise funds, but with his weak position Parliment took the opportunity to raise all the grievances they had, impose laws restricting the kings power without parliamentary consent, and pass a law that parliament must covene at least once every three years even without the monarchs approval. Over the next two years the animosity between Charles and his supporters and the parliamentarians grew in all levels of society and war seemed inevitable. The final push came in 1642 when Charles attempted unsucessfully to arrest five members of the House of Commons for treason. This triggered a sudden spread of conflict, and though many regions and people attempted to remain neutral, actions and policies on both sides pressured a further division across the country and war broke out in June 1642. As both sides marched around the country they collected supports and soldiers along the way. Though the early part of the war seemed favourable to the Royalists, the tide turned when the Parliamentary 'New Model Army' won two major battles and then brought the Scots into their forces. Eventually, Charles' resources were depleted and he sought refuge with a Scottish army. He was promptly turned over to Parliament and imprisoned in May 1646, which ended the first war. However there was no question at this stage that Charles would remain king though there was a power vaccum that could be filled by the three factions that had come out of the war: the Royalists, Independents of the New Model Army (""the Army""), and the Presbyterians of the English Parliament, and whichever was to suceed as the victorious group, must also have Charles (who flattered and plotted with each party) as its head to be successful. In June 1647 the Army, having grown more powerful and ever distant from the Presbytarian parliament, seized Charles for themselves, while parliament, the remaining royalists and the Scots banded together to being the second civil war against them. Charles negotiated a secret treaty with the Scots in December 1647 who agreed to invade England and restored him if if converted to presbytarianism within three years. Skirmishes between all parties occured over the following year and while the Army led many successful battles against their rivals, many defected to their side. Their final victory at the Battle of Preston over the Royalists and Scots secured their victory and marked the end of the second war. Negotiations opened up again between parliament and Charles, but the Army marched on them and conducted 'Pride's Purge' preventing mebers access to parliament and arresting 45 of them. Few were allowed in, and only on the bidding of the Army, who demanded that a High Court of Justice was set up to try Charles I for high treason due to his inciting of war, pacts and treaties made with various groups, and forcing those who had previously sworn an oath after the first civil war to take up arms again. Charles was found guilty and was beheaded on 30th January 1649. England became a republic, led by the new parliament, with Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector. Charles I's son, Charles who was in exile, was immediately proclaimed King Charles II of England in Jersey after the execution of his father. In June 1650 he landed in Scotland to raise an army, and was offered the Scottish crown. However, Crowell marched his army to Edinburgh where they laid siege to the city and defeated a Scottish army at Dunbar. Cromwell then persued Charles southwards, where the army engaged and defeated Charles II's forces at Worcester. Charles managed to escape, hiding via a network of loyalists houses, until he was able to flee to France in 16th October 1651. In the meantime, Ireland had been suffering its own rebellions and ongiong wars against anti-Catholicism since 1641 and in 1649 Cromwell's forces under the Army suppressed rebel royalists and catholics on the island, massacring nearly 3,500 people including civilians, preists, prisoners and soldiers. By 1653 the final Irish Confederate and Royalist troops surrendered and all Irish Catholic owned land was confiscated and given to members of the new parliament and Army soldiers. Revolution: somewaht successful (major parliamentary reforms, but ultimately monarchy retained power)","Purkiss, Diane (2007), The English Civil War: A People's History, London: Harper Perennial. $ Gregg, Pauline (1984), King Charles I, Berkeley: University of California Press $ ""Second and third English Civil Wars"", Encyclopedia Britannica $ Sharp, David. 2000. England in Crisis 1640-60. $ Coward, Barry. 2003. The Stuart Age: England, 1603-1714, Harlow: Pearson Education. $ Seel, Graham E. (1999), The English Wars and Republic, 1637-1660. London: Routledge",
Medang Kingdom,732,1019,Unrest and Collapse of Medang,X - XI c,0,0,0,1,1,1,0,0,1,0,0,1,U.susp,5,"In 990 a campaign against Srivijaya began with a naval invasion led by king Dharmawangsa. Though unsuccesful in capturing Palembang, the unrest led the Maharaja of Srivijaya, Chulamaniwarmadewa, to seek protection from China. In 1006 Srivijaya's mandala alliance repelled a Javanese invasion. In retaliation, Srivijaya assisted Haji (king) Wurawari of Lwaram to revolt between 1016-1017, attacking and destroying the Medang palace. With the death of Dharmawangsa, and most of the royal family, as well as the fall of the Medang capital, the Medang Kingdom collapsed. With no ruler, provincial warlords rebelled against the government and established their own local dynasties. Airlangga, a nephew of King Dharmawangsa and the son of the king of Bali, had fled into exile in the chaos and years later raised popular support and reunited the fragmented lands as the Kingdom of Kahuripan in 1019.","Muljana, S., Sriwijaya, Yogyakarta: PT LKiS Rainbow Literacy, 2006. $ Hall, K.R., Economic History of Early Southeast Asia� in Tarling, N., Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Volume 1: From Early Times to c.1800, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. $ Duthel, H. 2015. Duthel Thailand Guide II. Education In Thailand. 16th Edition. $ C�d�s, George (1968). The Indianized states of Southeast Asia. University of Hawaii Press.",
Hasmonean Dynasty Judea,-103,-62,Hasmonean Civil Wars,I c bce,U.susp,0,0,1,0,1,1,0,0,0,1,0,1,5,"The Hasmonean civil wars began as an inter-Jewish succession crisis between the sons of Alexander Jannaeus, Hycranus II and Aristobulus II. Hycranus had inherited the throne, but was considered weak willed, and within three months a rebellion was raised by his younger brother. After many of his supports deferred to Aristobulus, and the temple he was taking refuge was captured, Hycranus surrendered and renounced the throne to his brother in 67 BCE. The two reconciled. However at this point, Antipater, who was (likely to have been) governor of Idumæa, believed that Aristobulus would not retain him. To secure his position and gain further power, Antipater exploited Hycranus, persuading him to fight for his rightful claim to the throne. They allied with Aretas III, King of the Nabataeans, and an army of 50,000 besieged Jerusalem for several months. The attack on Aristobulus in Jerusalem caused the Roman magistrate, Pompey, who was assigned to the eastern Mediterranean province, to become involved, eventually appointing Hycranus as the ethnarch of Judea, largely because he would be easier to manipulate to the Roman advantage. Antipater's pro-Roman stance granted him favour and he quickly gained several important offices and was placed in charge of Judea. Pompey defeated all the opposing Jewish armies, and Aristobulus and his sons were captured in 63 BCE. Jerusalem was handed over to the Romans after a siege. Hycranus became high priest but was stripped of any authority.","Hayes and Mandell, The Jewish People in Classical Antiquity $ Plutarch ""Makers of Rome"" p. 272, trans by Ian Scott-Kilvert, Penguin Classics $ Josephus, Jewish Wars 1 9:2. 183-185 $  Richard Gottheil; Louis Ginzberg (1901-1906). ""Aristobulus II"". In Singer, Isidore; et al. (eds.). The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.",
Abbasid Caliphate II,1191,1207,Eleventh-century crisis in Abbasid Caliphate,XII c,0,0,0,1,0,0,1,1,0,0,1,1,0,5,"In the early 11th century, the Abbasid Caphilate regained some power after their domination by Buyid amirs. However, with the Buyid dynasty coming to an end, the power vacuum was filled by the Oghuz Turks known as the Seljuqs who had expanded west and claimed temporal power for themselves by 1055, making the caliphs mere figureheads again. In 1135 Caliph al-Mustarshid became the first Caliph to raise an army to fight the Seljuqs, though he was defeated and assasinated. In 1157 Caliph al-Muqtafi became the first to gain military independance for the caliphate, winning the Siege of Baghdad against the Seljuq's in 1157.","Busse, H. 1975. Iran under the B_yids. In Frye, R. N. (ed.) The Cambridge History of Iran. Volume 4. The period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuq's. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press $ Lapidus, Ira M. 2014. A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge University Press. $ Hoiberg, Dale H., ed. (2010). ""Abbasid Dynasty"". Encyclopedia Britannica. I: A-Ak - Bayes (15th ed.). Chicago, IL.",
Achaemenid Empire,-546,-334,"Fall of the Achaemenid Empire, Wars of the Diadochi",IV c bce,0.inf,0,0,1,0,0,1,0,1,0,1,1,0,5,"No mention of population decline in the sources consulted: probably we don't know. Elite downward mobility but not extermination: many but not all Persian elites replaced by Greek and Macedonian ones after Alexander's conquest (Bickerman 1983; Strootman 2015). Civil war: seemingly not in Achaemenid Empire, but yes if referring to the Wars of the Diadochi after Alexander's death (323 BE) (Wheatley 2009). The end result was the fragmentation of the lands conquered by Alexander (Wheatley 2009). Ruler assassinated: Darius III, last Achaemenid king (Heckel 2009: 41).","Bickerman 1983: Bickerman, E. 1983. �The Seleucid Period. In The Cambridge History of Iran: Volume 3: The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanid Periods, edited by E. Yarshater, 3:1-20. The Cambridge History of Iran. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521200929.003. $ Heckel 2009: Heckel, Waldemar. 2009. Alexander's Conquest of Asia. In Alexander the Great: A New History, edited by Waldemar Heckel and Lawrence A. Tritle, 26-52. Maldon, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. $ Strootman 2015: Rolf Strootman, ""SELEUCID EMPIRE,"" Encyclopedia Iranica, online edition, 2015, available at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/seleucid-empire (accessed on 25 January 2021). $ Wheatley 2009: Wheatley, Patrick. 2009. �The Diadochi, or Successors to Alexander. In Alexander the Great: A New History, edited by Waldemar Heckel and Lawrence A. Tritle, 53-68. Maldon, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.",
Buyids,947,1055,Decline of Buyid Dynasty,II c,U.susp,0,0,1,0,0,1,0,1,U.susp,1,U.susp,1,5,"Until 983, upon the death of Adud al-Dawla, the Buyid dynasty had been thriving and growing while political power was firmly under the Buyid rulers. However a string of succession crises between his sons divided the territories and the central government became increasingly ineffectual. Adud's son and heir Ṣamṣām-al-Dawla had originally kept his fathers death a secret to avoid civil war, but upon his succession another of Adud's sons, Shirdil Abu'l-Fawaris (known by his title of ""Sharaf al-Dawla""), challenged Ṣamṣām and civil war broke out. In the meantime, a Kurdish Marwanid chieftain, Badh ibn Dustak seized Diyabakr and forced Ṣamṣām to recognize him as the vassal ruler of the region. Another son of Adud al-Dawla, Abu Tahir Firuzshah, established himself as the ruler of Basra and took the title of ""Diya' al-Dawla"", while another son, Abu'l-Husain Ahmad, established himself as the ruler of Khuzistan, taking the title of ""Taj al-Dawla"". In Iraq rebellions had occured which needed to be supressed, the most dangerous being a plot to make Bahāʾ-al-Dawla the ruler of Iraq. During the confusion Faḵr-al-Dawla tried to assert himself as chief and attacked Ḵūzestān. Ṣamṣām retook Basra and Ḵūzestān and his two brothers fled to Faḵr-al-Dawla's territories. The weakened dynasty and empire gradually fell to attacks by the Ghaznavid and Seljuq Turks. In 1029 when Majd al-Sawla requested assistance from Mahmud of Ghazna to supress an uprising by his troops, Mahmud instead deposed Majd and replaced him with a Ghaznavid governor. (Bosworth 1963: 53, 59, 234) Finally in 1055 Tughrul of the Seljuq Empire conquered Baghdad and removed the Buyid dynasty for good, establishing Seljuq rule in the territories, while the Abbasid Caliphs remained as firgurehead. (Lewis 1995: 89)","Tilman Nagel, �Buyids, Encyclopedia Iranica, online edition, 2012, available at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/buyids $ Kennedy, Hugh (2004). The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century (Second ed.). Harlow: Longman $ Busse, Heribert (1975). ""Iran Under the Buyids"". In Frye, Richard N. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4: From the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 250-305 $ Bernard Lewis, The Middle East: A Brief History of the Last 2,000 Years, (New York: Scribner, 1995)",
Safavid Empire,1505,1722,Sixteenth-century crisis in the Safavid Empire,XVI c,U.susp,0,0,0,1,0,1,0,1,0,1,0,1,5,"At the beginning of the reign of Shah Tahmāsp (r. 1524-1576), who was ten years old and true power was held by a group of regents, a struggle for power by the tribes began that escalated into a ten year civil war. Meanwhile Tahmāsp's reign also saw five invasions by the Uzbeks into the Safavid's eastern provinces and in 1532-1555 four attacks on Iran by the Ottomans. The Uzebeks were soundly defeated. However in the Ottoman 1553-54 attack, they captured Yerevan, Karabakh and Nakhjuwan, and destroyed palaces, villas and gardens, and, as the Ottomans proved too great a force for Tahmāsp to dare go to battle with, territory was handed over to them and the Peace of Amasya ended the ongoing war. In 1545 Tahmāsp assisted Humayan in regaining the Mughal territories that he had lost 15 years previously. Humayan gave the region of Kandahar to Tahmāsp, but they later fought when Humayan seized it again on the death of its Safavid governor in 1558. in 1556 Tahmāsp had his son Ismail imprisoned for apparently plotting a coup against his father. When Tahmāsp died in 1576, Iran was in a relatively calm state, however, two of his nine sons were considered for succession, and their support was divided largely by ethnicities: Ismail was supported by the Turkmen tribes and Haydar received support from the Georgians. 30,000 people turned out to support Ismail and release him from prison. He was enthroned Ismail II in August 1576 and days later his brother, Haydar was executed. Ismail II went on to kill everyone in his family who might pose a threat to his power, except for his older brother, Mohammad Khudabanda (who was blind and therefore not considered a serious contender to the throne) as well as many of his previous supporters. He also changed the official religion back to orthodox Sunni Muslim. In 1577 he was murdered, potentially poisoned by his half-sister, Pari Khān Khānum, who had originally supported him in the succession crisis. Upon his death his brother, Mohammad Khudabanda, was selected from three potential candidates for the throne. Court intrigues began with the murder of Pari Khān Khānum, then the murder of Mohammad's wife, Mahd-i ‘Ulyā, who was implicated in the death of Pari Khān Khānum and/or having an affair, both of which resulted in ethnic unrest and in turn, warfare, most notably by the Ottomans who ended the Peace of Amasya and went to war with Iran, conquering substantial territory until 1590.","Newman, Andrew J. 2009. Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire. I.B. Tauris. New York. $ Farrokh, Kaveh (2011). Iran at War: 1500-1988. Bloomsbury Publishing $ Savory, Roger (2007). Iran under the Safavids. Cambridge University Press. $ Jackson, Peter; Lockhart, Laurence, eds. (1986). The Timurid and Safavid Periods. The Cambridge History of Iran. 6. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press $ Roemer, H. R. (1986). ""The Safavid Period"". The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 6: The Timurid and Safavid Periods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 189-350.",
Roman Principate,-31,283,Third Century Crisis,II c,1,0,1,1,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,5,"The crisis period began in 235 CE when Emperor Severus Alexander was assasinated by his own troops. In the 50 years that followed the Principate nearly collapsed in the face of internal warfare and pressure from external foes. Internally the Principate was plagued by peasant rebellions (Bagaudae) wich were violently surpressed, and political instabilty with competitors vying to be emperor. The Plague of Cyprian hit the Principate between 249-262 CE, devestating entire regions and leading to famine due to the shortage of workers. This was exacberated by long-term weather variability which saw extreme weather and dry summers. Externally, the Romans faced invasions and warfare against the Sassanid Persian Empire and nomadic tribes from Germany and eastern Europe.  In 268 CE Rome briefly lost control over parts of France, Britain, and southern Spain as the Principate split into three competing states. Under Emperor Aurelian (r. 270-275 CE) however, all territory was recovered and under Diocletian's rule (r. 284-305) the crisis ended with a series of administrative and economic reforms which inaugurated a second phase of the Roman Empire.","Mary T. Boatwright, Daniel J. Gargola, Noel Lenski and Richard J. A. Talbert. 2012. The Romans. From Village to Empire: A History of Rome from Earliest Times to the End of the Western Empire. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press. $  Kyle Harper (2017). ""Chapter 4: The Old Age of the World"". The Fate of Rome: Climate, Disease, and the End of an Empire. Princeton University Press",
Roman Republic-Principate,-133,-29,Rome's transition from republic to empire,I bce,1.inf,0,0,1,1,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,1.inf,5,"The period of civil war, and with it republican government at Rome, effectively ended in 31 BCE when Octavian (who was granted the name Augustus in 27 BCE) defeated Mark Antony and the Egyptian army led by the Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra at the battle of Actium. They both fled to Alexandria and later committed suicide. This secured Octavian's position as the sole ruler of both Roman and Egyptian territories and he was soon declared Pharoah. In the weeks and months following his victory Augustus executed all of Mark Anthony's supporters and began passing laws which although gave the oputward appearance of maintaining a Republic, in fact granted even more power and authority to himself. In 27 BCE he was named Augustus by the Senate and made the first Roman Emperor, officially transitioning the Republic into the Roman Empire. The population at the dawn of empire was around 30 million people, with Italy itself supporting between 5 and 10 million, thus apparently experiencing population growth despite the repeated bouts of civil war. ""In the last phase, the first century BC, the population declined as a result of constant civil wars, a high urbanization index, and, during later stages, massive state-sponsored population transfers"" (Turchin and Nefedov 2009: 181). Ruler assassination: Julius Caesar, for example (Scarre 1995: 8-9). Massive elite downward mobility and extermination: ""The direct effect of sociopolitical instability [during the last century BCE] was the physical liquidation of a portion of the elite"" (Turchin and Nefedov 2009: 206).","Scarre 1995: Scarre, Chris. 1995. Chronicle of the Roman Emperors: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial Rome. London: Thames and Hudson. $ Turchin and Nefedov 2009: Turchin, Peter, and Sergey Nefedov. 2009. Secular Cycles. Princeton: Princeton University Press.",
Western Roman Empire,395,457,Collapse of Western Empire,IV c,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,1,1,1,5,"The Western Roman Empire, which was already in an ongoing state of decline, collapsed in the years following the 476 Battle of Ravenna (the Heruli under their King Odoacer versus the weakened Western Roman Army in Roman Italy). Prior to this, the Empire had been divided into two independant administrative regions due to it's vast size: the Eastern Empire ruled by Julius Nepos, and the Western Empire ruled by Romulus Augustu (who was not recognized as a legitimate ruler outside of Italy; the Eastern Roman Empire recognized Julius Nepos as the true Emperor). After the Battle of Ravenna, the West had suffered such a defeat that Odoacer deposed the emperor Romulus Augustu and became the first King of Italy. The Western Empire remained under control of Julius Nepos until his assasination in 480. At this point, the new Emperor, Zeno, conceeded that there was no central control over the Western territories, abolished the juridicial divison of the empire, and made himself sole emperor of the remaining Roman Empire.  Odoacer's Italy, and the other kingdoms who gave military support in exchange for Roman Empire land, continued to operate within Roman administrative systems.","Gibbon, E. 1995. Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol. II, Ed. J.B. Bury. Random House. $ B�rm, Henning (2008). Monumentum et instrumentum inscriptum (in German). Franz Steiner. $ Martindale, John R., ed. (1980). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire: Volume II, AD 395-527. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. $ Williams, Stephen; Friell, Gerard (1998). The Rome That Did Not Fall the Phoenix in the East. Routledge.",
Uighur Khaganate,745,840,Decline of Uighur Khaganate,IX c,1,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,1,1,5,"Between 779 and 847 CE there was a high turn over of rulers, as one after another died, or was killed in battle, or forced to flee, or forced to commit suicide, resulting in the polity seeing twelve khagans in forty-one years (out of a total fourteen throughout the entire Uighur Khaganate). The Uighur were under constant pressure from neighbouring states. The Tibetans were a source of concern, and the Kirghiz in the north posed a serious ongoing threat which broke out into full war in 820 CE which continued intermitentantly throughout the period. 839 CE brought heavy snowfall, famine and disease, which along with the ongoing wars with the Kirghiz, who destroyed the Uighur capital in 840, led to the final collapse of the state.","Mackerras, C. 1990. The Uighurs. In D. Sinor (ed.) The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, 317-342. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. $ Rogers, J. D. 2012. Inner Asian States and Empires: Theories and Synthesis. Journal of Archaeological Research 20:205-256  $ Barfield, Thomas (1989), The Perilous Frontier: Nomadic Empires and China, Basil Blackwell. p152-155. $ Wang, Zhenping (2013), Tang China in Multi-Polar Asia: A History of Diplomacy and War, University of Hawaii Press. p185-187.",
