Vo] l GRAMINEAE 53 23. THYSANOLAENA Nees THYSANOLAENA MAXIMA (Roxb) O. Kuntze Rev. Gen. PI. (1891) 794; Pilger in Perk. Frag. Fl. Philip. (1904) 141; Merr. in Philip. Journ. Si. 1 (1906) Suppl. 343. Agrostis maxima Roxb. Fl. Ind. 1 (1820) 319. Thysanolaena agrostis Nees in Edinb. New Philos. Journ. 18 (1835) 180. Thysanolaena acarifera Arn. & Nees in Nov. Act. Acad. Nat. Cur. 1 9 (1843) Suppl. 1: 181, Vidal Rev. PI. Vase. Filip. (1886) 289. Luzon (Ilocos Norte, Apayao, Bontoc, Benguet, Nueva Vizcaya, Nueva Ecija, Bulacan, Zambales, Bataan, Laguna, Tayabas, Sorsogon), Mindoro, Palawan, Mindanao. On banks of ravines, slopes, about cliffs, etc, at low and "medium, altitudes, ascending to 1,600 m. India through Malaya to New Guinea. Local names: Bugubui (Pamp) ; buybui (Ilk); eagadu (Bon); gatbo (Bik) ; lasa (Tag); tagadeu (Bon) , tagisa (Sub); tambu (Tag); talankaran (Ig). 24. DIGITARIA Scopoli DIGITARIA CHINENSIS Nees in Hook. & Arn. Bot. Beechey Voy. (1841) 231. Paspalum ftlicidme Nees ex Thwaites Enum. PL Zeyl. (1859-64) 358. Digitaria violascens Merr. in Philip. Journ. Sci. 1 (1906) Suppl. 347, 3 (1908) Bot. 396, Fl. Manila (1912) 88, non Link. Batan Islands and northern Luzon to Palawan and Mindanao, in most islands and provinces, Merrill 4148, 9388, 7107, 7677, 4788, Phil. PL 17 U, B. S. 21715, 14524, 13939, 8250 Ramos. In open grasslands at low and medium altitudes. India to China and Malaya. Local names: Timi (Bon); tumi (Bon); ualisibis (Iv). DIGITARIA CORYMBOSA (Roxb) comb. nov. Panicum co-rymbosum Roxb. Hort. Beng. (1814) 7, nomen nudum, Fl. Ind. 1 (1820) 292. Panicum microbachne Presl Rel. Haenk. 1 (1828) 298; Kunth Enum. 1 (1833) 81. Digitaria consanguinea Merr. in Philip. Journ. Sci. 1 (1906) Suppl. 347, 3 (1908) Bot. 396, Fl. Manila (1912) 88, Sp. Blancoanae (1918) 64, non Gaudich. Panicum sanguinale Rolfe in Journ. Bot. 23 (1885) 216; Vidal Phan. Cuming. Philip. (1885) 157, non Linn. Digitaria lanosa Llanos Frag. PI. Filip. (1851) 28; F-vill. & Naves in Blanco Fl. Filip. ed. 3, 4 1 (1880) 19. Panicum gaudichaudii F-vill. Novis. App. (1882) 311, non Kunth. Panicum pruriens Trin. var. glabrum Nees in Hook. Journ. Bot. Kew Miscel. 2 (1850) 97. Throughout the Philippines at low and medium altitudes in open waste places, old clearings, etc, usually common, Merrill 4-230, 5347, 7368, 9276, Sp. Blancoanae 787, Phil. PL 126, Elmer 18216, 16818, 164-17, 9570, B. S. 12036, 13334, 32736, 14746 Ramos. India to southern China and Formosa through Malaya to Samoa. Local names: Banana (Sub); bacilli (C. Bis); balisibis (Iv) ; baud