Wari,650,999,Wari Crisis in the Seventh Century,VII c,1,1,1.inf,0,0,1.inf,1.inf,0,0,0,0,0,U.susp,5,"The archaeological records show that appears that around 650 the Wari Empire suffered some sort of crisis, likely either an epidemic or revolt. The archaeological records also shows that there were changes in settlement and burial patterns, indicating that there were environmental crises during the sixth and seventh centuries, including drought. These natural disasters led to an increase in violence and warfare in the polity, for which we infer civil war and uprisings present, which led people to leave the region.",Personal Communication with Alan Covey 19/09/22,
Golden Horde,1240,1440,Great Troubles,XIV c,0,0,0,0,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,0,5,"In 1359 the ruler Berdi Beg was murder by his brother, Qulpa in a coup. In 1360 Qulpa's other brother, Nawruz Beg, murdered him and his sons. Nawruz was later betrayed by his lieutenant and executed in 1361. In 1362-63 the Golden Horde was fragmented between Keldi Beg in Sarai, Bulat Temir in Volga Bulgaria, and Abdullah in Crimea. Lithuania attacked and conquered Kiev and Podolia in 1363. There was a rebellion in Nizhny Novgorod. In 1380 the Russian princes won a significant victory over the Blue Horde general, Mamai, and in response the victorious Tokhtamysh of the White Horde sacked Moscow. Tokhtamysh then went on to reunify the fragmented lands under a central Golden Horde.","Atwood, Christopher Pratt (2004). Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. Facts On File. $ Vernadsky, George (1953), The Mongols and Russia, Yale University Press",
Ayutthaya,1594,1767,Fall of Ayutthaya,XVIII c,U.susp,0,1,1,1.inf,0,0,0,1,U.susp,1,0,0,5,"Good population statistics seem to be lacking (Bunnag et al. 2012). ""Severe"" smallpox epidemic in 1749-50 (Carmichael 2008). City of Ayutthaya was sacked by Burmese forces in 1767; kingdom ceased to exist and Thai nobility and royals settled at the Burmese court (Baker and Phongpaichit 2017: ch. 6). Coded for elite extermination and fragmentation. Baker and Phongpaichit (2017: ch. 6) argue that ""The fall of the city was due not so much to internal conflict or dynastic decline but to a failure to manage the social and political consequences of prosperity.""","Baker and Phongpaichit 2017: Baker, Chris, and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2017. A History of Ayutthaya. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. $ Bunnag et al. 2012: Bunnag, COL. Amornrat, Rosarin Gray, and Peter Xenos. 2012. �Toward an Historical Demography of Thailand. Journal of Population and Social Studies 20: 82-108. $ Carmichael 2008: Carmichael, Gordon A. 2008. �Demographic Disequilibrium in Early Twentieth Century Thailand: Falling Mortality, Rising Fertility, or Both? Asian Population Studies 4 (2): 161-76. https://doi.org/10.1080/17441730802247265.",
Fatimid Caliphate,970,1170,Fatimid Civil War,XI c,U.susp,0,0,0,0,1,1,0,0,1,1,0,1,5,"In the 1060s Egypt suffered an extended period of drought and famine. During the reign of al-Mustanṣir (r. 1036-1094) existing tensions between the different ethinic groups living in the region accelerated due to these natural disasters and declining resources and civil war broke out between the factions. Provinces in the east and west were lost to invaders. In 1071-2 the Turkish forces under Nasir al-Dawla ibn Hamdan siezed Cairo and held the Caliph and the city at ransom while also executing generals and officials. General Badr al-Jamālī (governer of Acre) returned to Cairo at the request of the Fatimid Caliph Abū Tamīm Ma'ad al-Mustansir Billah. Badr al-Jamali and his troops fought back the rebel armies and secured the Caliph and Cairo for the Fatimids. Badr al-Jamali was later made commander of the armies, director of the missionaries, and vizier, taking control of military, religious and political offices. Egypt came to be ruled as a military regime and though the Caliph was still present as a figurehead, the military viziers became head of state.","Cambridge history of Egypt vol 1 p155 $ pers. comm. Johannes Preisser-Kapeller (to Jenny Reddish), 28 September 2021",
Antebellum US,1776,1865,American Civil War,XIX c,0,0,0,1,0,1,1,0,1,0,0,1,0,5,"Although the driving forces behind the American Civil War are complex, it is widely agree that the central cause of war was the issue of slavery. There was division between the north, which had been modernising, expanding and industrialising, and the south which had a principally agricultural economy, fuelled by enslaved people. Though these geographical lines were not absolute, overall, northern Americans began to argue for the abolition of slavery, while southern white americans wanted to retain their enslaved workforce which had made them their fortunes. This came to a head when Abraham Lincoln (Republican Party) who wanted to restrict the expansion of slavery into the newly acquired states, was elected president and sworn in on 4th March 1861. In response, seven southern states (South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas) formed the Confederate States of America, declared a secession from the United States and in 1861 the Confederacy President Jefferson Davis issued a call to arms to defend the confederacy. Although Lincoln had declared that he had no intention to invade the southern states, nor to end slavery entirely at that point, he continued to arm the Union-held forts in the southern states, including Fort Sumter in South Caroline which on 12th April 1861 the Confederates attacked and captured, officially marking the beginning of the Civil War. Both sides called for volunteers to their causes and after Lincoln requested additional volunteers for a period of three years, the states of  Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, and North Carolina also joined the Confederacy. During the war, Lincoln declared the Emancipation Proclamation which freed 3.5 million people from slavery, changing the focus of the war from protecting the union to placing the abolition of slavery as central to the war. After four years of warefare, the confederate states began to surrender on 9th April 1865. On 14th April 1865 Abraham Lincoln was assasinated by a Confederate sympathiser, John Wilkes Booth. Revolution: some consider it revolution, but most just think of it as elite/military conflict with reform","Turchin, Peter. Ages of Discord: A Structural-Demographic Analysis of American History. Chaplin, CT: Beresta Books, 2016.",
Kingdom of Hawaii - Post-Kamehameha Period,1855,1898,Overthrow of Kingdom of Hawai'i,XIX c,0,0,0,1,0,1,1,0,0,0,1,0,1,5,"In 1887 a group of mostly non-Hawaiins under the Hawaiian Patriotic League began the Rebellion of 1887 against King Kalākaua and the governance of the kingdom. Under threat of assasination Kalākaua signed the Bayonet Constitution which demanded, among other items, that more power to parliament, removed wording from the constitution that implied the king was above the law, and denied him from appointing any government posts. Immeditately following the new constitution, native Hawai'ins looked to restore the king's power though it was never successful. In 1891, after  Kalākaua's death, his sister Liliʻuokalani became queen of Hawai'i. She attempted to dissolve the previous constitution which her brother had signed under duress, in order to restore power to the monarchy and reinstate the vote for those who did not meet the economic requirements of the Bayonet Constitution. In 1893, pro-American parties, supported by the landing of the US Marines on the island, staged a coup d'etat and overthrew the monarchy, with the end goal of annexing the island to the United States. US Preseident at the time, Grover Cleveland, opposed the annexation and the military force that had been used, and called for the reinstatment of Queen Liliʻuokalani. In the meantime, a Constitutional Government was called to order in an attempt to keep the monarchy from regaining full power, and The Republic of Hawai'i was proclaimed on 4th July 1894. However by 6th January 1895 the Wilcox Rebellion had been raised against the Republic which consisted of three battles in three days, and although the royalists won the first two battles, the final battle in Mānoa was a success for the republican forces who imprisoned many of the rebels and dispersed the rest. When a weapons cache was discovered at Liliʻuokalani's home, the Republic arrested her on 16th January for misprision of treason and forced her to abdicate the throne. After being under house arrest until 13th October 1896, the Republic of Hawaii pardoned Liliʻuokalani and she moved to Massachusetts. During the following year treaties were drafted for the annexation of the Hawaii'an Islands, while native Hawai'ins organised petitions against the annexation. Despite the strong opposition, the Islands were annexed officially on 12th August 1898.","Proto, Neil Thomas (2009). The rights of my people: Liliuokalani's enduring battle with the United States, 1893-1917. Algora Publishing. $ Forbes, David W. (2003). Hawaiian National Bibliography 1780-1900. Volume 4, 1881-1900. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press.  $ Liliuokalani (1898). Hawaii's Story by Hawaii's Queen, Liliuokalani. Boston: Lee and Shepard. $ Haley, James L. (2014). Captive Paradise: A History of Hawaii. New York: St. Martin's Press. $ Van Dyke, Jon M. 2008. Who Owns the Crown Lands of Hawai'i?. Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press. $  Russ, William Adam. 1992. The Hawaiian Revolution (1893-94). Associated University Presses. $",
Chagatai Khanate,1263,1487,Fragmentation of Chagatai Khanate,XIV c,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,1,0,1,1,1,5,"Between 1325-1338 there was religious conflict between the Muslim and Christian population. Tarmashirin Khan (r. 1326-1334) converted to Islam during his reign. He was deposed when an anti-Muslim rebellion was raised against his policy of assimilation between the nomadic and settled population. Tarmashirin's nephew and succesor,  Changshi, enthroned in 1335, was anti-Muslim and had one of his sons baptised. However he was murdered by his family in 1338 and his younger brother, Yesun Temur, who followed the Turko-Mongolic Tengric religion. In the 1340s power struggles among the elite in the west led to a series of emphemeral rulers who were plagued by assainations, plots, and in-fighting. In the meantime the eastern tribes were virtually independant, and they eventually appointed their own khan, Tughlugh Timur. The kingdom was thereby divided into two parts: the western section, Transoxiana, became known as the Ulus Chaghatay, and the eastern, Moghulistan. Tughlugh Timur was a strong leader who reigned until his death in 1363, and temporarily ruled both khanates when he successfully invaded Transoxiana in 1360.","Forbes Manz, B. 1983. THE ULUS CHAGHATAY BEFORE AND AFTER TEM√úR'S RISE TO POWER: THE TRANSFORMATION FROM TRIBAL CONFEDERATION TO ARMY OF CONQUEST. Central Asiatic Journal, Vol. 27, No. 1/2 (1983), pp. 79-100 $ Grousset, Ren� (1970). The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. $ Kim, Hodong (2000). ""The Early History of the Moghul Nomads: The Legacy of the Chaghatai Khanate"". In Amatai-Preiss, Reuven; Morgan, David (eds.). The Mongol Empire & Its Legacy. Brill. pp290-316.",
Artaxarid Armenia,-188,6,Civil War and collapse,I c,U.susp,0,0,0,0,1,1,0,0,0,1,1,0,4,"The fight over the Armenian crown became part of the ongoing conflict between members of the Artaxiad dynasty, and Parthians and Romans. The ruler, Artaxis II - who had taken the throne by allying with the Parthians and removing Mark Anthony's son, Alexander Helios from power in 33 BCE and then massacred all Romans in the Armenian garrisons - was unpopular with his people. A request was sent to Emperor Augustus to depose him and put his brother Tigranes III (who was being held in political exile in Rome) on the throne. Augustus agreed and a huge army was sent to carry out the plan. However, while they were enroute to depose him, a coup within the palace resulted in the murder of Artaxis in 20 BCE. The Armenian crown became the centre of the ongoing conflict between the Romans and Parthians, and the people of Armenia were eventually divided between pro-Parthian and pro-Roman parties which led to civil war. Tigranes III died before 8 BCE and his son Tigranes IV and daughter Erato became joint rulers of the throne. They were also anti-Roman and looked to Parthia for support. However, to avoid total war with Rome, the Parthians under Phraates V stopped supporting the Armenian king and queen, who then had to submit to Rome in order to stay in power, further dividing the country which had descended into chaos. While the war was ongoing, the Artaxiad dynasty weakened and gradually petered out: Tigrane IV died in battle in 1 CE, possibly fighting a revolt, and Erato later abdicated. Although distant relatives of the Artaxiad dynasty were placed on the throne, Armenian was a Roman protectorate under Emperor Augustus and the dyanasty finally collapsed in 6 CE.","Hovannisian, Richard G. 1998. ""The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times, volume I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century."" pp: 61 $ Hovannisian, Richard G. (2004). The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times: Vol. I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 372.",
Eastern Zhou,-475,-256,Fragmentation of Eastern Zhou (Warring States),-V-III c,U.susp,0,0,1,0,0,1,0,1,0,1,0,0,4,"The Parition of Jin in 403-364 BCE resulted in the victory of the Zhou, Wei and Han clans who divided the lands of Jin between themselves and became the major powers in the region. Although they were allied for a short period, Zhou began to move away from the allicance and began attacking smaller states in 383 BCE which caused retalitation from the Wei and Han. Wars between the states were constant, though Zhou expanded its territories during this period. However, In 367 BCE the two sons of Duke Wei of Western Zhou (a duchy that was created in 440 BCE) went into conflict which resulted in the division of the Zhou territories between east and west when Prince Gen won independance for the east from his brother, the new Duke Hui of Western Zhou. Historically, the kings of Zhou had resided Eastern Zhou, however on King Nan's ascension in 314 BCE, the Eastern Zhou refused to pay him tribute and Nan was deported to Western Zhou. Nan was the last king of the Zhou dynasty though by this time the monarchy lacked any personal power or territory. While the Zhou states continued to weaken due to infighting, they were also under threat by the Qin.  In 307 BCE Eastern Zhou became a vassal state of the Qin and by 249 BCE it had been fully annexed by the Qin dynasty.  The West Zhou capital of Wangcheng was conquered in 256 BCE swiftly followed by the annexation of the entire of Western Zhou. Nan was deposed by the Qin and died shortly after while he was imprisoned.","Tan, Koon San (2014). Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Petaling Jaya: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd",
Tang Dynasty,617,762,An Lushan Rebellion,VIII c,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,1,0,0,1,4,"During the 750s there was a period of instability and a decline in imperial authority which culminated in the An Lu-shan rebellion of 755-763 against the Tang dynasty in an attempt to supplant them with the Yan dynasty. During the rebellion there was a significant population loss from the warfare, famine and displacement. Rebels initially had several sucessful campaigns during 755-757 and in 756 they captured both the eastern Tang capital of Luoyang and the western Tang capital, Chang'an. However from 757-759 government forces regained territory, including Chang'an, and begin to successfully supress the revolt. The fighting continued but at a 'stalemate' for several years until the government offensive finally gained the upper hand in 762-763 and quashed the rebellion. (Peterson 1979: 474). Revolution: uprising, but was mostly elite conflict","Peterson, C. A. Court and province in mid- and late T'ang. in Twitchett, D C ed. 1979. The Cambridge History of China Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589-906 AD, Part One. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. $ Cotterell, Yong Yap and Arthur Cotterell (1975). The Early Civilization of China. New York: G.P.Putnam's Sons $ E. G. Pulleyblank, ""The An Lu-Shan Rebellion and the Origins of Chronic Militarism in Late T'ang China"", in Perry & Smith, Essays on T'ang Society, Leiden: E. J. Brill (1976).",
Yuan Dynasty,1271,1367,Fall of the Yuan Dynasty,XIV c,0,0,0,1,0,1,1,0,0,0,1,0,0,4,"From the 1340s the countryside of the Yuan dynasty suffered many natural disasters such as floods, droughts and the famines which followed. The lack of support from the government, and their ongoing ineptitude of administration, led to further discontent among the population. In the 1330s a Buddhist sect of the Song loyalists (who had been deposed by Kublai Khan and the new Yuan dynasty) formed the religious rebel group, the Red Turbans, which was ""particularly compelling to large numbers of impoverished people."" (Lorge 2005: 99) Between 1350-1355 there were several Red Turban Rebellions during Toghon Temür sent a force to quash the rebels and afterwards lost any interest in politics, leaving issues to be dealt with by local warlords. The Ming dynasty forces, led by the former commander of the Red Turban Rebellion, Zhu Yuanzhang, began approaching Yuan territory in 1368 and Temür fled north, leaving Yuanzhang to assume power as Emperor. Fighting between the Yuan against the Red Turbans and the to-be Ming dynasty continued until the Ming was officially established in 1368. (Lorge 2005: 100)","Saunders, John Joseph (2001) [1971]. The History of the Mongol Conquests. University of Pennsylvania Press. $  Peter Lorge. War, Politics and Society in Early Modern China 900-1795. Routledge. London.",
Late Medieval Bohemian Kingdom,1310,1437,Hussite Wars,XV c,1,0,0,0,0,1,1,0,0,0,0,0,1,4,"Fought between the Hussite's (Czech proto-Protestants) and a Catholic coalition of the Holy Roman Emperor, the Papacy, and European Catholic monarchs. In 1419 after the death of the Catholic King Wenceslaus IV, who had attempted to supress the Hussite religion, Catholic Germans began to be forced out of Prague and parts of Bohemia. The new king, Sigismund, launched a crusade against the Hussites in 1420 but any land that was taken was recaptured by the Hussites. Attempting to capitalise on internal strife among the Hussites, Germany undertook another crusade in 1421, followed by a crusade led by the papacy in 1423, though they were both unsucessful and the Germans were forced to seek peace in 1424. In 1426 and 1427 the Hussites were attacked again by a Roman Catholic crusader force but defeated both attempts at invasion. Peace talks were attempted but the Roman Cathlic Church launched a final crusade in an attempt to subjugate the Hussites in 1431, though the Hussites were again victorious. Lengthy negotiations led to further infighting of the Hussites culminating in 1434 with the victory of the moderate Utrquist faction against the radical Taborite faction. It was agreed that the Hussites would accept the authority of the king of Bohemia and the Catholic Church and in return were allowed to practice their own form of christianity. The Religious Peace of Kutná Hora declared that Utraquist and Catholic faiths were equal in law. Bohemian lands and population had been ravaged by the wars and the effects were felt for many years after, with some estimates showing that the population fell from around 2.80-3.37 million in 1400 to  1.50-1.85 million by 1526.","Setton, Kenneth Meyer (1975), A History of the Crusades: The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, Univ of Wisconsin Press, p. 604. $  Verney, Victor. 2009. Warrior of God: Jan Zizka and the Hussite Revolution, Frontline Books. $",
Mamluk Sultanate,1250,1348,Mongol invasions and rebellions in Mamluk Egypt,XVIII - XIV c,U.susp,0,0,0.inf,0.inf,0,0,0,1,0,1,1,1,4,"The death of Mamluk Sultan Baibars in 1277 led to a succession issue. His son Barakah had succeeded to the throne, but after a revolt in 1279 he was forced to abdicate. His brother, Solamish, took the throne but the real power laid with Qalawun, a former Mamluk soldier and emir.  As Solamish was only seven years old Qalawun successfully became ruler under the title al-Malik al-Manṣūr and sent Solamish into exile. The govenor of Damascus, Dungur, challenged Qalawun's authority, proclaiming himself sultan, however he was defeated in battle in 1280. In 1281 the Ilkhanate (part of the Mongol Empire) took advantage of the ongoing succession struggles and invaded Syria. Qalawun and Sungur had reconciled to repel this attack and succesfully defeated the Ilkhanate. Between 1285-1289 Qalawun launched several successful attacks on Crusader strongholds and brought down the Crusader County of Tripoli. Qalawun put a policy in place to replace Turkish Mamluks with Circassians, which his son, Khalil continued when he succeded to the throne. However, this caused conflict with the Mamluks and Khalil was assasinated by them in 1293. Khalil's nine-year-old brother, Al-Nasir, became sultan but the power laid with two emirs: Kitbugha, who was of Mongol origin, and the Turkic al-Shuja‘i. Their own rivalry led to the murder of al-Shuja‘i, which in turn led to Kitbugha removing the Burji Mamluks from the citadel, who then rebelled and rampaged in Cairo. An-Nasir also sought revenge for the death of his brother, which Kitbugha had been involved in, but instead Kitbugha deposed the young sultan and declared himself sultan in his place. In 1296 Kitbugha was deposed by his vice-sultan, Lajin, who ruled until he was murdered along with his vice-sultan in 1299 by a group of emirs. An-Nasir was reinstated as sultan, however as he was only 14 years old, he was once again only a nominal sultan and the actual rulers were the emirs Salar and Baibars (who had led the coup). During An-Nasir's second reign the Burji Mamluks were become more powerful, imposing taxes and carrying out briberies for their 'protection'. Baybars II later deposed an-Nasir in 1309 and  was put on the throne by the Mamluks. But a year later an-Nasir regained the throne and ruled for 30 years. In the first year of his reign, an-Nasir executed, exiled, or imprisoned any Mamluks, including the Burji, who had supported his rivals in the past.","Rabbat, Nasser (2001). ""Representing the Mamluks in Mamluk Historical Writing"". In Kennedy, Hugh N. (ed.). The Historiography of Islamic Egypt: (c. 950 - 1800) $ Northrup, Linda (1998). From Slave to Sultan: The Career of  al-Man__r Qal_w_n and the Consolidation of Mamluk Rule in Egypt and Syria (678-689 A.H./1279-1290 A.D.) $ Levanoni, Amalia (1995). A Turning Point in Mamluk History: The Third Reign of al-Nasir Muhammad Ibn Qalawun (1310-1341). Brill.",
Mamluk Sultanate,1412,1517,Fall of the Burji dynasty,XVI c,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,1,1,1,4,"In 1516 the Ottomans turned their full attention to Mamluk rule in Syria and Egypt. They seized Cairo and defeated the Mamluks in January 1517 and a few days later the Mamluk Sultan, Tuman Bay was captured and hanged at the city gates. The Burji family were retained as vassal rulers to the Ottoman Empire, while the governors of each region were selected by the Ottomans. This completed the Ottoman conquest of the Middle East.",Uraiya Faroqhi. 2009. The Ottoman Empire: A Short History. Translated by Shelley Laura Frisch. Markus Wiener Publishers.  $ M. W. Daly; Carl F. Petry (1998). The Cambridge History of Egypt. Cambridge University Press.,
Middle Kingdom Egypt,-2016,-1721,Collapse of Middle Kingdom state,XVII c bce,U.susp,0,0,1.inf,0,0,1.inf,0,1,U.susp,0,1,U.susp,4,"Collapse of Middle Kingdom centralized state, with Egypt fragmenting into territories controlled by rival powers (Bourriau 2000), also presumably civil war between these powers? Elite downward mobility coded present as old royal centres abandoned, old dynasties replaced by incomers: presumably old elite clustered round the rulers also suffered (Bourriau 2000). Not extermination, as the Thirteenth Dynasty continued to rule from Thebes, though they had lost control of Lower Egypt to the Hyksos Dynasty, of western Asian origin. Recent scholarship doesn't see this as a ""conquest"" by the Hyksos, rather the product of population movements from Asia to Egypt and emergence of local dynasty in the north after the weakening of the Middle Kingdom state. Population decline possible as texts mention famine (Ryholt 1997: 306) but not proven. Ruler killed: Seqenenre of the 17th Dynasty killed in battle trying to expel the Hyksos from the north (Clayton 1994: 96-97).","Bourriau: Bourriau, Janine. 2000. The Second Intermediate Period (c.1650-1550 BC). In The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 184-217. Oxford: Oxford University Press. $ Clayton 1996: Clayton, Peter A. 1994. Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson. $ Ryholt 1997: Ryholt, K. S. B. 1997. The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800-1550 B.C. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press.",
New Kingdom Egypt,-1293,-1071,Collapse of New Kingdom state,XI c bce,U.susp,0,1.inf,0,0,1,1,0,1,0,0,0,U.susp,4,"Collapse of New Kingdom centralized state, fragmentation into smaller territories, and there were ""significant changes in Egypt's political organization"" (Taylor 2000: 330). Civil war ""fomented by Panehsy, the viceroy of Kush"" but the period was mostly stable (Taylor 2000: 330). Possible smallpox: Ramesses V's mummy was found to have pustules typical of smallpox or a similar disease (Habicht et al. 2021), but this evidence seems too isolated to code lethal epidemic present. According to Taylor (2000: 331), the transition from the 20th Dynasty (last of the New Kingdom) to the 21st ""occurred smoothly"": perhaps no substantial elite downward mobility. No wholesale external conquest: pharaohs of Libyan origin in the north, but they did not take power through military means (Taylor 2000: 334-5).","Taylor 2000: Taylor, John. 2000. �The Third Intermediate Period (c.1069-664 BC). In The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 330-68. Oxford: Oxford University Press.",
Old Kingdom Egypt,-2350,-2151,Collapse of Old Kingdom state,XXII c bce,1.inf,0,U.susp,1,0,0,1,0,1,0,0,0,U.susp,4,"Collapse of Old Kingdom centralized state. Coded for population decline but not collapse: texts surviving from later periods speak of depopulation (along with famine, drought etc.) in the First Intermediate Period, though they are ideologically motivated to exaggerate the severity of the chaos before the centralized state re-emerged in the Middle Kingdom (Hassan 2007: 370). Settlement data not good enough to track population growth and decline in detail. Epidemics possible but not proven. Elite downward mobility: collapse of centralized government, followed c. 25 years later by the efforts of provincial elite to reestablish authority (Hassan 2007: 358). Civil war: war between rivals to the throne after the collapse of the Old Kingdom royal authority (Hassan 2007: 358). These intermittent conflicts may have lasted over a century: Hassan (2007: 358) makes a comparison to the Hundred Years' War in Europe. Territorial fragmentation certainly occurred (Hassan 2007), and conflict with ""Asiatics"" but no complete conquest of Egypt by external powers.","Hassan 2007: Hassan, Fekri A. 2007. Droughts, Famine and the Collapse of the Old Kingdom: Re-Reading Ipuwer. In The Archaeology and Art of Ancient Egypt: Essays in Honor of David B. O'Connor, edited by Zahi A. Hawass and Janet E. Richards, 357-78. Cairo: Conseil supr�me des Antiquit�s �gyptiennes | Goldstone, Jack A. Revolutions: A Very Short Introduction. OUP USA, 2014 |Sorokin, Pitirim A. The Sociology of Revolution. Howard Fertig, 1967",
Saites,-655,-526,Fall of Twenty-sixth Dynasty,VI c bce,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,1,1,1,4,"Amais II was originally an officer in the Egyptian army when a revolt against Pharoah Apries broke out. Amais was sent to meet the rebels and quell the revolts but was instead proclaimed king by the rebels in 570 BCE. Apries fled to Babylon, but was later captured and killed when he attempted to invade Egypt in 567 BCE.  When Cambyses II of Persia requested to marry one of Amais' daughter, Amais instead sent a daughter of the previous pharoah, Apries under the guide of being his own. When Cambyses II discovered the deciet he began a campaign to invade Egypt in revenge. Though Amais died before Cambyses reached him, Amais' son, Psamtik III was defeated by the Persians and Egypt was lost to them in 525 BCE.","Damien Agut-Labord�re. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in Ancient Egyptian Administration, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno Garcia, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. $ Herodotus (Trans.) Robin Waterfield, Carolyn Dewald (1998). The Histories. Oxford University Press, US. p. 170, 246-50,  $ Herodotus (Trans.) Robin Waterfield, Carolyn Dewald (1998). The Histories. Oxford University Press, US. p. 170.",
Carolingian Empire,840,986,Carolingian Civil War,IX c,0,0,0,1,0,0,1,0,1,0,0,0,1,4,"During Emperor Louis the Pious' reign he had divided the empire into three kingdoms so that all three of his sons could have some rule (but remain under Louis' empire). When Louis died in 840, the empire was plunged into civil war when his eldest son, Lothair, claimed overall rule of the empire. Louis' other sons, Louis the German and Charles the Bald, refused to be under Lothair's rule and declared civil war.  At the end of the war the Treaty of Verdun was created which divided the Caroligian Empire into three autunomous kingdoms for each of Louis' sons: Lothair I received Middle Francia, Louis the German received East Francia, and Charles the Bald received West Francia (which later became the Kingdom of France).","MacLean, Simon (2003). Kingship and Politics in the Late Ninth Century: Charles the Fat and the End of the Carolingian Empire. $ Goldberg, Eric Joseph (2006). Struggle for Empire: Kingship and Conflict Under Louis the German, 817-876.",
Kingdom of Israel,-1030,-722,Civil War in Israel and Judah,X c bce,0,0,0,0,0,1,1,0,0,0,0,1,1,4,"Dynastic and elite conflicts between the families of David and Saul and later their descendants. After the king of Israel, Saul's death in battle his heir, Ishbaal reigns for only two years before he is assasinated. David, king of Judah, also becomes king of Israel, and makes Jerusalem the national capital in 1006. Israel then rebels against David who is forced into exile, and his son, Absalom (who is said to have obtained the throne in a disreputable manner instead of his elder brother, Adonijah), is appointed king. David later counterattacks, Absalom is killed, and David becomes king again, though he has to deal with rebellions for the remainder of his reign.","Isser, S. J. 2003. The Sword of Goliath: David in Heroic Literature. BRILL.",
Delhi Sultanate,1206,1526,"Fragmentation of Delhi Sultanate in fifteenth century, conquest by Mughal emperors in 1522.",XVI c,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,1,0,1,4,"Fragmentation: ""During the 15th and early 16th centuries, no paramount power enjoyed effective control over most of north India and Bengal. Delhi became merely one of the regional principalities of north India, competing with the emerging Rajput and Muslim states"" (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2021). Massive elite downward mobility seems likely. Conflict occurred but seems to have been mostly between local/regional powers, not intrastate (civil war). No mention of lethal epidemics in this period in the sources consulted. Sings of significant decline in total cultivation / output. ","Habib, I. (2005). The Delhi Sultanate in The state and society in medieval India. Delhi: Oxford University Press,  $ McLeod, John. The history of India. Vol. 1096. No. 2905. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002 $  Alam, Muzaffar, Allchin, Frank Raymond, Dikshit, K.R., Srivastava, A.L., Subrahmanyam, Sanjay, Champakalakshmi, R., Thapar, Romila, Spear, T.G. Percival, Wolpert, Stanley A., Schwartzberg, Joseph E. and Calkins, Philip B. 2021. ""India"". https://www.britannica.com/place/India. Accessed 29 January 2021.",
Akkadian Empire,-2350,-2113,Collapse of Akkadian Empire,III c bce,1,0,0,0,0,1,1,0,0,0,1,U.susp,U.susp,4,"By the end of Shar-Kali-Sharri's reign in 2193 BCE the empire was unravelling. The invasions from the Zagros mountains by the Gutian people that had begun in his father's reign were becoming more frequent. At the same time, he faced rebellions from vassal kings who fought against the high taxes they paid to defend against the Gutian invasions. It is also  likely that a period of drought, and a resulting famine, around 2200 BCE contributed to the downfall of the empire as civil unrest increased among the population and the major site of Tell Leilan (as well as other cities) was abandoned in search of wetter areas. Nomadic tribes also migrated to find water sources which brought conflict between the groups. Upon Shar-Kali-Sharri's death in 2193 BCE, the state descended into anarchy. Four kings ruled in quick succession for three years, but it was not until Dudu came to the throne around 2189 BCE that some stability was seen, however by this point the empire had ceased to exist and he likely controlled only Akkad.","Cookson, Evangeline; Hill, Daniel J.; Lawrence, Dan (1 June 2019). ""Impacts of long term climate change during the collapse of the Akkadian Empire"". Journal of Archaeological Science. 106: 1-9. $ John Haywood (2015-06-04). Chronicles of the Ancient World. Quercus Publishing Ltd. $ Nicholas Kraus, The Weapon of Blood: Politics and Intrigue at the Decline of Akkad, Zeitschrift fur Assyriologie & Vorderasiatische Arch���ologie, vol. 108, iss. 1, pp. 1-9, June 2018.",
Parthian Empire,41,219,Fall of the Parthian Empire,III c,U.susp,0,1,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,1,1,0,4,"(Interpreting this as the decline of Parthian Empire in second century CE, extending to the eventual fall in 224 CE). No mention of population decline in the sources consulted: probably we don't know. A ""devastating epidemic of smallpox"" contributed to the decline of the Parthian Empire (Shapur Shahbazi 2005). Massive elite downward mobility doesn't seem to have occurred: aristocratic families of Parthian origin continued to dominate the army and positions in the government (Farrokh 2005: 3-27). Civil war between Vologases VI and Artabanus IV in the 210s (Livius.org 2020). External conquest: the Parthian Empire fell to the Sasanians in 224 CE, a former subject people who by this time had carved out an independent state (GeaCron 2011). Last Parthian king, Artabanus IV, killed in battle by the forces of the first Sasanian king, Ardashir I (Kia 2016: 226).","Farrokh 2005: Farrokh, Kevah. 2005. Sassanian Elite Cavalry AD 224-642. Osprey Publishing. $ Kia 2006: Kia, Mehrdad. 2016. The Persian Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. $ Shapur Shahbazi 2005: A. Shapur Shahbazi, �Sasanian Dynasty, Encyclopedia Iranica, online edition, 2005, available at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sasanian-dynasty (accessed on 26 January 2021).",
Iran Saffarid Empire,861,1003,Civil War and downfall of Saffarids,X c,U.susp,0,0,0,0,1,1,0,0,0,1,0,1,4,"During this century power struggles over territory plagued the Saffarid Empire. In 901 Amr Saffari was defeated at the battle of Balkh by the Samanids and their territory was reduced to Fars, Kerman and Sistan. In 908 a civil war broke out between the Amir, Tahir ibn Muhammad ibn Amr, and the pretender to the throne, al-Laith ibn 'Ali. Tahir was defeated, captured along with his brother and imprisoned in Baghdad for the remainder of their lives. In 912 the Samanids took control of the Sistan region and expelled the Saffarids. Sistan fell back under Saffarid control in 923 as an independant region, but by this time the dynasty was a minor power redecued to Sistan only. In 1002 Mahmud of Ghazni invaded Sistan and ended the Saffarid dynasty.","Bosworth, C. E. (1968). ""The Development of Persian Culture under the Early Ghaznavids"". Iran. 6: 34. $ Bosworth, C. E. (1963). The Ghaznavids 994-1040. Edinburgh University Press. p. 89 $  Bosworth, C.E. (1975). The Tahirids and Saffarids. In Frye, R.N. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4: From the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 90-135",
Seljuk Empire,1056,1190,Decline of Seljuq Empire,XII c,U.susp,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,1,0,1,0,1,4,"In 1141 the Seljuq Emperor, Ahmad Sanjar had to fight off revolts by Kara-Khanids in Transoxiana, Ghurids in Afghanistan, Qarluks in modern Kyrghyzstan, and an invasion by Kara-Khitais from the east who had already begun defeating vassal rulers of the Seljuq provinces. Sanjar led an army against the Kara-Khitai, was defeated and escaped, however most of his family were taken captive. The Seljuq Empire lost its eastern territories. In 1147 the Second Crusade landed in Syria and Nur ad-Din, leader of the Syrian province of the Seljuq Empire, formed a local alliance to oppose the crusaders. General Shirkuh, who had been granted the territories of of Fatimid land in Egypt was later succeeded by Saladin, a Sunni Muslim Kurd, who rebelled against Nur ad-Din, captured most of Syria, and founded the Ayyubid dynasty. At the same time, the Kingdom of Georgia also begun to expand, taking territories on the Seljuq border. The Ghuzz (Oghuz Turks) raised a rebellion in 1153, Sanjar was captured and though he managed to escape after three years he died a year later. Upon his death the already weakened and factured empire declined rapidly. Toghrul III (r. 1176-1194) the last Sultan of Seljuq (excluding Anatolia) was defeated by Takash, Shah of the Khwarazmian Empire, in 1194. The Empire finally collapsed and the only remaining former Seljuq territory was the Sultanate of Rûm in Anatolia.","Basan, Osman Aziz (2010). The Great Seljuqs: A History. Taylor & Francis. $ Peacock, Andrew (2015). The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. $ Peacock, A.C.S.; Nur Yildiz, Sara, eds. (2013). The Seljuks of Anatolia: Court and Society in the Medieval Middle East. I.B.Tauris.",
Unification Period Japan,1568,1602,Foundation of Tokugawa Shogunate,XVI - XVII c,U.susp,0,0,1,1,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,4,"Hideyoshi's death in 1598, leaving a council of lords in charge until his young son came of age, sparked off a succession struggle. The general Tokugawa Ieyasu, a former ally of Oda Nobunaga, emerged victorious from the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, cementing his power. After his victory, he was appointed shogun in 1603, founding the Tokugawa Shogunate which would dominate Japan for the next 200 years. Any daimyos (wealthy feaudal lords) who had fought against Tokugawa were executed or had all of their lands confiscated. This crisis period represents the final stage of the civil wars of unification that took place at the end of the Sengoku period.","William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. $ Hall (Editor), John Whitney (1988). The Cambridge history of Japan Vol. 4: Early Modern Japan. James L. McClain. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press $ Hall (Editor), John Whitney (1988). The Cambridge history of Japan Vol. 4: Early Modern Japan. James L. McClain. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.",
Heian,794,1184,Rebellion and Civil War,XII c,0,0,0,1,0,1,1,0,0,0,0,0,1,4,"The Genpei War (1180-1185) was the culmination of conflict between the Taira and Minamoto clans for control over the royal court and Japan. The Hōgen (1156) and Heiji (1159) rebellions led to the rise of the Samurai warrior call in court politics and power, and ultimately the Genpei Civil War. In 1179 the Taira clan staged a coup d'etat, removing all Minamoto members of the court from official posts and exiling them. This led to the five year war in which the Taira suffered a decisive defeat by the Minamoto clan who took power. Minamoto no Yoritomo was made the first shōgun of Japan which marked the beginning of a feudal state in Japan and the dwindling power of the emperor.","Turnbull, Stephen (1998). The Samurai Sourcebook. Cassell & Co $ Sansom, George (1958). A History of Japan to 1334. Stanford University Press.",
Kamakura Shogunate,1185,1333,"Genkō Civil War, fall of Kamakura",XIV c,0,0,0,1,1,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,4,"There were two uprisings in 1331 and 1333. In the first, Go-Daigo plotted to overthrow the Kamakura Shogunate by encourgaing his vassals and anti-Hōjō samurais to join his forces and rebel. Go-Daigo was betrayed by his adviser, Fujiwara Sadafusa, who alerted the shogunate, and troops were sent to Kyoto to supress the rebellion. Go-Daigo fled to a monastrey in Kasagi, but it was later attacked by Kamakura troops. Go-Daigo was captured and exiled to Oki Islands. His son, Prince Morinaga, continued to fight against the Kamakura with his loyal supporters. In 1333 Go-Daigo escaped from exile and raised an imperial army in Hōki Province. The chief general of the Hōjō clan, Ashikaga Takauji, was sent with troops to fight against Go-Daigo, but defected and joined him instead. The imperial army won several victories, and during the Siege of Kumegawa the Kamakura shogunate was officially defeated. The Hōjō clan committed mass suicide and Go-Daigo reclaimed his power from Emperor Kōgon in what became known as the Kenmu Restoration.","Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press $ Kuehn, John T. 2014. A Military History of Japan: From the Age of the Samurai to the 21st Century. ABC-CLIO $ Sansom, George (1958). A History of Japan to 1334. Stanford University Press. pp. 378-382.",
Alaouite Dynasty I,1631,1727,Succession Crisis,XVIII c,0,0,0,0,0,1,1,0,0,0,0,1,1,4,"Isma'il ruled between 1672-1727 and was one of the longest reigning Moroccan sultans. Upon his death his sons fought over the succession and the country went to war until 1757. Isma'il had fathered hundreds of sons, most of whom were eligible for the throne. While the sons were fighting for control of the throne, the country was rebelling against the taxes that Isma'il had imposed. The 'Abid had also grown incredibly powerful during Isma'il's reign and were able to install, influence and depose of sultans. Three of Isma'il's sons ruled on and off between 1727-1733 during which time installations and depositions of sultans were controlled by the 'Abid and in the meantime, north Morocco became almost completely independant of central governement, being ruled by the son of a local governor. . Abu'l Abbas Ahmad was deposed in 1728, only to be reinstated shortly after, but then deposed again on the day of his death on 5 March 1729 - he was smothered to death by his wives in a palace conspiracy. (Hamel 2014: 213) His half-brother Moulay Abdelmalik was proclaimed sultan before Ahmad was deposed but was murdered three days before his brother died. (Hamel 2014: 213) His brother and successor, Moulay Abdallah, was made Sultan and deposed six times between 1729 and 1757 (1729-1734, 1736, 1740-1741, 1741-1742, 1743-1747 and 1748-1757). Upon Abdallah's death his sole surviving heir, Mohammed ben Abdallah, beame sultan in 1757 and full order was restored across the country. (Hamel 2014: 213)","Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (2004). ""The 'Alawid or Filali Sharifs"". The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual. Edinburgh University Press. $ Wilfrid, J. Rollman (2009). "" 'Alawid Dynasty. In Esposito, John L. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford University Press. $ Abun-Nasr, Jamil (1987). A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. $ Terrasse, Henri (2012). "" 'Alawids"". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Brill. $ Chouki El Hamel, Black Morocco: A History of Slavery, Race, and Islam (Cambridge University Press, 2014).",
Late Wagadu,1078,1203,Decline of Wagadu,XI - XIII c,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,1,0,1,1,U.susp,U.susp,4,"The Kingdom of Ghana, referred to by it's majority peoples, the Soninke, as Wagadu. During the period 1075-77 the empire offcially converted to Islam to create political and commercial ties with the Almoravid people. In the late 11th century the Sosso people began to conquer large areas of the empire that had previously been agricultural land, in to which the desert was expanding. It also seems that the Wagadu rulers authority and power decreased after the conversion to Islam, suggesting that the Sosso gradually subjugated them rather than conquering through violent and sudden warfare. In 1203 the Sosso took the Wagadu capital of Kumbi Saleh, marking the end of a gradual decline of Wagadu. By 1240 the previous Wagadu territory had been completely absorbed into the kingdom of Mali.","David C. Conrad. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. $ Basil Davidson. 1998. West Africa before the Colonial Era. London: Routledge. $ Simonis, F. 2010. L'Afrique soudanaise au Moyen Age. Le temps des Grands empires (Ghana, Mali Songha�). CRDP, Acadamie d'Aix Marseille, Marseille. $  Masonen, Pekka; Fisher, Humphrey J. (1996), ""Not quite Venus from the waves: The Almoravid conquest of Ghana in the modern historiography of Western Africa"" (PDF), History in Africa, 23: 197-232 $",
United Mexican States,1810,1920,Mexican Revolution,XX c,U.susp,0,0,0,0,1,1,0,0,0,0,1,1,4,"The Mexican Revolution began abruptly when a power struggle broke out among the elite and middle classes for the 1910 presidential election. President Díaz had been in office for thirty nine years and was increasingly unpopular. Though he claimed he would step aside and not run forhe next election, he later reneged and ran again. Despite Francisco I. Madero challenging Diaz and proving a popular candidate, the election was rigged and Diaz won. Madero led an armed revolt in north Mexico and rebellions began to occur, mainly among agrarian communities. In May 1911 the rebels won a victory at the Battle of Ciudad Juárez, and the army's inability to supress them demonstrated the weakeness of the state against the insurgents. Diaz was forced to resign and in October 1911 Madero won the new election. Though Madero implemented some reforms he did not move on land reform, which prompted opposition from peasentry, agrarian communities, and the previous supporters of the Diaz regime. In 1913 Madero's political opponents and the army, with the help of the US Ambassador staged a coup d'etat, which forced the resignation of Madero and VP Suarez, who were assasinated (known as the Ten Tragic Days). General Victoriano Huerta became president in February 1913, but Governor of Coahuila, Venustiano Carranza, immediately assembled the northern Constitutionalist Army, who, with support from the US which granted arms sales to them, fought and won many successful campaigns against the Federal Army. Huerta resigned and went into exile in July 1914 and the Federal Army was dissolved. The revolutionaries met to agree on political power, but divisions between them meant that civil war was reignited - this time with the Constitutional Army fighting each other. General  Álvaro Obregón led the urban working class to victory against the Villa and Zapata factions in 1915.  The constitutional convention was held in late 1916 after Carranza, who was acting president by this time, held enough support to present a revised constitution, set out the nationalistic, economic and social aims for Mexico, which was really a minor revision of the 1857 constituion and still did not introduce the land reforms that had been fought for. The progressive faction of the Jacobins challenged the lack of land rights while the Zapata and Villa factions continued to be a threat to the government. The constituion was ratified and in February 1917 the Mexican Constitution was presented and Carranza was elected president. However, while in charge Carranza ignored the more radical reforms of the constituion and did not take any action on the promised land reforms. He faced strikes, lost support of the peasentry and agrarian communities, and ongoing conflict from the Zapata factions, which led Carranza to have Emiliano Zapata assasinated in 1919. Carranza's political power and influence was waning and a final rebellion was raised against him. He fled from Mexico City and was ambushed - dying either by assasination or suicide in May 1920. In October 1920 the revolutionary general Álvaro Obregón was elected president.","Womack, John ""The Mexican Revolution, 1910-1920"". Mexico Since Independence, New York: Cambridge University Press 1991, 128. $ Katz, Friedrich. 1981.The Secret War in Mexico: Europe, the United States, and the Mexican Revolution. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. $ Tu�on  Pablos, Esperanza. ""Mexican Revolution: February 1913 - October 1915,"" in Encyclopedia of Mexico, vol. 2. $ Garner, Paul. 2001. Porfirio D√≠az. New York: Pearson. $ Cumberland, Charles C. 1952. Mexican Revolution: Genesis Under Madero. Austin: University of Texas Press. $ Gilly, Adolfo. 2005. The Mexican Revolution. New York: The New Press.",
"Grand Principality of Moscow, Mongolian period",1240,1479,Civil war,XV c,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,1,1,0,1,4,"After Vasily II became ruler in 1425 his uncle, Yuri of Zvenigorod, made his own claims to the throne and a long family feud ensued, which was later taken up by Yuri's sons ( Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka) upon his death in 1432. These sons led the Muscovite Civil War (or Great Feudal War) which lasted until 1453. In 1446 Vasily was captured and blinded by Dmitry Shemyaka, who captured Moscow and took up rule as Prince of Moscow, until Vasily fought back and recaptured his throne and capital in 1447. Vasily was ultimately victorious in the war and the throne later passed to his son.","Ostrowski, Donald. Muscovy and the Mongols: Cross-Cultural Influences on the Steppe Frontier, 1304-1589. Cambridge University Press, 2002. Turchin, Peter. War and Peace and War: The Life Cycles of Imperial Nations. New York: Pi Press, 2005 $ Langer, Lawrence N. 2016. ""Russia: 2. Moscow, Grand Duchy of (13th century to 1547)."" The Encyclopedia of Empire: 1-11",
Umayyad Caliphate,661,749,Third Fitna and fall of Umayyad Caliphate,VIII c,U.susp,0,0,0,0,1,1,0,0,0,0,1,1,4,"The Third Fitna (Arabic term for extensive trials or distress) began with the overthrown of Caliph al-Walid II in 744. Al-Walid II was originally a popular choice in 742 but this quickly changed when it became apparent that he was more interested in earthly pleasures than religion, designated his two underage sons as his heirs, and granted the governship of Iraq to the man who had tortured his predecessor to death. Yazid III (son of a previous Caliph al-Walid I) raised a rebellion, killed a-Walid II and took control. Though he was a strong leader he died after only six months, and his brother Ibrahim was made successor. Immediately the successful revolt of Marwan II was launched to restore the throne to al-Walid's two imprisoned sons. During the ensuing battles and negotiations one of his opponents, Sulayman, had the two sons killed. After fleeing to Palmyra, Ibrahim and Sulayman eventually submitted to Marwan II. Marwan's power appeared to be stabalising, however after moving the caliphate from Damascus to Harran, the Syrians revolted against this apparent show of abandonment, and Marwan had to supress the revolts one by one. He also had to regain control of Iraq using the combined forces of two armies, and later quash another rebellion in Syria led by Sulayman. Despite desertion and switching loyalites by his own men, Marwan was sucessful in 746 and later had the walls of important Syrian towns including Hims, Damascus and Jeruselam, torn down to dissuade further resistance. While Marwan attempted to consolidate his power in the last four years of his reign the Abbasid Revolution begun and the ensuing civil war resulted in the capture and execution of Marwan in 750, which ended the Umayyad Caliphate. Revolution: successful mobilization to change rights of non-Arab residents","Hawting, Gerald R. (2000). The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661-750 (Second ed.). London and New York: Routledge. p93-102",
Rattanakosin,1782,1873,Coup,XIX c,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,1,0,1,1,4,"In 1782 the last of the Ayutthaya aristocracy staged a coup against the warrior-king ruler, Phaya Taksin, who was overthrown and executed, afterwhich they placed their own leader, Rama I Chakri, on the throne. (Baker and Phongpaichit 2014: 26) The capital was moved to Bangkok (known then as Rattanakosin or Krungthep). The kingdom went through a phase of rapid expansion under Rama I, extending north, south and east.","Baker, C and Phongpaichit, P. 2009. A History of Thailand. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.",
Middle Byzantine Empire II,867,1072,Eleventh-century crisis in Byzantine Empire,XI c,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,1,1,1,4,"During this period the Byzantine Empire faced decades of  inept rulers, economic difficulties, revolts, and territorial losses. With the shift of the army from a defensive citizen army to professional career soldiers, spending on the military had significantly increased, while by the end of Basil II's reign, the threat of invasion had receeded, and so the mercenary army was an expensive and unneccessary drain on revenue. Efforts to revive the economy resulted in inflation and debased gold. While standing local units were demobilised, the army became more dependant on mercenaries. During the Great Schism in 1054, the Normans began a steady invasion into Byzantine Italy.  Calabria was captured in 1060, in 1068 Bari was taken, soon followed by the seige of the Byzantine stronghold in Apuila which fell in April 1071. In the same year the military aristocrat, Romanos Diogenes, who had been elected as emperor in 1068, undertook a campaign to fight the Seljuks in the east. He suffered a terrible defeat, was captured, and signed a peace treaty. On his release he found of the plot to place another emperor in power, and after two defeats in battle by the rebels, he surrendered and was tortured to death. His successor, Michael Doukas (r. 1071-1078), did not honour the treaty and as a result the Turkish Seljuks continued their invasions of Antolia, which by this time had no standing army to defend against the attacks. By 1081 the Seljuks had conqured most of the Antolian plateau and founded their capital at Nicaea. In 1081 the Komnenoi dynasty came to power under Alexios I who was eventually able to curb the Byzantine decline and improve the recovery of the military and economy.","Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. $ Hooper, Nicholas; Bennett, Matthew (1996). The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p157.  $ Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). ""Alexios I Komnenos"". The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. $ Norwich, John Julius (1993), Byzantium: The Apogee, Penguin. $",
Ottoman Empire II,1517,1682,Seventeenth Century Crisis,XVII c,1,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,1,4,"Dated 1656 for 5th Military Uprising; could be dated earlier (1622 for sultan assassination, 1628 for Giray Revlot)? No fine-grained demographic data available from Clio Infra (2016): overall, population increases from 1600 to 1700. However, White (2010) refers to ""sudden population loss"" during the 17th century, accompanied by numerous epidemics. Ruler assassination: Osman II murdered in 1622 (Tezcan 2009).","Tezcan 2009: Tezcan, Baki. 2009. The History of a ""Primary Source"": The Making of T�gh�'s Chronicle on the Regicide of Osman II. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 72 (1): 41-62. $ White (2010): White, Sam. 2010. �Rethinking Disease in Ottoman History. International Journal of Middle East Studies 42 (4): 549-67. $ Clio Infra 2016: https://clio-infra.eu/Indicators/TotalPopulation.html",
Ottoman Empire II,1421,1516,First Jelali rebellion,XVI c,1.inf,0,1,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,4,"The Jelālī Revolts were a series of rebellions in Anatolia against the Ottoman Empire in response to an ongoing social and economic crisis due to taxes, depreciation of currency, admission of Muslims into the army, and the increase in elite troops (Janissaries) in Istanbul and the provinces. The Janissaries replaced the peasantry troops that made up the provincial armies and who were not paid during peace time so often resorted to banditry, which earned them the name Jelālīs. The first rebellion in 1519 was led by Celâl, an Alevi preacher who gathered around 20,000 men to march and riot in Tokat. The rebellion was violently supressed by Shah Selim I and Celâl was killed. However, this unrest continued on until the end of the sixteenth century with several organised rebellions taking place. The first rebellion also coincided with a period of plague across the empire.","White S. The Climate of Rebellion in the Early Modern Ottoman Empire. Cambridge University Press; 2011. $G�bor �goston; Masters, Bruce Alan (2010-05-21). Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. Infobase Publishing.",
Kievan Rus,880,1240,Disintegration of the Kievan Rus,XI-XIII c,0.inf,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,1,0,1,4,"The Kievan Rus state had been gradually weakening over the 12th century due to  in-fighting between regional powers, which had developed into independant states, and economic issues around trade which was disrupted and declined by the Crusades. Issues of unconventional succession systems (whereby the eldest male member of the ruling dynasty succeed to the throne) had also caused constant rivalry and familicide among the ruling class. Between 1236-1242 the Mongols invaded and conquered Kievan Rus destroying several cities including Ryazan, Kolomna, Moscow, Vladimir and Kiev. The Rus principalities became vassals of the Golden Horde.","Douglas, Robert Kennaway and J. Bernhard. 1911. ""Mongols"" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopedia Britannica. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp.712-721. $ Jerome Blum. 1971. Lord and Peasant in Russia. From the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century. Princeton. Princeton University Press.",
Pre-Colonial Period Finger Lakes,1566,1713,Beaver Wars,XVII c,1,0,1,0,0,0,1,0,1,0,0,0,0,4,"The Beaver Wars took place 1638-1684 between the Iroquois (allied with the Dutch) and Huron people (allied with France). The European demand for beaver pelts almost drove the beaver population in Iroquois and Huron territories to extinction, but the Iroquois (consisting of the  Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca tribes) looking to expand their territory and monopolise fur trade with European markets, went to war against the Huron tribes (Mahicans, Huron (Wyandot), Neutral, Erie, Susquehannock (Conestoga), and northern Algonquins). At the same time the European traders were selling firearms to the indigenous tribes, further fuelling their wars against each other. In 1648 the Dutch sold guns directly to the Iroquois, who then launched an attack on Huron territory, destroying many villages, killing warriors and taking thousands as captives. Diseases brought over from Europe was also taking a toll on all indigenous people and their population numbers decreased dramatically. Over the next few decades, French expansion into the indigenous territories resulted in ongoing wars between indigenous tribes, colonists and imperial forces.","Wallace, Paul A. W. 2007 [1961]. Indians in Pennsylvania (2nd ed.). Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission. $ Morgan, Lewis H. 1922. League of the Iroquois. Classic Textbooks. $ Johansen, Bruce E. 2006. The Native Peoples of North America. Rutgers University Press.",
Big Island Hawaii,1200,1649,Dynastic Crisis,XVI c,0,0,0,1,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,1,1,4,"In (approximately) the late 16th century, Umi killed his half-brother, Hākau, in an ambush and seized control of the kingdom. Umi then fought several wars with rebelliious chiefs on the island, defeated them all, and unified the island under his rule. Later, his two sons fought in battle at Hualālai volcano; one was killed in the process.","Kirch, P. V. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. Berkeley: University of California Press.",
Kingdom of Hawaii - Kamehameha Period,1778,1819,Civil War,XVIII c,0,0,0,0,0,1,1,0,1,U.susp,0,1,0,4,"In 1782 Kamehameha was victorious against his cousin, Kīwalaʻō, at the Battle of Mokuʻōhai. Hawaiʻi island was split into three domains, with Kamehameha taking control over the districts of Kohala, Kona, and Hāmākua. Kamehameha and his supporters planned to unifiy all of the Hawaiin Islands, leading to battles with the other domain rulers, Keoua and Keawemauhili in 1785, though Kamehameha eventually withdraws. In the 1790 Battle of Kepaniwai Kamehameha’s army defeated and killed the Maui chief, Kalanikūpule’s army and Kamehameha ravages Maui and Lanai. In the following months a series of battles between Keoua (later joined by Kahekili) and Kamehameha sees much of Kamehameha's territories invaded and sacked. However in 1791 Kamehameha retaliates against Kahekili and Kaeo and is decisively victorious in the large naval battle called ‘Kepūwaha’ula’ula’ off the coast of Kohala, in which western cannons were used. Following the battle, Keōua was killed and Kamehameha became King of Hawaiʻi island.","Kuykendall, Ralph S. 1968[1938]. The Hawaiian Kingdom, Volume 1: 1778-1854, Foundation and Transformation. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press $ Kirch, P. V. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. Berkeley: University of California Press $ Gowen, Herbert Henry (1919). The Napoleon of the Pacific: Kamehameha the Great. Fleming H. Revell Company $",
Timurid Empire,1370,1526,Disintegration of Timurid Empire,XVI c,U.susp,0,0,0,0,0,1,1,1,U.susp,1,U.susp,0,4,"The TImurid Empire was founded by Timur, a Turco-Mongol warlord who reigned from 1370 until his death in 1405. Timur had appointed his sons and grandsons as governors across the empire and upon his death family disputes and succession struggles in 1405-1409, 1447-1451, and 1490-1501 led to civil wars and the independance of several provinces across the empire. Because of the division, both politically and territorially, across the empire, the Timurid power declined rapidly in the second half of the fifteenth century. Neighbouring states such as Aq Qoyunlu and the Safavids, launched successful invasions against the weakened empire, conquering many of the key cities in the first decade of the 1500s, while the Timurids were pushed out of their territories. From Kabul, Babur (a descendant of Timur) founded the Mughal Empire in 1526.","Maria Subtelny. 2007. Timurids in Transition: Turko-Persian Politics and Acculturation in Medieval Iran. BRILL. $ A Khan. 2003. A Historical Atlas of Uzbekistan. The Rosen Publishing Group. $ ""Timurids"". The Columbia Encyclopedia (Sixth ed.). New York City: Columbia University.",
Tiwanaku Empire,800,1149,Collapse of Tiwanaku Empire,X-XII c,1.inf,1,0,U.susp,U.susp,U.susp,U.susp,U.susp,0,1.inf,0,U.susp,U.susp,3,"From 1000 CE Tiwanaku ceramics were no longer being produced. Within a few decades the capital, Tiwanaku and the largest colony, Moquegua, were abandoned. More recent theories about the collpase of the Tiwanaku Empire suggest that there were internal conflicts and struggles within the social dynamics of the polity. Parts of the capital and monoliths such as the Gateway of the Sun were intentionally damaged or destroyed, however there is no solid evidence to show whether this happened before or after the collapse. The fall of Tiwanaku led to mass migration southwards into Chile. Extreme climate drying leads to a collapse of some societies such as Tiwanaku. This changed the society in the sense that people moved out to more agriculturally viable areas, and may have moved more frequently, and there may not have been an 'elite' centre, but it was not the case that they 'died out'.","Owen, Bruce (2005). ""Distant Colonies and Explosive Collapse: The Two Stages of the Tiwanaku Diaspora in the Osmore Drainage"". Latin American Antiquity. 16 (1): 45-81. $ Dillehay, Tom D.; Pino Quivira, Mario; Bonzani, Ren�e; Silva, Claudia; Wallner, Johannes; Le Quesne, Carlos (2007) Cultivated wetlands and emerging complexity in south-central Chile and long distance effects of climate change. Antiquity 81 (2007): 949-960 $ Personal communication with Alan Covey 19/09/22.",
Sui Dynasty,581,618,Rebellions and Revolts,VII c,U.susp,0,0,0,0,1,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,3,"The Goguryeo-Sui War, a series of invasions by the Sui dynasty of China against the Korean Kingdom of Goguryeo in 598 CE and again between 612-614 CE, resulted in the defeat of the Sui dynasty and contributed to the final collapse of the dynasty in 618 CE. After the catastrophic loss of lives and resources owing to the war, the people of the Sui state rose up in widespread revolts against Emperor Yang and the Sui dynasty members of the military. A coup was led by General Yuwen Huaji, who killed Emperor Yang along with a number of high officials and relatives, and placed Yang's nephew, Yang Hao Prince of Qin, on the throne, while Huaji also made himself regent. The Sui dynasty ceased to be in power and the Tang dynasty began their rule. Revolution: was uprisings, but no revolution (not mass mobilization, no demands for system change)","Graff, David A., Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900 $ Xiong, Victor Cunrui (2006), Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty: His Life, Times, and Legacy, Albany: State University of New York Press. $ Wright, Arthur F. (1979). ""The Sui dynasty (581-617)"". In Twitchett, Dennis (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589-906 AD, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 48-149.",
Western Han Empire,-202,9,Rebellions and Wang Mang usurpation,I c,0,0,0,1,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,3,"In 1 BCE Wang Mang's cousin, Emperor Ai died and Prince Jizi of Zhongshan became Emperor (Emperor Ping). Mang, who had previously been forced to resign from his post as commander of the armed forces, became regent and undertook several drastic actions including demoting members of the Han dynasty to commoners, disinterring other royal family members, and removing politicians from their posts. He persuaded Grand Empress Dowager Wang to create him a Duke (though this was not included in the Han dynasty  system) and transfer almost all of her authority to him. When Emperor Ping came of age and made it clear that he resented Mang's actions, Mang had the Emperor poisoned, and arranged for a distant 1 year old relative to be place on the throne so that he could control him. In 6 CE the Rebellion of the Marquis, led by Marquess of Anzhong, attempted to depose Wang Mang, however it was unsuccessful. Following this there were two further unsuccessful uprisings in 7 CE. The first, the Uprising on the Great Plain was led by Chai I, the second, Uprising near Chang'an broke out near the capital. Wang Mang, confident that the empire was under his control, declared himself Emperor; the founder and only Emperor of the Xin dynasty from 9-23 CE. The Han nobles were all demoted to commoners. After Wang Mang's overthrow and death in 23 CE the Han dynasty was restored.","Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.  $ Loewe, Michael. ""Wang Mang "". A Biographical Dictionary of the Qin, Former Han and Xin Periods (221 BC - AD 24). Leiden: Brill. pp. 536-45. $ Rudi Thomsen, Ambition and confucianism : a biography of Wang Mang, Aarhus University Press, 1988. Cambridge History of China",
Holy Roman Empire,962,1266,"Civil wars, dynastic conflict",X - XI c,0,0,0,0,0,1,1,0,0,0,0,0,1,3,"Upon the death of Henry the Fowler in 936 there was a series of revolts against his son and designated heir, Otto, by Otto's younger brother and several dukes. Otto overcame these revolts and went on to take full control of the appointment of all dukes. Otto was crowned emperor by Pope John XII in 962, marking the German kings as successors to the Empire of Charlemagne, and minigling the political affairs of the German kingdom with the papacy and Italy. The following year Otto had Pope John XII deposed and replaced him with Leo VIII resulting in conflict with the Eastern Roman emperor in Constantinople. In 976 Otto II's rule was challenged by his cousin Henry Duke of Bavaria, who raised a failed rebellion against the king, and was imprisoned. However after Otto II's death, Henry was released from prison. Otto III came to the throne at the age of three, resulting in several regencies and power struggles until he came of age in 996. The regent Crescentius II led a failed revolt against Otto III shortly after his succession. Henry claimed the regency and it was granted by Archbishop of Cologne Warin. Over the years Henry formed alliances and openly contested his claim to the throne. Those who opposed his ideas went to Saxony to conspire against him, but he sent his armies to stop the opposition. Negotioations broke down and as he feared that civil war would break out eventually Henry relinqueshed his regency of Otto III. When Otto III died suddenly in 1002 with no heirs there was a succession crisis which eventually led to Henry duke of Bavaria's son becoming King Henry II. Henry II waged several wars against Poland during his reign. He was crowned emperor in 1014. When Henry II died in 1024, he had no children, and no relations in the Ottonian line to succeed him, so was the last of the Ottonian line to be Holy Roman Emperor. Therefore the College of Electors was formed in order to vote for the future emperor, Conrad II.","Middleton, John. 2005. World monarchies. London. 2005 $ C. W. Previt�-Orton. 1979. Cambridge Medieval History, Shorter: Volume 1, The Later Roman Empire to the Twelfth Century. Cambridge University Press.",
Kushites,-760,-656,Fall of Kushite Kingdom,VII c bce,U.susp,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,1,0,1,3,"In 674 BCE war broke out between the Kushites under Taharqa and the Assyrians under King Esarhaddon. Although Taharqa was successful in this fight, in 671 BCE the Assyrians attacked again, beginning the Assyrian conquest of Egypt by capturing Memphis. Taharqa fled southwards and his family were imprisoned in Assyria. Esarhaddon appointed governors as vassal rulers but their ineptitude allowed Taharqa to regain control of the city. Esarhaddon attempted again to remove Taharqa from Memphis, but he died in Palestine in 669 BCE en route to Egypt. However his successor did defeat Tarharqa who died in 664 BCE. The end of the Kushite rule and the beginning of Saite Dynasty rule in Egypt was a peaceful transition. The next King of Egypt, Tantamani, regained control of Egypt in 663 BCE, besieging cities and killing vassal rulers, until the Assyrians sent a large army south, sacked Thebes and forced Tantamani to flee to Nubia where he held control of Upper Egypt until 656 BCE when Psamtik I took control of Thebes and united Egypt under the Saite dynasty.","Edwards, David (2004). The Nubian Past. Oxon: Routledge. pp. 2, 75, 77-78. $ L�szl� T�r�k (1998). ""The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meroitic Civilization"". Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 1 the Near and Middle East. Leiden: Brill. $ Welsby, Derek A. (1996). The Kingdom of Kush. London, UK: British Museum Press. pp. 64-65.  $ Spalinger, Anthony (1976). ""Psammetichus, King of Egypt: I"". Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt. 13: 133-147.",
Carolingian Empire,840,986,Fragmentation of Carlingian Rule,IX c,0,0,0,0,0,1,1,0,1,0,0,0,0,3,"By the time of Charles the Bald's death in 877 the entire Carolingian empire was facing attacks from the Vikings in the north and west and internal struggles across the entire realm. His son died only two years after suceeding to the throne, and his kingdom was divided yet again between his two sons; Louis III, taking Neustria and Francia, and Carloman gaining Aquitaine and Burgundy. Soon after, Charles the Fat inherited the Kingdom of Italy, and in 881 he became emperor, reuniting some of the territories. Charles was unable to protect the kingdom against the Viking raiders and in 887 his nephew, Arnulf of Carinthia, raised a rebellion against his rule. Charles fled to Neidingen and died in 888 leaving the empire fragmented and with a succession crisis. The Carolingian Empire was divided yet again into seven seperate realms and would never be reunited under one ruler again.","Nicolle, David. 2005. Carolingian Cavalryman AD 768-987. Oxford: Osprey Publishing $ Chazelle, Celia. 1995. �Aix-La-Chapelle. In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 31-32. New York: Garland Publishing.",
British colonial period and early independent India Garo Hills,1868,1956,Colonial supression and control of the A'chik,XIX c,U.susp,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,1,1,0,0,3,"After the British occupation of the Garo Hills in 1867, the A'chik were overpowed by British force and firearms and, despite resistance, were eventually brought under full British administrative control in 1872-3, which lasted until independance in 1947. Once the region was under British control, executive offices were simply superimposed onto A’chik structures. The British created the office of laskar, with limited power over about ten villages. Population estimates are unavailable. Revolution: may be considered a national liberation revolution","Majumdar, Dhirendra Narayan. 1978. Culture Change in Two Garo Villages. Calcutta: Anthropological Survey of India, Govt. of India $ Roy, Sankar Kumar. 1999. �Culture Summary: Garo. eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ar05-000",
Mauryan Empire,-303,-194,Fall of Mauryan Empire,II c bce,U.susp,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,1,1,U.susp,3,"The Maurya Empire entered a period of decline and instability following Askoa's death, with weak rulers overseeing a quickly fragmenting state facing outward invasion by Bactrian Greeks. Brihadratha would be the last ruler of the Maurya dynasty, killed by his military commander Pushyamitra in 187 BCE. Pushyamitra would be the founder of the successor state of the Shunga Dynasty. Population estimates vary considerably so decline cannot be confirmed.","Singh, Upinder. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: from the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India. pp. 324-358.",
Qajar Dynasty,1794,1925,Persian Constitutional Revolution,XX c,0,0,0,1,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,3,"The Constitutional Revolution resulted in wide-reaching changes to the social and political order which saw the beginning of a modern era for Iran. In 1906 following protests and strikes by merchants and the violent supression of those involved, 12,000 men sought sanctuary at the British Embassy in Tehran and demanded a parliament. King Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar, recognising that the old order was no longer possible, signed the constitution which established a parliament and elections, personal and property rights, citizenship rights, freedom of movement, freedom of expression and censorship, as well as making the power of the Shah contingent to the will of the people, among other reforms. However, his son and successor, Mohammad Ali Shah, abolished it and with the support of the British and Russians, supressed the parliament in 1908. In 1909 another pro-constitutional movement was raised which marched to Tehran and forced the abdication of Mohammad Ali Shah. His son, Ahmad Shah Qajar was made Shah and re-established the constitution.","Massie, Eric; Afary, Janet (2019). ""Iran's 1907 constitution and its sources: a critical comparison"". British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies. 46 (3): 464-480 $ Ahmad Kasravi, History of the Iranian Constitutional Revolution: Tarikh-e Mashrute-ye Iran, Volume I, translated into English by Evan Siegel, 347 $ Amanat, Abbas (1992). ""Constitutional Revolution i. Intellectual background"". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VI, Fasc. 2. pp. 163-176 $ Mackey, Sandra. 1995. The Iranians : Persia, Islam and the Soul of a Nation, New York : Dutton. p.150-55",
Roman Kingdom,-716,-510,Foundation of the Roman Republic,V bce,1,0,0,1,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,3,"Modest population decline shown in Toynbee (1965: 438-9, data reproduced in Peter's Rome SEC spreadsheet). Elite downward mobility but not extermination: kings expelled, but patrician class survived (Drummond 1989). Civil war: overthrow of the monarchy likely involved ""bloody"" civil conflict (Beard 2015: 132). ""Most of the fifth century and the early part of the fourth century were dominated by the Conflict of the Orders, a struggle between the elites and commoners as well as between different factions of elites"" (Turchin and Nefedov 2009: 176).","Beard, Mary. 2015. SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome. London: Profile Books. $ Drummond 1989: Drummond, A. 1989. �Rome in the Fifth Century I: The Social and Economic Framework. In The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. VII, Part 2: The Rise of Rome to 220 B.C., edited by F. W. Walbank, A. E. Astin, M. W. Frederiksen, R. M. Ogilvie, and A. Drummond, 2nd ed, 113-71. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. $ Toynbee 1965: Toynbee, A. J. 1965. Hannibal's Legacy: The Hannibalic War's Effects on Roman Life. London: Oxford University Press. $ Turchin and Nefedov 2009: Turchin, Peter, and Sergey Nefedov. 2009. Secular Cycles. Princeton: Princeton University Press.",
Kamakura Shogunate,1185,1333,Jōkyū Civil War,XIII c,0,0,0,1,1,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,3,"The 1221 Jōkyū War was a result of the efforts of the retired emperor, Go-Toba allied with members of the Taira clan, against the Hōjō clan to restablish direct imperial control by the emperor and remove power from the shōgunate. The Hōjō forces easily won the war, gained greater powers, and became a gatekeeper of any decisions made by the imperial court. Go-Toba was exiled to the Oki Island for the rest of his life, his sons were banished, and his supporters were all executed or exiled. The shōgunate also seized more than 3,000 provincial estates, turning over their administrative and tax priviledges to individuals loyal to Hōjō.","Sansom, George (1961). A History of Japan, 1334-1615. Stanford University Press. pp. 7-11",
Oirats,1368,1630,Death of Esen Taishi and internal unrest,XV c,U.susp,0,0,0,0,1,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,3,"Esen Tayisi (r. 1449-1454) unified Inner and Outer Mongolia under his leadership. Esen gave his son the title of taishi (grand preceptor), angering the general, Alag, who was expecting to receive the title. Alag raised a rebellion, joined by the Oirat leaders, and defeated and killed Esen in battle. Following this, the alliance between the Oirat and Mongol tribes disintergrated and thereafter followed two centuries of frequent warfare between the Mongol tribes.","West, B, A. 2010. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.",
Khitan,907,1125,Natural Disasters,XII c,1,0,0,0,0,1,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,3,"Every year from 1065 the region was ravaged by natural disasters. Initially the southern agricultural regions were hit, but later the tribal areas were also affected. There was immense suffering and displaced people. In 1074 the Eastern Capital suffered a severe flood. In the winter of 1082-3 heavy snowfall killed 60-70 percent of livestock and horses. At the same time, teritorial disputes, rebellions and warfare ensued. The government lost revenue due to relief aid and tax exemptions. In 1069 there was a rebellion by the Zubu tribes who lived in the heartlands of Mongolia. Attacks from the Zubu under the later leadership of Mogusi continued in 1093, while the Khitans also conducted attacks on the tribes on the northern borders, which the Zubu became involved in.","Twitchett, Denis. 1994. ""The Liao"", The Cambridge History of China, Volume 6, Alien Regime and Border States, 907-1368.",
Rouran Khaganate,300,555,Overthrow of Rouran Khaganate by Turkic peoples,VI c,0,0,0,1,1,0,0,0,0,U.susp,1,0,0,3,"Haven't found population statistics: likely unavailable. Epidemic: a plague pandemic struck Europe, the Mediterranean and Persia in the 540s (Sołtysiak 2006). It seems possible that it also reached the Central Asian steppes, but I have found no mention of this in the sources. Kradin (2005: 166) writes that ""there was no evidence of any feudal civil strife until 552, when the Rouran, at the peak of their might, suffered defeat from the Turks. Then Anagui committed suicide and the khaganate fell into decay. These events marked the actual end of the khaganate. Over a period of three years, four khans followed one another but could do nothing. In 555, the ruler of the Western Wei empire handed over the remaining few thousand Rouran to the Turks, all of whom (except children under sixteen) were put to cruel death. Thus, the history of the Rouran khanate came to a tragic end."" Coded for massive elite downward mobility and extermination, external conquest, but not civil war.","Kradin, Nikolay N. 2005. �From Tribal Confederation to Empire: The Evolution of the Rouran Society. Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 58 (2): 149-69. $ So_tysiak, Arkadiusz. 2006. �The Plague Pandemic and Slavic Expansion in the 6th-8th Centuries. Archaeologia Polona 44: 339-64.",
Xianbei,100,250,Decline of Xianbei Confederation,III c,U.susp,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,1,0,3,"The nomadic empire of Xianbei Confederation was loosely established in 93 CE in Mongolia. The confederation was successful in expanding their territory for the first century, by subjugating the northern Xiongnu and gaining territory from the Ussuri to the Caspian Sea. However, Xianbei lacked organisation and when khan Tanshihuai died in 182 CE the confederation began to unravel. A short four year reign of his son, Helian, followed by succession crisis between Helian's brother, Kuitou, and son, Qianman, destroyed the unity among the Xianbei. By 190 CE the confederation had broken into three factions, with Kuitou ruling in Inner Mongolia, Kebineng in northern Shanxi, and Suli and Mijia in northern Liaodong. In 205, Kuitou's successor, his brother Fuluohan, was betrayed after attempting to form an alliance with the Wuhuan chieftain, who instead allied with another Xianbei khan, Kebineng, who killed Fuluohan. Kebineng went on to pursue a series of alliances and advances on other Xianbei territory until he was killed in 235 CE. At this point the confederacy began to disintergrate and the states were split further into smaller and independant domains.","de Crespigny, Rafe. 2017. Fire Over Luoyang: A History of the Later Han Dynasty, 23-220 AD, Brill $ Rogers, J. D. 2012. Inner Asian States and Empires: Theories and Synthesis. Journal of Archaeological Research 20:205-256",
Classic Basin of Mexico (Teotihuacan),100,649,Crisis at Teotihuacan,V - VI c,1,0,U.susp,U.susp,U.susp,U.susp,1.inf,1,0,0,0,U.susp,U.susp,3,"At the beginning of the sixth century Teotihuacan began its period of decline due to natural disasters and civil unrest. The severe climate change of 535-536, Volcanic Winter, is likely to have contributed to or begun the crisis period. The Volcanic Winter led to extended droughts, famine and overall malnutrition, which led to a decline in the population and the eventual collpase of Teotihuacan. With Teotihuacan weakened, other nearby sites such as Cholula, Xochicalco, and Cacaxtla would have competed to fill the power vacuum that it was creating with its decline. There is also later evidence that the decline of the city was hastened by increased social stratification, power struggles and civil strife, as many of the elite housing complexes around the Street of the Dead, show signs of burning and damage.","Kaufman, Terrence (2001). ""Nawa linguistic prehistory"". Mesoamerican Language Documentation Project. p4 $ Nichols, Deborah L. (2016). ""Teotihuacan"". Journal of Archaeological Research. 24 (1): 1-74. $ Leonardo L�pez Luj�n; Nadal, Laura Filloy; Fash, Barbara W.; Fash, William L.; Hern�ndez, Pilar (2006). ""The Destruction of Images in Teotihuacan: Anthropomorphic Sculpture, Elite Cults, and the End of a Civilization"". RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics. 49-50 (49/50): 12-39.",
Toltecs,900,1199,Decline of Tollan,XI - XII c,0,0,U.susp,U.susp,U.susp,0,0,0,1,1,1,0,U.susp,3,"Beginning around 1000 CE Tollan (Tula) experienced a drying climate and famine in 1070-1077 which forced the population to move southwards away from their drying homelands. This important migration led to ethno-religious conflicts while in 1115-1116 tribes from the north attacked Tollan domains, defeating the priest-king, Huemac, who abandoned the city along with many of the Toltec people. Huemac was later abandoned by his followers and the majority of Toltecs began their diaspora across Mesoamerica. Most of the living quarters of Tula were abandoned by 1150 and there is evidence of looting, the ceremonial centre being burned and the pyramids destroyed around the mid-to-late twelfth century.  However the site remained partially occupied and came under the rule of the city-state Culhuacán.","George L. Cowgill (March 2004). ""Ancient Tollan: Tula and the Toltec heartland"". 78 (299). Antiquity: 226-227. $  Hanns J. Prem (1997). Ancient Americas : A Brief History & Guide to Research. Kornelia Kurbjuhn (translator). Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press. pp. 20-23. $ Fash, W.L., & Lyons, M.E. (2005) The Ancient American World. Oxford University Press $ Knight, A. (2002) Mexico: Volume 1, From the Beginning to the Spanish Conquest. Cambridge University Press.",
Hatti New Kingdom,-1344,-1181,"Bronze Age Collapse, Hatti",XII c bce,0,0,0,1.inf,0,0,0,0,0,1,1,U.susp,U.susp,3,"Towards the end of Hatti New Kingdom, the polity experienced both prosperity and territorial expansion as well as the irreversible decline of its military and political power which ultimately led to its collapse. By approx 1200 BCE the state was under continuous attack and invasions by the Sea Peoples, the Kaskians and, in particular, the Assyrians. The Assyrians conquered much of Hittite territory and posed a great threat to their trade routes. When the capital of Hattusa, where all power was centralised, was captured and destroyed by the Assyrians around 1180 BCE, the New Kingdom of Hatti collapsed entirely. The last king, Šuppiluliuma II, seemed to have disappeared from the record by 1178 BCE though he may have died in the sack of Hattusa. The end of the Hittite kingdom was part of the Bronze Age Collapse.","Bryce, T. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. $ Gurney, O.R. (1966). The Hittites. Penguin. $ Robert Drews. 1994. The Coming of the Greeks: Indo-European Conquests in the Aegean and the Near East Princeton University Press. $ Gurney, O.R. (1966). The Hittites. Penguin.",
Old Kingdom of Hatti,-1650,-1501,Fall of Old Kingdom of Hatti,XVI - XV bce,1.inf,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,3,"The last monarch of the Old Kingdom reigned until about 1500 BCE, after which the kingdom began a steady decline. They were under constant attack, mainly from the Kaska, and the period entered a phase of reduced territory, lack of records, weakness and obscurity. From 1430 BCE, from the reign of Tudhaliya I, the polity segues in to the Hittite Empire.","Bryce T. R. (2005) The Kingdom of the Hittites, New York: Oxford University Press $ O.R. (1966). The Hittites. Penguin.",
Skythians,-427,-225,Downfall of the Scythians,III c bce,1.inf,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,1,0,0,3,"In the second half of the 3rd Century BCE the Celts and Thracians invaded from the west, and the Samartians came from the east, conquering land and leading to the downfall of the Scythian kingdom. By around 200 BCE the remaining Scythians withdrew to the Crimea where they established a new kingdom extending from the lower Dnieper to the Crimea. During their efforts to extend their control over Greek cities north of the Black Sea, they were defeated in battle, annexed territory to Bosporan Kingdom, and ceased to exist. Does not seem to be population estimates for this specific time but decline is likely considering ongoing warfare and loss of all territories.","A I Melyukova. Julia Crookenden trans. The Scythians. Denis Sinor ed. 1990. The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, Volume 1. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. $ Ivantchik, Askold. 2018. ""Scythians"". Encyclopedia Iranica. $ Cernenko, E. V. (2012). The Scythians 700-300 BC. Bloomsbury Publishing.",
Hohokam culture,300,1500,Hohokam collapse,XV c,1.inf,1.inf,U.susp,U.susp,U.susp,U.susp,U.susp,U.susp,1,U.susp,U.susp,U.susp,0.inf,3,"The end of the Hohokam Classic Period saw the fall of the Hohokam culture. Although it is unclear why this once flourishing culture collapsed, it is believed that the Great Drought of 1276-99 followed by a century of unpredictable and low rainfall led the Hohokam to abandon their settlements in the region. Not much is known about this culture, but a decline and collapse of the population is inferred and fragmentation coded present due to the evidenced site abandonmet","Abbott, David R., ed. Centuries of decline during the Hohokam classic period at Pueblo Grande. University of Arizona Press, 2003. $ https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hohokam-culture $ https://www.nps.gov/articles/hohokam-culture.htm",
Qasimid Dynasty Yemen,1637,1805,Fragmentation of Qasimid state,XVIII - XIX c,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,1,0,1,0,0,3,"Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries the Qasimid (also called Zaidi) gradually fractured into smaller states due to sucession issues and tribal rebellions. In addition, whereas coffee had been produced solely in Yemen up until this point, the imports that started in Java and the West Indies were detrimental to the Qasimid economy and territories. In 1728 the chief representative of Lahej conquered Aden, broke away from the Qasimid State, and declared himself the Sultan of Lahej, creating an independant rule. Around the same time the ruler, Al-Mansur al-Husayn II, was opposed by his brother, the governor of Ta'izz, who kept all revenue from the region for himself. At Mocha the French East India company besieged the city following the governor's refusal to pay his debt of 82,000 dollars. During Al-Mahdi Abbas' reign (1748-1775) he faced religious opposition to his rule following his imprisonment of a Rabbi (who had served the royal family for twenty eight years) and later demolished twelve synagogues in the city of Sana'a. The independant tribes of Hashid, Bakil and Barat also came into conflict with the state several times during his rule. His sucecssor, Al-Mansur Ali I (r. 1775-1809) also had to deal with rebellions by tribesmen, most notably a Sayyid, Ibn Ishaq, who with the backing of the Arhab tribesmen claimed the imamate from 1781-1785, however this was eventually supressed by Ali. Later in his rule, Ali faced worse territorial losses at the hands of the Wahhabi movement which seized territories along the coast of the Arabian Penninsula from 1803.","Ari Ariel (2013). Jewish-Muslim Relations and Migration from Yemen to Palestine in the Late Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. BRILL. p. 24 $ $ .L. Playfair, A History of Arabia Felix or Yemen. Bombay 1859, p. 115-116. $  R. Serjeant & R. Lewcock, San'a'; An Arabian Islamic City. London 1983, p. 84. $ M. Niebuhr, Travel through Arabia and other Countries in the East (translated by Robert Heron), vol. 1, Edinburgh 1792, p. 408; ibid., vol. 2, Edinburgh 1792, pp. 87-88. $ Husain ibn Abdullah al-Amri, The Yemen in the 18th and 19th Centuries; A Political and Intellectual History. London 1985, pp. 35-47",
Kushan,30,250,Disintegration of Kushan Empire,III c,U.susp,0,U.susp,U.susp,0,0,0,0,1,0,1,0,0,2,"After the death of Vasudeva I around 225 the Kushan Empire split into semi-autonomous kingdoms. The Western Kushans were quickly subjugated by the Sasanian Empire under the first Sasanian sovereign Ardashir, who captured Sogdiana, Bactria, and Gandhara. Kushan rule was then withdrawn to the eastern territories of Punjab.","Rezakhani, Khodadad (2017). From the Kushans to the Western Turks. p202. $ Harmatta, J�nos, B. N. Puri, and G. F. Etemadi. History of Civilizations in Central Asia. Volume II: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 BC to AD 250. Paris: UNESCO, 1994. p245-264",
Habsburg Empire III,1649,1866,Habsburg Empire Revolution,XIX c,U.susp,0,0,1,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,2,"1848 saw revolutions across Europe in response to conservative rule, social problems caused by the industrial revolution, and harvest failures. Uprisings in Habsburg Austria broke out shortly after the French revolts over recession and food shortages began.  In response to the demand of the resignation of the conservative Prince Metternich (State Chancellor and Foreign Minister) he fled to London and a new liberal government under Ferdinand I was established but changed five times under five different Ministers President in 1848. Ministers were unable to establish central authority over the whole of the Austrian Empire. Tax boycotts and the murders of tax collectors, and assaults against soldiers in Vienna and Milan by the lower classes were common. The army under the Habsburgs fought back against the insurgents, a number of the rebellion leaders were executed, and the revolution plans were largely supressed. However, reforms were made following the revolutions including the abolition of serfdom, the banning of censorship, and a reversal of plans for an empire-wide constitution.","Sperber, Jonathan (2005). The European Revolutions, 1848-1851. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. $ Bidelux, Robert; Jeffries, Ian (1998). A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change. London: Routledge. $ Judson, Pieter M. The Habsburg Empire: A New History (2016)",
Shang,-1250,-1045,Decline of Shang - foundation of Zhou Dynasty,XI c bce,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,U.susp,2,"The Shang was conquered by one of the tribes of its state: the Zhou from Western China. Wu Geng, the son of the Shang king, Di Xin (posthumously named Zhou), fled to the Zhou state to ask King Wu for help against his tyrannical and corrupt father.  King Wu defeated Di Xin at the Battle of Muye around 1046 BCE, and Di Xin committed suicide by setting fire to himself in his palace. King Wu established the Zhou dynasty. Zhou allowed Wu Geng to rule the Shang as a vassal kingdom, but sent an army and guards to ensure he didn't rebel. However, upon King Wu's death, Wu Geng and the remaining Shang dynasty joined The Rebellion of the Three Guards (1042-1039 BCE). The rebellion failed, Wu Geng was killed in battle, and the Shang pricedom ended.","Sawyer, R. 2011. Ancient Chinese Warfare. Basic Books. $ Robert Eno. 2009. 'Shang State Religion' in Early Chinese Religion. Part One: Shang through Han (1250 BC-220 AD), edited by John Lagerwey and Mark Kalinowski. Leiden: Brill. $ Li, Feng (2006). Axel Menges (ed.). Landscape and Power in Early China: The Crisis and Fall of the Western Zhou 1045-771 BC. $ Shaughnessy, Edward L. (1999). ""Western Zhou History"". In Michael Loewe; Edward L. Shaughnessy (eds.). The Cambridge History of ancient China - From the Origins of Civilization to 221 B.C. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 292-351 $ Hucker, Charles O. (1978), China to 1850: A short history, Stanford University Press. $ Li, Feng (2014) [1st pub. 2013]. Early China: A Social and Cultural History (Reprint with corrections ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.",
Western Zhou,-1122,-795,Military and Popular Uprisings,IX c bce,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,2,"King Li Wang of Zhou (877-841 BCE) was a corrupt king who raised taxes to pay for his decadent lifestyle and ruled as a tyrant who enacted a law that allowed him to punish anyone by death at his will. His rule became so hated that a peasant and soldier uprising took place in 841 BCE which forced Li into exile in Zhi and never returned. He died in 828 BCE, at which point his son, who had been hidden away by ministers after the uprising, became king.","Feng, Li. 2006. Landscape and Power in Early China: The Crisis and Fall of the Western Zhou 1045-771 BC $ Sources of Western Zhou History: Inscribed Bronze Vessels by Edward L. Shaughnessy",
Habsburg Spanish Empire,1521,1808,Eighty Years' War and plague in Habsburg Spain,XVII c,1,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,2,"This fifty year period saw a succession of crises for the Habsburg Spanish Empire. In 1568 the protestant William of Orange led a revolt against the spanish in the Netherlands and attempted to remove the Duke of Alva from the region. Though his attempt failed, this is considered the beginning of the Eighty Years War. Between 1572-1579 many Dutch rebels denounced Spanish rule and set about seizing Dutch coastal towns, destroying dykes, and looting southern towns which then joined the rebellion. The Spanish ended the rebellion by negotiating the Union of Arras in 1579, which saw Spanish troops leave the region. In 1584 William of Orange was murdered by a Catholic, leading to the intervention of protestant Queen Elizabeth I of England who sent British ships to attack Spanish merchants, and later the Spanish Armada, which was defeated. In 1590 when the protestant Henry IV became the successor to the crown of France, the Spanish who had been invovled in the religious warfare of France for many years, diverted half of their army from the Netherlands to France in an attempt to stop Henry becoming king. Spain were now at war with the Netherlands, England and France and could not sustain their efforts due to the great expense, which bankrupted them in 1596. In the same year Habsburg Spain suffered a plague which had entered from the north coast. This outbreak of plague was particularly destructive and within six years it had spread across the entire of mainland Spain and killed an estimated 500,000 people. In 1598, Phillip II made a peace treaty with France, and stopped payments to the Catholic League after Henry IV converted to Catholicism. Shortly afterwards Phillip died and his son, Phillip III came to power. Phillip III's government went about mass producing worthless currency in an attempt to pay for budget deficits, which caused inflation and led to bankruptcy again by 1607. Since 1590, Maurice of Nassau, son of William of Orange, had been successful in retaking several border cities in the Netherlands. The Spanish army attempted to reconquer the Netherlands but the 1607 bankruptcy prevented them from doing so. However, as the United Provinces were politically divided, Spain was able to convince them to sign the Twelve Years' Truce in 1609.","Kohn, George C. 2001. Encyclopedia of plague and pestilence: from ancient times to the present. New York: Facts on File. $ Dominguez Ortiz, Antonio (1971). The golden age of Spain, 1516-1659. Oxford: Oxford University Press. $ Parker, Geoffrey (1997). The Thirty Years' War (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge. $ Parker, Geoffrey (1972). The Army of Flanders and the Spanish road, 1567-1659; the logistics of Spanish victory and defeat in the Low Countries' Wars.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.",
Truuk peoples,1886,1948,European Proxy Conflicts,XIX - XX c,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,1,0,0,2,"Following the Spanish-American war on the Pacific, Spain 'sold' the Caroline Islands to the German Empire in 1889. In 1914 the Japanese seized the Marianas, Carolines, Marshall and Palau island groups from German control during World War I. Following Germany's defeat, Chuuk became a possession of the Empire of Japan under the League of Nations mandate.","Goodenough, Ward H. and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Chuuk",
Anglo-Saxon England,410,1066,Norman Invasion and Conquest,XI c,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,2,"The Norman invasion and conquest of England in 1066 was led by William Duke of Normandy, later King William I, and styled as William the Conqueror. William led a coalition army comprised of Normans, Bretons, Flemish and French Province soldiers in his claim to the English throne after the death of Edward the confessor in the same year. Edward had no legitimate heirs and his brother-in-law, Harold Godwinson, had succeeded to the throne. However both William and Harold men claimed that Edward had promised the throne to them. William also recruited Harold's exiled brother, Tostig Godwinson, and the Norweigian king Harald Hardrada to his cause. Tostig and Harald invaded the north of England in January 1066 and by September they had captured York. However Harold and his forces marched north and defeated the Tostig and Harald armies, killing the leaders in the Battle of Stamford Bridge. However, a few days later, William sailed to England, landing in Sussex where Harold's naval forces had dispersed. When Harold discovered that William had landed, he immeditely marched his army back south, though he was forced to leave a large portion of his troops in the north. On 14th October the day-long Battle of Hastings began and Harold was killed in the battle while the English forces were decimated. However the surviving English did not submit to his claim and instead declared that Edgar the Ætheling would be king. William then marched to London, defeating an English force at southwark and then onto Wallingford to receive the submission of Archbishop Stigand and eventually, as they could not muster forces to repel William, from the English nobles as well. William was crowned king on 25th December 1066.","Huscroft, Richard (2009). The Norman Conquest: A New Introduction. New York: Longman. $ Lawson, M. K. (2002). The Battle of Hastings: 1066. Stroud, UK: Tempus. $ Marren, Peter (2004). 1066: The Battles of York, Stamford Bridge & Hastings. Battleground Britain. Barnsley, UK: Leo Cooper.",
Pre-Ashanti Period Ghana,1501,1701,Separatist Rebellion,XVII c,0,0,0,1,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,2,"In the mid 17th century Osei Kofi Tutu I of the Oyoko state began to consolidate Asante clans into a confederation against the nation of Denkyira with the purpose of declaring independence from the oppressive state. The Ashanti Union (Ashanti Kingdom) declared war against the Denkyira. The coalition defeated them at the decisive Battle of Feyiase and declared their independance in 1701. The Ashanti city-states declared alleigence to the Ashanti capital of Kumasi. Revolution: possible, but not clear was mass mobilization","Lloyd, Alan. 1964.The Drums of Kumasi, London: Panther. pp. 21-24 $ Shillington, Kevin. 1995 (1989). History of Africa, New York: St. Martin's",
Classical Greece - Crete,-500,-322,Elite Infighting & Polity Wars,V - III c bce,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,1,0,0.inf,0,0,0,2,"During the late fourth century, constant elite in-fighting led to a near-collapse of the aristocratic order. Constant warfare, which lasted for hundreds of years, between the city states of Gortyn, Kydonia (Chania), Lyttos, Polyrrhenia and Knossos weakened Crete's economy. The city states began to invite mainland powers Macedon, Rhodes, and Ptolemaic Egypt into their wars. By 220 BCE the island was divided into two city state and mainland coalitions in the Lyttian War: The Aetolian League of Cnossus, Gortys, Cydonia, Rhodes, against the Achaean League of Polyrrhenia, Lyttos, Lappa, and Macedonia. It seems that overall the Achaean League was successful, and the Aetolians were expelled from the island, leaving Crete as a Macedonian protectorate in all but name.","Detorakis, T. 1994. History of Crete. Heraklion. $ Chaniotis, A. 2005. War in the Hellenistic World : a Social and Cultural History. Blackwell Publishing.",
Huns,376,469,Internal Power Struggles and end of the Hun Empire,V c,U.susp,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,1,0,2,"After the death of Attila in 453 power over the Huns was divided between his three sons, Ellac, Dengizich and Ernak. Dengizich succeeded his older brother Ellac, who died in battle in 454, and ruled in a dual kingship with Ernak, but through seperate division of the land. The brothers attempted to negotiate a peace treaty and trading and market rights with the Romans, but upon rejection of this, Dengizich began threatening territories of Istros and Thrace, eventually leading to a war with the Romans and previously allied Germanic tribes. When the war ended in 469, Dengizich was killed by the general of Thrace and his head paraded through the streets. This is considered the end of the Hun Empire.","Maenchen-Helfen, Otto J. (1973). The World of the Huns: Studies in Their History and Culture. University of California Press.",
Brooke Raj and Colonial Period,1842,1987,"Colonial occupation of Sarawak by the Brooke family (""White Rajahs"")",XIX c,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,2,"In 1841 British adventurer James Brooke, founder of the so-called Brooke Raj, was granted a large area of land around the town of Sarawak and later confirmed the title of Rajah of Sarawak.  The Raj expanded and colonised the Iban area of Brunei. The White Rajahs, as the dynasty is also known, pushed some Iban to the west, and incorporated others into their acquired territory. As Rajah of Sarawek, James Brook and his descendants profoundly changed the political organisation of the Iban people by creating political positions (previously not used by the Iban), leving taxes and banning exisiting traditions such as head hunting. However most Iban communites retained autonomy in local matters. The British maintained control over this particular region up until Brunei's independence in 1984.","Gomes, Edwin H. 1911. Seventeen Years among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo: A Record of Intimate Association with the Natives of the Bornean Jungles. Philadelphia, PA: J. B. Lippincott & Co. $  Sutlive Jr., Vinson H., and John Beierle. 1995. �Culture Summary: Iban. eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oc06-000",
Icelandic Commonwealth-Norwegian Kingdom,930,1380,Norweigan Conquest of Iceland and the end of the Commonwealth,XIII c,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,2,"During the Age of the Sturlungs (1200-1262) the two main clans of Iceland fought for land and power. Sturla Sighvatsson became a vassal of Haakon IV of Norway in 1235 and used his influence to wage war against the Sturluson clan (the leaders were nephew and uncle respectively). While the clans fought for decades, the Norwegian king was gaining more power over Iceland and the clans. Eventually the clans agreed to accept the sovereignty of Norway. The  Old Covenant (Gamli sáttmáli) was signed which established a union with the Norwegian monarchy. The 1262 signing of the Old Covenant is considered the end of the Icelandic Commonwealth, although little changed in the following decades, as Norway's consolidation of power was slow.","Jakobsson, Sverrir (2021). ""All the King's men. The incorporation of Iceland into the Norwegian Realm"". Scandinavian Journal of History: 1-22 $ Jakobsson, Sverrir. ""Politics and Courtly Culture in Iceland, 1200-1700"". La mati�re arthurienne tardive en Europe, 1270-1530. Late Arthurian Tradition in Europe.",
Early Republican Rome,-509,-265,Crisis of the Orders,IV-III c bce,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,2,"The Conflict of the Orders pitted Rome's wealthy elite, who enjoyed nearly all of the prestige and power of political office as well as controlling most of the city's agricultural land, against the poorer members of society (plebeians), mainly small-scale or tenant farmers who had contributed to Roman territorial expansion by serving as soldiers during the wars of the early Republic. The 'secessio plebis' which saw the plebian classes leave the city in protest against the patrician classes who could then not fend for themselves and were forced to negotiate with the commoners. In 494 BCE, the plebeians went on strike, refusing to march to war against a coalition of tribes from central Italy. A settlement was reached when Rome's aristocrats extended to the plebeians the right to vote for certain magistrates, known as the Tribunes of the Plebs (essentially the 'people's magistrates'). This was an important office charged with looking after the needs of Rome's poorer citizens, who held veto powers against decisions made in the Senate. Tensions between the aristocrats and the plebeians lingered throughout the 4th century BCE and after another series of wars against the neighbouring tribes of the Aequi, the Volsci, the Latins, and the Veii, the commoners demanded further rights. The tribuni militum consulari potestate (consular tribunate) emerged briefly during this time of disruption (to be abolished 367 BCE). This was an elected office that could be held both by members of the powerful families and the Roman citizens. In 287 BCE the Hortensian Law was passed to ensure that resolutions passed by the plebian council were final and did not have to be ratified by the patricians. This bought an end to total Patrician rule in the Roman Republic.","Hans Beck, Antonio Dupl�, Martin Jehne and Francisco Pina Polo. 2011. 'The Republic and Its Highest Office: Some Introductory Remarks on the Roman Consulate', in Consuls and Res Publica: Holding High Office in the Roman Republic, edited by Hans Beck, Antonio Dupl�, Martin Jehne and Francisco Pina Polo, 1-16. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. $ Kurt A. Raaflaub. 2005. 'The Conflict of the Orders in Archaic Rome: A Comprehensive and Comparative Approach', in Social Struggles in Archaic Rome, edited by Kurt A. Raaflaub, 1-46. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. $ Oakley, Stephen P. The Early Republic. Flower, Harriet I. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press. 17-19. $ Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. Elibron Classics. 41-48 | Goldstone, Jack A. Revolutions: A Very Short Introduction. OUP USA, 2014.",
Yayoi,-300,249,Civil War of Wa,II c,U.susp,0,0,1.inf,U.susp,U.susp,1,0,0,U.susp,U.susp,U.susp,U.susp,2,"Information for this war is limited and sometimes conflicting as it is the oldest Japanese war documented in writing - though the earliest mention of the war is from the Wei Zhi (c. 297 CE).  Chinese sources state that there were disturbances, conflicts and warfare for seventy-eighty years and for several years there was no ruler. Peace was restored around 180 CE when queen Himiko took control of the region. Himiko was said to be a shaman who used sorcery to be placed on the throne. Chinese sources also claimed that chiefdoms had been reduced from more than one hundred before the war, to about thirty in the post-war period. There is no archaeological evidence for the war or its outcomes.","Dykstra, Yoshiko Kurata (2001). Sources of Japanese Tradition: From earliest times through the sixteenth century. Columbia University Press. $ Brown, Delmer M.; Hall, John Whitney (1993). The Cambridge History of Japan: Ancient Japan. Cambridge University Press. $ Kidder, Jonathan Edward (March 2007). Himiko and Japan's elusive chiefdom of Yamatai: archaeology, history, and mythology. University of Hawaii Press.",
Mali Empire,1235,1410,"Elite Internal Struggles, decline of Mali's power, rise of Songhai",XIV c,0,0,0,0,0,U.susp,U.susp,0,0,0,0,1,1.inf,2,"After the death of Mansa Musa Keita II there was a power struggle among the ruling class. Mansa Maghan Keita II came to power in 1387, but he reigned for two years and was deposed and killed in 1389 by a non-royal, Sandaki. Sandaki then took power and was the first ruler of Mail outside of Keita dynastic family. However he only reigned for a year until Maghan Keita III (a descendant of Mansa Gao Keita) assasinated him in 1390 and the throne was brought back under Keita rule. Sources for this period are scarce and so little is known of other variables during this time.","D T Niane. Mali and the second Mandingo expansion. D T Niane. ed. 1984. General History Of Africa IV. Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. UNESCO. Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. London. $ Gomez, Michael A. (2018). African Dominion: A New History of Empire in Early and Medieval West Africa. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Levtzion, Nehemia; Hopkins, John F.P., eds. (2000). Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West Africa. New York: Marcus Weiner Press.",
Mali Empire,1235,1410,Palace Intrigue,XIII c,0,0,0.inf,U.susp,U.susp,0,0.inf,0,0,0,0,1,1,2,"Upon the death of the ruler Mansa Oulin (aka Uli or Wali or Yerelenku) after his return from pilgrimage in 1270 the empire was on the verge of collapse due to palace intrigues. His successor, Mansa Wati (sometimes shown as Wali) ruled four years after defeating his brother, Khalifa, to gain the throne. However, after Wati's death, Kalifa succeeded to the throne. Kalifa was later assasinated after being overthrown for cruel mistreatment of his subjects.","D T Niane. Mali and the second Mandingo expansion. D T Niane. ed. 1984. General History Of Africa IV. Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. UNESCO. Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. London. $ Conrad, D. C. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa. Revised Edition. Chelsea House Publishers. New York.",
Songhai Empire,1494,1591,Succession Crisis,XVI c,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,1,2,"In 1529 Askia Mohammad I's sons overthrew and imprisoned him , and one of the brothers, Askia Musa, seized the throne with the help of the ulama. Musa began killed several of his rival brothers between 1539-1531. Musa in turn then fell out of the ulama's favour and and was deposed and killed in a plot by his brothers. On the same day Mohammad Benkan, a relative of the dynasty and the highest ranking captain in the empire, took the opportunity to seize power and was declared Askia on the same day. In 1537 after a series of military failures, Benkan was himself overthrown in a coup by Askiya Isma'il, who freed his imprisoned father, Askia Mohammad I, but did not conceed the throne.","Molefi Kete Asante. 2007. The History of Africa: The Quest for Eternal Harmony. Routledge. New York. $ Hunwick, John O. (2003), Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire: Al-Sadi's Tarikh al-Sudan down to 1613 and other contemporary documents, Leiden: Brill. $  David C. Conrad. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers.",
Mongolian Confederacy,1126,1205,Crisis in Mongolian Confederacy,XIII c,U.susp,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,2,"The Mongolian Confederacy (or Khamag Mongol) became a major power in the Mongolian Plains after 1125 with the fall of the Liao dynasty. Between the 1160-1190s the Jerchens had gained the upper hand in the ongoing battles with the Mongols and began capturing their people as slaves through regular military expeditions and forcing them to pay tribute. There had been ongoing battles for power within the confederation tribes since its implementation, but it was after the poisoning and death of the ruler, Yesugei, at the hands of the Tatar tribes in 1171 that the confederation began to disintergrate. Wars broke out between tribes, and there was a power vacuum until 1189 when Temujin Khan came into rule. Although the ongoing tribal wars almost destroyed the confederation, Temujin finally suceeded in uniting or subduing all of the clans in 1206 as an empire, and was given the title of Ghengis Khan.","Atwood, P. 2004. Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. New York: Facts on File. $ Bat-Ocher Bold (2001), Mongolian nomadic society: a reconstruction of the ""medieval"" history of Mongolia, Richmond, Surrey: Curzon, p176",
Monte Alban Phase V Early Postclassic,900,1099,Fragmentation of Monte Albán state,X-XI c,0,0,U.susp,U.susp,U.susp,U.susp,U.susp,1,1,U.susp,U.susp,U.susp,U.susp,2,"The unified valley under the Zapotec state had gone by this period, replaced by around 15-20 smaller polities which were often fighting one another (as suggested by the widespread use of fortifications and descriptions in the ethnohistoric records), but the overall population of the valley continued to increase to the highest number yet reached in the valley. The Monte Alban state had previously dominated inside and outside the Oaxaca Valley, but by this period rulers from other centres were asserting their autonomy, and by 900-1000 CE Monte Alban was largely abandoned.","Blanton, R. E., et al. (1979). ""Regional evolution in the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico."" Journal of Field Archaeology 6(4): 369-390. p385-7 $ Feinman, G. M., et al. (1985). ""Long-term demographic change: A perspective from the valley of Oaxaca, Mexico."" Journal of Field Archaeology 12(3): 333-362. $ Blanton, Richard E.; Gary M. Feinman; Stephen A. Kowalewski; Linda M. Nicholas (1999). Ancient Oaxaca: the Monte Alb√°n State. London: Cambridge University Press.p359-61 $",
Rosario Phase Oaxaca,-700,-501,Increased violent conflict and social differentiation during Rosario phase,VI - V c bce,1.inf,U.susp,U.susp,0,U.susp,U.susp,U.susp,U.susp,1.inf,0,U.susp,U.susp,U.susp,2,"There is evidence for increased inter-settlement conflict and social differentiation within communities. Burnt remains of buildings have been found at Rosario phase sites, which, along with evidence for fortifications and the extensive unoccupied 'buffer zone' of 80 square kilometres between the polities, suggest inter-settlement raids and hostility at this time. While there is evidence of an emerging elite during this period, the nature of leadership and political organization remains unclear. Labour was organized for the construction of large public structures and elaborate tombs. However, the types of buildings constructed has led archaeologists Kent Flannery and Joyce Marcus to suggest that elites could not yet draw on labour and resources solely for their own personal gain. The chiefdoms during this period are also more complex than in the preceding San José and Guadalupe phases.","Stephen Kowalewski, Eva Fisch and Kent V. Flannery. 1983. 'San Jos� and Guadalupe Settlement Patterns in the Valley of Oaxaca', in The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations, edited by Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus, 50-64. New York: Academic Press. $ Richard E. Blanton, Gary M. Feinman, Stephen A. Kowalewski and Linda M. Nicholas. 1999. Ancient Oaxaca. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. $ Spencer, C. S. and E. M. Redmond (2004). ""Primary state formation in Mesoamerica."" Annual Review of Anthropology: 173-199.",
Wari,650,999,End of Wari Settlements,X-XII c,1,1,0,0.inf,0.inf,0.inf,0.inf,0.inf,0.inf,0.inf,0.inf,0.inf,0.inf,2,"Extreme climate drying leads to a collapse of some societies such as Wari. This changed the society in the sense that people moved out to more agriculturally viable areas, and may have moved more frequently, and there may not have been an 'elite' centre, but it was not the case that they 'died out'.","McEwan, G. F. 2006. The Incas: New Perspectives. ABC CLIO. Santa Barbara $ Schreiber, K. ""The Rise of an Andean Empire"" in Susan E Bergh ed. 2012. Wari: Lords of the Andes. Thames & Hudson, Inc. New York.",
Early Colonial Period Oro,1884,1942,Colonial occupation of Orokaiva lands,XX c,U.susp,0,U.susp,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,1,0,0,2,"Prior to colonial occupation the Orokaiva people (as they were called by the Europeans) lived as groups of autonomous tribes with no central political organisation and with no rulers other than 'big men' or tribal elders who helped to make collective decisions locally. In 1828 the Dutch East Indies claimed control over the western part of the island. From the start the relations between the indigenous people and europeans were violent and there was killing on both sides. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the Orokaiva lands of the island of New Guinea were controlled by the competing colonial powers of Australia, Britain, the Netherlands and Germany. By the 1880s Europeans were occupying the island, with the German New Guinea Company administering the northeastern quadrant, and a British protectorate declared over the southeastern quadrant. At the beginning of World War I, Australian forces displaced the German authorities, and in 1921 the League of Nations formalised Australian control over the north eastern quadrant. Britain annexed the south eastern part of the island in 1888, but when gold was discovered shortly afterwards in the northern districts prospectors and miners migrated up island. In 1905 the Protectorate of British New Guinea became Australian territory under the Papua Act. This resulted in administrative change and social, economic and development measures were undertaken by the Commonwealth Government of Australia. By World War II economic development, resource exploitation, and political consolidation had peaked. In early 1942 the Japanese invaded northern New Guinea but were defeated by the Allies and finally surrendered from their ongoing attacks to the islands 1945. During this entire occupation the Orokaiva remained as primarily as subsistence farmers.",Christopher S. Latham and John Beierle. 2004. Culture Summary: Orokaiva. New Haven: HRAF. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000,
"Sakha peoples, Russian period",1643,1900,Smallpox Epidemic,XVII c,1,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,2,Between 1642 and 1682 the Sakha population is estimated to have declined by 70% mainly due to smallpox epidemics and other diseases.,"Richards, John F. (2003). The Unending Frontier: An Environmental History of the Early Modern World. University of California Press. $ Mark Levene; Penny Roberts, eds. (1999), The massacre in history.",
Khwarezmid Empire,1157,1231,Tekish dies,XII c,U.susp,0,0,0,1,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,2,"The death of Shah Ala al-Din Tekish in 1200 CE (of the Khwarazmian dynasty) triggered revolts, uprisings and massacres.  The people of Jibal and Samarkand rose up and massacred as many of the Karakhanid dynasty family members (who had previously been conquered by Tekish) that they could find. There were many revolts. There was also a widespread massacre of the Khwarazmian Turkic soldiers who were stationed in Iran.","Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton. $ Davidovich, E A. in Asimov, M S and Bosworth, C E eds. 1997. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part I. UNESCO.",
Neo-Hittites,-1180,-901,Decline of Neo-Hittites,X c bce,0,0,0,U.susp,0,0,0,0,1,U.susp,1,0,0,2,"After the collapse of Hatti New Kingdom in 1180 BCE, the Hittite civilization was reorganised into fifteen small, independant, city-states in the periphial areas of the former kingdom. The states, collectively refered to as Neo-Hittite, were spread across south-eastern Anatolia and northern Syria. There were major cultural and admistrative changes across each Neo-Hittite state compared to the previous New Kingdom era. The remaining Hittite states were regularly at war with the Assyrians and the Kaska people. These states lasted for around 500 years after the collapse of the New Kingdom until they began to be conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The remaining states of Carchemish and Melid were made vassal kingdoms by Assyrian king Shalmaneser III (r. 858-823 BC) and were fully incorporated in Assyria during 717-708 BCE in the reign of Sargon II.","Bryce, T. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. $ Bryce, T. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.",
Roman Dominate,284,394,Civil Wars of Tetrarchy,IV c,U.susp,0,0,0,0,1,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,2,"Due to the vastness of the empire, administrative reforms were undertaken by Diocletian (284-305 CE), and his co-Emperor Maximian (286-305 CE) to ensure that the highest level of Roman authority could be present in more than one place at a time. Already split into East and West under two 'Augusti', now referred to as dominus (lord) rather than princeps (first citizen), they added two 'Caesares', who were to be the deputy and successor for the Emperors. The four men ruled from prefectures with capitals at Nicomedia, Mediolanum, Sirmium and Trier assisted by Praefectus Praetorio. The Tetrachry ended in 313 CE - with four emperors and one caesar all at war with one another in a struggle for supreme power -which had descended into civil wars. However the elite infighting continued on until 325 CE when Constantine reinstated a single postition of emperor.","Boatwright, M, Gargola, D, Lenski, N, Talbert, R (2011) The Romans: From Village to Empire: A History of Rome from Earliest Times to the End of the Western Empire $ Baker, D. C. 2011. The Roman Dominate from the Perspective of Demographic-Structural Theory. Cliodynamics: The Journal of Theoretical and Mathematical History. University of California. $ James F. Morgan. 2012. The Roman Empire: Fall of the West, Survival of the East. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse. $ Bunson, M. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, Revised Edition. New York: Facts on File.",
Cahokia Moorehead,1200,1274,Abandoment of Cahokia Mounds,XIII c,1,1,U.susp,0,0,0,0,0,0,U.susp,0,0,U.susp,2,"Cahokian agriculture, population, public works, architecture and politics developed rapidly between the 11th - 13th centuries. Created and added to during the Lohmann Stirling phase (1050-1250), the Cahokia mounds were being constructed even throughout the population decline in the later Stirling period. The population appears to have spread outwards into rural areas and away from Cahokia. It is not known exactly why this happened, and so quickly. Some authors posit that the stresses put on resources in the surrounding region by the rapid development, and the political stresses on the population, meant that Cahokia could no longer support itself. There is also evidence for flooding and droughts.  Disease may have contributed to the abandonment but there is no definitive evidence for this. By the end of the 13th century, Cahokia was abandoned and did not fall back into use until the 18th century.","https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frsc.2019.00006/full $ Milner, G R. 2006. The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. University Press of Florida. Gainesville. $  Kelly, John (2009). Contemplating Cahokia's collapse. In: Global Perspectives on the Collapse of Complex Systems. Maxwell Museum of Anthropology. pp. 147-168. $ Henderson, Harold. ""The Rise and Fall of the Mound People"". Chicago Reader.",
"Chaco Canyon, Late Bonito phase",1101,1140,"Site abandonment, internal conflict, increasing inequality",XII - XIV c,1.inf,0,U.susp,U.susp,U.susp,U.susp,U.susp,1,0,0,U.susp,U.susp,U.susp,2,"The reasons for the abandonment of the ancestral homes of the Puebloans is not entirely certain, however there may have been several factors which contributed to the site abandonment during the Pueblo III phase (1150-1300). There is archaeologial evidence for issues such as climate change, deforestation, topsoil erosion. And, around 1276-99 North America experienced the Great Drought which is likely to have caused crop failure as well as impacted wild foods that the Pueblo relied on. In addition, the population had increased so quickly between 700-1130 CE - through migration as well as birth rates - that it was also likely that there were hostilities between different groups, and religious and cultural changes. However, the archaeological record also shows that it was not unusual for the Ancestral Puebloans to move their settlements to adapt to climate change. Modern Pueblo peoples state that the Ancestral Puebloans simply moved further southwest for favourable weather and water sources.","Sedig, Jakob W. �The Decline and Reorganization of Southwestern Complexity: Using Resilience Theory to Examine the Collapse of Chaco Canyon. In Beyond Collapse: Archaeological Perspectives on Resilience, Revitalization, and Transformation in Complex Societies, edited by Ronald K Faulseit, 237-61. Southern Illinois University Press, 2016. $ Scheffer, Marten, Egbert H van Nes, Darcy Bird, R Kyle Bocinsky, and Timothy A Kohler. Loss of Resilience Preceded Transformations of Pre-Hispanic Pueblo Societies. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118, no. 18 (2021). https://www.pnas.org/content/118/18/e2024397118#sec-5. $ Diamond, Jared (2005), Collapse: How societies choose to fail or succeed, London: Viking Penguin",
Kingdom of Hawaii - Kamehameha Period,1778,1819,Contact Period,XIX c,1,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,2,"In 1778 British captain, James Cook, landed on the island of Kauaʻi and then sailed to other islands in the chain. After contact the population of the islands began to decline due to the introduction of smallpox.","On the Road of the Winds: An Archaeological History of the Pacific Islands Before European Contact. Berkeley: University of California Press $ Kuykendall, Ralph S. 1968[1938]. The Hawaiian Kingdom, Volume 1: 1778-1854, Foundation and Transformation. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. $ Kirch, Patrick V. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. Berkeley: University of California Press.",
Greco-Bactrian Kingdom,-248,-130,Decline of Greco-Bactrian Kingdom,II c bce,U.susp,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,U.susp,1,U.susp,0,1,"The Greco-Bactrians entered an alliance with the Seleucids under Demetrius II in order to fight against the Parthians whose ongoing invasions and victories over conquering Greco-Bactrian territory had weakened their position. Spurred on by the expansion of the Xiongnu, nomadic tribes began to move southwards and pushed into Greco-Bactrian territory throughout the second century BCE. The nomadic steppe people, the Yuezhi, also began moving southwards in Bactrian territory, after being driven out of their region by the Wusun. The Scythians (Saka) began to invade in the mid-second century BCE, expanding from the Tarm Basin and conquering parts of Parthia as well as Bactria, bringing about the decline of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom and putting an end to Greek rule in the region.","Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing. $  Bernard, Paul. 2012. Ai Khanum: A Greek Colony in Post-Alexandrian Central Asia, or How to Be Greek in an Oriental Milieu. In Afghanistan: Forging Civilizations along the Silk Road, edited by Joan Aruz and Elisabetta Valtz Fino. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. ",
Western Han Empire,-202,9,"Series of Uprising, Revolts and Invasions",II c bce,U.susp,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,"During this period, the Han dynasty set about expanding their territories in a series of invasions on neighbouring kingdoms. In 111 BCE the naval Invasion of Nanyueh (Vietnam) gained them territory that would stay under Chinese rule for a thousand years. In 109 BCE the conquest of the Dian Kingdom and the 108 BCE conquest of Gojoseon and parts of the Korean penninsula gave the Han dynasty a monopoly over much of the eastern trade routes. However there were uprisings by the Yunnan tribes and along the silk road trade route in 105 BCE, after which the Han were forced to recognise the local chiefs. in 105-102 BCE the War of the Heavenly Horses was the result of trade disputes over the newly acquired Han territories, with the coalition of tribes, the Xiongnu, against the ultimately victorious Han dynasty.","Zhao Xu (2018-05-26). ""The four-footed legends of the silk road"". China Daily. Retrieved 2020-04-04. $ enjamin, Craig (2018), Empires of Ancient Eurasia: The First Silk Roads Era, 100 BCE - 250 CE, Cambridge University Press. $",
Colonial Lowland Andes Period,1534,1830,Uprising and Rebellion against the Spaniards,XIX c,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,"In 1809 the first Ecuadorian patriot uprising against Spanish rule took place in the capital, Quito. In 1822 the armies of Simón Bolívar and Antonio José de Sucre invaded from Colombia to assist the Ecuadorian rebels in their fight. They won the Battle of Pichincha which assured Ecuador's independance. On their independance, the Gran Colombia confederation was formed, consisting of what is now Ecuador, Panama, Colombia, and Venezuela. However, in 1830 after many regional rivalries, Ecuador left the confederation to become an independant republic.","Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro",
Victorian United Kingdom,1837,1901,Chartist Movement,XIX c,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,"The Chartist Movement sought reform in the politics of Britain and was raised first in 1838. The original Reform Act which had been passed in 1832 did not extend the vote to those who did not own property and this, combined with the Poor Law Amendment of 1834 which took away outdoor relief (in the form of money, clothes and food for the poor) and championed the workhouses, drew a huge wave of opposition from the working class and their political leaders. The movement quickly gained traction, particularly in the poorer, northern, industrial areas, and soon spread across the country and in 1836 the  London Working Men's Association was founded for the southeast Chartists. In 1838 the People's Charter was published by a committee made up of MPs and working class men. They had six demands: Votes for men 21-years-old and above (when in sound mind and not undergoing criminal punishment); the secret ballot; no property qualification for MPS; monetary support for those who leave their livelihood to attend to the interests of the nation; equal constituencies; and annual parliamentary elections. A National Convention was held in January 1839 to officially present the petition which had been signed by 1.3million people, though MPs voted to not hear the petition. Riots, marches and plans of uprisings occurred across the country and armed soldiers killed and wounded many chartists at a confrontation in Newport. Over the next few years other uprisings were held and several leaders were arrested and put on trial, receiving sentances of transportation or hard labour; one, Samuel Holberry, died while in prison and became a Chartist martyr. In 1842 amid economic depression, workers went on strike against their reduced wages. The authorities arrested more chartists leaders and imprisoned hundred of men and women who took part in riots. However the arrests did not deter the Chartists and the movement continued, while in 1847 Feargus O'Connor was elected the first and only Chartist MP (representing Nottingham).  Chartist activity increased even further from February 1848 following the news of a revolution in Paris. Riots and demonstrations were organised and Parliament revived a seventeenth century statute that forbid more than ten people presenting a petition in person to deter the crowds. O'Connor ensure that the rules were followed and it was presented by just a few Chartists leaders. However further legislations were passed criminalising activities such as proposing war against the monarch or attempts to intimidate parliament, which were punishable by death or transportation. After 1848, the movement declined rapidly and the requested reforms were not passed.","Malcolm Chase. 2007. Chartism: A New History. Manchester University Press. $  Dorothy Thompson. 1984. The Chartists: Popular Politics in the Industrial Revolution. $ Archer, J.E. 1996. Social Unrest and Popular Protest in England 1780-1840. Cambridge University Press. $ Slosson, Preston William. 2019. The Decline of the Chartist Movement. Wentworth Press. 95-98.",
Hellenistic Aegean - Crete,-323,-69,Mithridatic Wars,I c bce,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,1,"There were three Mithriadiatic Wars between 88-63 BCE. Crete became involved in the Third Mithriadic War (74-63 BCE) in 71 BCE when they repelled an attack by Roman general Marcus Antonius Creticus. The attack on Crete continued for three years until 69 BCE when the island was conquered by Rome. Crete became a Roman province, and Gortyn was made its capital city.","Francis, J. and Kouremenos, A. 2016. Roman Crete: New Perspectives. Oxford: Oxbow.",
Satavahana Empire,-100,203,Fall of the Satavahana Empire,III c bce,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,U.susp,1,"Although the Satavahana court was ruled by an emperor, the provinces were governed by feudal lords who were often related by blood to the royal family and had a degree of autonomy in their province. It has been suggested that the empire was too dependant on the competancies of individual rulers and the provincial governors, rather than having a central administrative structure. Therefore, when Pulumavi IV died in 225 CE, the territory quickly split into five smaller, independant kingdoms, only one of which was ruled by a branch of the Satavahana dynasty.","Nath Sen, S. 1999. Ancient Indian History and Civilization. New Age International. $ Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra (2003). Ancient India. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.",
Asuka,538,710,Reform Period,VI - VII c,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,"In 645 Prince Naka no Ōe and Nakatomi no Kamatari led a successful revolt against the Soga clan due to their monopolised control over the government. The Taika Reform was then introduced which mandated a series of reforms and established the ritsuryō system of social, fiscal, and administrative processes. Ryō was an administrative code and ritsu was the penal code. Land reform was the first to be implemented, with all landholdings of the great clans being brought under control of the throne upon an owners death, rather than passing to their heir. Hereditary clan chieftan titles were abolished. The country was divided into provinces led by governors who were appointed by the central court. The Taika Reform was influenced by Chinese practices","L. Worden, Robert (1994). ""Kofun and Asuka Periods, ca. A.D. 250-710"". A Country Study: Japan. Federal Research Division, Library of Congress.",
Chenla,640,801,Chenla Dynastic Conflict,VIII c,0,0,0,U.susp,U.susp,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,0.inf,1,"During the early eigth century there was a dynastic dispute among the Chenla royal family. According to Chinese sources, The New Book of Tang, this resulted in the divison of the kingdom into two seperate polities after 706 CE: Land (or Upper) Chenla and Water (or Lower) Chenla. These seperate kingdoms both reverted to anarchic states as they had been before unification unde the kings of Funan, and then the kings of Chenla. Some scholars of the Chinese transcripts believe that Chenla began to disintergrate during the 700s also due to attacks by the Shailendra dynasty of Java.","Sternstein, Larry (1964). ""An Historical Atlas Of Thailand"". Journal of the Siam Society. 3 (1-2). $ Vickery, Michael (1994), What and Where was Chenla? Recherches nouvelles sur le Cambodge, Paris $ West, B. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania, Volume 1. Facts On File.",
Phoenician Empire,-1180,-1031,Phoenecian Cities Conflicts,XI c bce,U.susp,0,U.susp,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,"During the period 1140-1030 there were several conflicts between the politically independant Phoenecian city states of Tyre, Sidon, Beirut, and Byblos which were favoured by the Egyptians. These cities were independantly ruled and fiercely competitive, and although they shared culture, religion and language, there is no evidence that they ever united together as one country. Population statistics are lacking.","Lockard, Craig. A. 2008. Societies, Networks, and Transitions: Volume I: A Global History, Volume 2. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company",
Kingdom of Norway,1262,1380,Unions and Disunities,XIV c,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,1,"The union between the Scandanavian countries was made possible through Margaret of Denmark. Margaret was the daughter of Valdemar IV of Denmark and wife of Haakon VI of Norway (who in turn was on of Magnus IV of Sweden). Her son, Olaf inherited the crowns of Denmark and Norway in 1376 and 1380 respectively, but died in 1380, at which point Margaret became regent of both countries and adopted her great-nephew Eric of Pomerania as heir. In 1388 Swedish nobles called on Margaret to overthrow their king, Albert, and on her victory, Eric was prounounced King of Norway. He was also elected King of Denmark and Sweden in 1396 and crowned in Kalmar. The Kalmar Union was also favoured by the ruling elite as a way to prevent the German Hanseatic League, who had previously taken advantage of the struggles between the Scandanavian countries to gain territory, from expanding further into the Baltic region.","Karlsson, Gunnar (2000). The History of Iceland $ Harald Gustafsson, ""A State That Failed?"" Scandinavian Journal of History (2006) 32: 3. $ Norman, L. T.. ""Margaret I."" Encyclopedia Britannica, October 24, 2021. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Margaret-I.",
Inca Empire,1400,1531,Inca succession crisis',XV c,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,"After the 9th Inca dies in 1470 there are a series of rebellions. The 1490 succession crisis is seen as an 'episode' rather than a full blown 'war' by scholars, largely confined to turmoil among the ruling family and other powerful elite families. ","Cook, Noble David. 2004. Demographic Collapse: Indian Peru, 1520-1620. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. $ Covey 2020: Covey, R. Alan. 2020. Inca Apocalypse: The Spanish Conquest and the Transformation of the Andean World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. $ Nair 2007: Nair, Stella. 2007. �Witnessing the In-Visibility of Inca Architecture in Colonial Peru. Buildings & Landscapes: Journal of the Vernacular Architecture Forum 14: 50-65. $ Rowe 2006: Rowe, John H. �The Inca Civil War and the Establishment of Spanish Power in Peru. �awpa Pacha 28 (1): 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1179/naw.2006.28.1.002. $ personal communication with Alan Covey 19/09/22.",
Middle Byzantine Empire,632,866,Rise of Macedonioan Emperors,IX c,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,1,"The Macedonian dynasty of emperors began in 867 with Basil I who succeeded Michael III after being crowned as co-emperor in 866. Basil the Macedonian was Michael's favourite courtier, and as Michael's marriage was childless he adpoted - the much older - Basil in order to secure his legacy. When Michael began to show favour to another courtier, Basiliskianos, Basil had Michael assasinated and immediately succeeded as emperor. Basil I was an effective king and oversaw legislative reforms, great architectural constructions, succesful wars against the Arabs and Paulicians, and regained southern Italian territory.","Finlay, George (1853). History of the Byzantine Empire from DCCXVI to MLVII. Edinburgh, Scotland; London, England: William Blackwood and Sons. $ Mango, Cyril (1986). The Art of the Byzantine Empire 312-1453: Sources and Documents. University of Toronto Press. $ Mango, Cyril (1986). The Art of the Byzantine Empire 312-1453: Sources and Documents. University of Toronto Press.",
Modern Austria,1649,1866,Reforms of Marie Theresa,XVIII c,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,"Maria Theresa became the ruler of the Habsburg dominions on the death of her father in 1740. She implemented institutional, medical, educational and financial reforms throughout her reign. The financial reforms improved the economy and more than doubled the state revenue. Her medical reforms included the promotion of inoculation including opening an inoculation centre and incentives for getting vaccinated, regulating the sale of poisons, and prohibited the use of lead in eating and drinking vessels. A unified legal system was created across the Habsburg domains, criminal codes made witchcraft and various religious 'offenses' a criminal matter. She also established the Chastity Commission to clamp down and punish those involved in prostitution, homosexuality, adultery, and inter-religious sex. Torture was legal until 1776, though Maria Theresa was opposed to it's abolition. Her educational reforms included the introduction of secular subjects, permission for non-Catholics to attend university, and the mandatory schooling of all children aged six to twelve.","Crankshaw, Edward (1970). Maria Theresa. New York: Viking Press. $ Hopkins, Donald R (2002). The greatest killer: smallpox in history, with a new introduction. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. $ Vocelka, Karl (2009) [2000]. Geschichte √ñsterreichs: Kultur, Gesellschaft, Politik (3rd ed.). Munich: Heyne Verlag. $ Kr�mer, Klaus (15 March 2017). ""What made Austria's Maria Theresa a one-of-a-kind ruler"". Deutsche Welle.",
Northern Song,960,1126,Government conflict and Wang An-shi reforms,XI c,U.susp,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,"In the 1060s Wang An-shi, a reformist minister, was appointed by the new Emperor Shenzong to carry out political reforms to strengthen the Song Empire. Wang An-shi's reforms included the introduction of the Baojia system (community-based law enforcement), Green Sprouts Law (loans for peasants to buy seeds), Three College Law (regulation of education for officials), Equal Tax law (land registration project to ensure taxes were being paid), Balanced Delivery law (trade management and central control of government purchases), and General and troops law (to mix infantries and improve relationships between officials and common troops) among many other laws aimed at curbing government spending, improving the lives of common people and strengthen the military. However, many of Wang An-shi's reforms angered elite groups such as high officials, landowners and merchant guilds and a faction within the political party led by Sima Guang strongly and openly opposed the new laws. In the menatime, natural disasters had added to the suffering of peasants and when a famine struck northern China in 1074 Emperor Shanzong dismissed Wang An-shi and temporarily suspended the reform laws. Wang An-shi was reinstated a year later but due to the hostilities from other party members he resigned his position. His reforms were officially ended in 1085 when Emperor Zhezong of Song came to power.","Levine, Ari Daniel. 2008. Divided by a Common Language: Factional Conflict in Late Northern Song China. Lorge, P. 2005. War, Politics and Society in Early Modern China, 900-1795 $  Mote, F.W. (1999). Imperial China: 900-1800. Harvard University Press. pp. 122, 138-142. $ von Glahn, Richard (2016), The Economic History of China: From Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century",
"State of Wei, W-S Period",-488,-223,Decine after losses against Qi,IV c bce,U.susp,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,"The state of Jin had been divided into three states ruled by Wei, Han and Zhoa. Wei was one of the largest and most powerful states and its rulers continuously waged war on its neighbouring states, gained territories and expanded into parts of Shandong and Henan. However, at the Battle of Guiling (353 BCE) and the Battle of Mailing (341 BCE) the Wei suffered major losses at the hands of the state of Qi. The power of the Wei state began to decline considerably.","Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.  $ Theobald, Ulrich. 2017. The Feudal State of Wei. Accessed June 6. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/rulers-wei.html.",
Medang Kingdom,732,1019,Hindu-Buddhist Struggles,VIII c,0,0,0,U.susp,U.susp,0,U.susp,0,0,0,0,0,U.susp,0,"There were two Hindu-Buddhist Struggles between two competing dynasties, the Buddhist Sailendra family and the Shaivite descendants of King Sanjaya. However some scholars believe they may have been two branches of the same dynasty - the Shailendras - who were divided by religious royal patronage. The First Struggle (Date unknown) resulted in victory for the Buddhist faction. The Second Struggle (772-778) was won by the Sivaist Hindus. Both conflicts resulted in a change of official religion.","C�d�s, George (1968). The Indianized states of Southeast Asia. University of Hawaii Press. $ Hall, K.R., Economic History of Early Southeast Asia, in Tarling, N., Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Volume 1: From Early Times to c.1800, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. ",
Icelandic Commonwealth,930,1261,Conversion to Christianity,X c,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,"The settlers of Iceland, coming from Scandaniavian countries, were pagans who worshipped the Norse gods. In mainland Europe, Christianity was on the rise and there was pressure on Icelanders to follow suit. From 980 Christian missionaries began visiting Iceland and following the ascension of the christian king Olf Tryggvason to the Norweigian throne in 998. By 1000 many leaders of Iceland had converted to Christianty, and it seemed as though a civil war between pagans and Christians may break out. However, chieftain  Thorgeir Ljosvetningagodi was appointed to decide Icelands religion. They country was made officially Christian but pagans were permitted to worship privately. In 1056 the first bishop of Iceland, Ísleifur Gissurarson, was consecrated.","Bagge, Sverre (2014). Cross and Scepter: The Rise of the Scandinavian Kingdoms from the Vikings to the Reformation. Princeton University Press. p. 64 $ Curta, Florin and Holt, Andrew. 2016. Great Events in Religion: An Encyclopedia of Pivotal Events in Religious History. ABC-CLIO. p482.",
Lombards,568,774,Civil War,VI c,U.susp,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,U.susp,0,0,"In 585 King Authari went to war with the rebel Duke Droctulf of Brescello who was allied with the Romans and ruling the Po Valley. The civil war lasted until 590 when Droctulf was defeated and forced to retreat to Ravenna, while the region of Brescello was taken by the Lombards. Authari died in 590 possibly of poisoning but this is not confirmed. There are no population estimates for this period.","Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. 2010. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge $ G. W Bowersock, Peter Brown, Oleg Grabar, and Credo Reference. Late Antiquity a Guide to the Postclassical World. Harvard University Press Reference Library. Cambridge, Mass: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1999.",
Phoenician Empire,-1293,-1031,Late Bronze Age Collapse,XII c bce,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,"Unlike many other polities who weakened or ended during the Late Bronze Age collapse, the Phonecians emerged as a strong and organised civilisation. This is sometimes referred to as the Phonecian Rennaisance, during which time their trade and economy flourished.","Scott, John C. 2018. ""The Phoenicians and the Formation of the Western World"" in Comparative Civilizations Review 78 (4).",
"Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty",1776,1917,Reforms of Tsar Alexander II,XIX c,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,"A series of major social, political, legal and governmental reforms carried out under the rule of Tsar Alexander II, often driven by the threat of revolution, rather than for moral reasons. In 1858 most censorship restriction were removed from the media, resulting in new publications and open discussion through the platform about further reforms that were required. All in-service serfs were freed and the practice of serfdom was abolished in the Emancipation Reform of 1861 which granted over 23 million people their freedom and the full rights of citizenship in the Russian Empire. One of Alexander's top advisors, Minister of War Dmitry Milyutin, was responsible for many military reforms, but also created the framework for the Circassian Genocide of 1861-1865 which saw the ethinic cleansing, torture, mass murder or expulsion of 800,000-1.5million Muslim Circassians from their homelands. In 1864 a new judicial systems was created, including a new penal code, and a simplified civil and criminal procedure system such as trials in open court, juries and justices of the peace who dealt with minor local offenses. Educational reforms were brought in between 1858-1863 which allowed women to attend secondary schools and allowed some to audit university courses, private sunday schools were opened, though they were later closed down as the government disliked the innovations they were teaching. State banks were founded in 1860, municipal backs in 1862, and savings bacnk in 1869. National finances and budgets were overhauled and supervised by a newly created Ministry of Finance, and tax collection was centralised. Salt taxes were abolished. The country's budget deficit was cleared by 1867. In turn, the increasing budget allowed for the expansion of the railway system. Special taxes that had previously been imposed on Jewish people were eliminated and those who graduated secondary school were now entitled to leave the Pale of Settlement and undertake state employment. Alexander remained an autocrat despite his reforms. He was later assasinated in 1881.","Mawdsley, Evan (2007). The Russian Civil War. New York: Pegasus Books. $ Wood, Alan (1993). The origins of the Russian Revolution, 1861-1917. London: Routledge. $ Wade, Rex A. (2005). The Russian Revolution, 1917. Cambridge University Press.  $ Alexander Rabinowitch. 2008. The Bolsheviks in Power: The First Year of Soviet Rule in Petrograd. Indiana UP. $ Pipes, Richard.  1990. The Russian Revolution. New York. $ Service, Robert (1993). The Russian Revolution, 1900-1927. Basingstoke: MacMillan. $ Wydra, Harald (September 2012). ""The Power of Symbols - Communism and Beyond"". International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society. 25 (1-3): 49-69.",
Late Byzantine Empire,867,1072,Great Schism,XI c,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,"JR: ""Not sure is this is 'crisis', but important religious/political reform: Eastern Orthodox Christianity starting in 1054 CE, after the estrangement and Great Schism between church leaders in Rome and Constantinople due to controversies over jurisdictional authority and matters of orthodoxy."" This was the formal split between the Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church. Greek churches in southern Italty were told to conform to Latin practices or close. In response,  Michael I Cerularius of Constantinople ordered the closure of all Latin churches in Constantinople. There were periods of temporary reconiciliation as well as negotiations, threats, and demands from both sides but the break in communion was not fully resolved.","Cross, Frank Leslie; Livingstone, Elizabeth A. (2005). ""Great Schism"". The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. Oxford: University Press. $ Dragani, Anthony (2005). Adrian Fortescue and the Eastern Christian Churches. Gorgias.",
Us Reconstruction-Progressive,1866,1933,Progressive Era,XX c,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,"Period of social activism and political reforms often led by the progressive reformers of the middle classes and activists from across society who sought to address problems linked to political corruption, industrialisation and urbanisation. This included the fight for women's suffrage leading to the formation of the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) in 1890 and National Women's Party in 1916. The Nineteenth Amendment, which prohibits the US from denying citizens' the right to vote based on their sex, was introduced on 26th August 1920. The development of labour unions in the early 20th century,  particularly the American Federation of Labor (AFL), put pressure on the government to introduce regulations and standards that favoured the worker. This led to the establishment of the Department of Labour on 4th March 1913, while in September 1916 the Federal Employees' Compensation Act granted benefits to workers who became ill or injured in the workplace. Educational Institutions undertook changes to incorporate a rounded education system and improvements to non-academic subjects. Higher level education also gained popularity. Between 1933-39 President Franklin D. Roosevelt enacted public works, financial reforms and regulations, known as The New Deal, which provided support for farmers, the unemployed, youth and the elderly.","John D. Buenker, John C. Boosham, and Robert M. Crunden, Progressivism (1986) pp 3-21  $ ""The Nineteenth Amendment"". Library of Congress $  Carol Berkin; et al. (2011). Making America, Volume 2: A History of the United States: Since 1865. Cengage Learning. pp. 629-632. $ Reese, William (2001). ""The Origins of Progressive Education"". History of Education Quarterly. 41 (1): 1-24",