236 BARBICAN. A specimen of this is in the British Museum, and appears to be a young bird in the state of changing its pinnae. 4— BLACK-THROATED BARBICAN. Bucco niger, Indorni. 204. Gm. Lin. 407. Gen. Zoolog. p. 30. Barbu 4 gorge noire de Luon, Son. Voy. 68. t. 34. Buf. vii. p. 103. Black-throated Barbet, Gen. Syn. ii. 501. SOMEWHAT larger and longer than the Common Grosbeak. Bill blackish, furnished with a sort of process or tooth, about two-fifths from the tip ; forehead fine red; the crown, hind part, throat, and neck black ; above each eye a curved stripe of yellow, which, as it proceeds downwards, becomes white, and descends in a strait line to the lower part of the neck; beneath this a black stripe, and between it and the throat a white band, which goes on to, and blends with, the breast ; and this, as well as the rest of the under parts, is white ; middle of the back black, but the side feathers, between the neck and back, have a yellow spot on each ; wing coverts black, four of them fringed with white, and one with yellow, forming a stripe across the wing ; beneath this, some of the feathers are spotted with yellow at the ends ; and under these, others, which have yellow margins ; quills black, bordered with yellow ; legs black. Inhabits the Philippine Islands ; also the Cape of Good Hope. A specimen, from the latter, in the British Museum, was seven inches long, and differed only in having the rump of a beautiful yellow. A. — Bucco niger, Indorni. 204; 8. 3. Le Barbu i Plastron noir, Buf. vii. 104. Bucco rufifrons. Red-fronted Barbet, Gen. Zool. ix. p. 31. Barbu du Cap de B, Esperance, PL enl. 688. 1. Length six inches and a half Bill black; forehead crimson; from this passes a stripe of black over the head, and down the back


20 HOLLISTER. Kerivouta whitehead! Thomas. 1894. Kerivoula whiteheadi Thomas, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist, VI, 14, 460. Type locality. — Isabela, N. E. Luzon. Luzon (Thomas). Family MOLOSSID. Genus CHAEREPHON Dobson. 1874. Chaerephon Dobson, Journ. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, 43, pt. 2, 144. Type. — Nyctinomiis johorensis DOBSON. Bats with ears connected by a low band across crown; tragus very small; tail long, free from interfemoral membrane about half its length. Upper lip thick, deeply grooved by vertical wrinkles. Wing membrane from the lower end of tibia. Fur short; color dark blackish-brown above, marbled below. Head and body about 75 millimeters. Chserephon plicatus (Buchanan). 1800. Vespertilio plicatus Buchannan, Trans. Linn. Soc, 5, 261. 1907. Chaerephon plicatus Andersen, Ann. Mus. Civ. di Storia Nat. di Genova, III, 3, 37, April. Type locality. — Puttahaut, Bengal. Philippine Islands (Dobson) ; Luzon (Elera) Order CARNIVORA. Family MUSTELID. Genus MARTES Pinel. 1792. Martes Pinel, Actes Soc. Hist. Nat, Paris, 1, 55, footnote. Type. — Martes domestica Plnelmarfes foina (Erxleben). Martens, the single supposed Philippine species about the size of a domestic cat; head and body of male 458 millimeters; tail, 340. Body long and slender; tail long, but less than length of body. Color somewhat variable, but ordinarily with head brown, shoulders lighter, and rump, legs, feet, and tail black; sides of neck and throat yellowish. Martes henricii (Westerman). 1848. Mustela (Martes) henricii Westerman, Bijdragen tot de Dier-kunde, 1, 13. Type locality. — Java. Sulu (Trouessart). Sanchez, Los Mamiferos de Filipinas, does not allow this species a place in his list on this authority. Possibly it should be dropped from Philippine lists.


MAMMALS OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 29 Epitnys luteiventris (Allen). 1910. Mus hdeiventris Allen, Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist, 28, 14, January 29. Type locality. — Iwahig, Palawan. Palawan (Allen). Epimys Luzonicus (Thomas). 1S95. Mus luzonicus Thomas, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist, VI, 16, 163. Type locality. — Highlands of northern Luzon. Luzon (Thomas). Epimys magnirostris (Mearns). 1905. Mus magnirostris Mearns, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus, 28, 441. Type locality. — Zamboanga, Mindanao. Mindanao (Mearns). Epimys mindanensis (Mearns). 1905. Mus mindanensis Mearns, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus, 28, 442. Type locality. — Todaya, Mount Apo, Mindanao; 1,219 meters. Mindanao (Mearns). Epimys mindorensis (Thomas). 1897. Mus mindorensis Thomas, Minutes Proc. Zool. Soc. London for June 15, 1897, June 19. Type locality. — Mount Dulangan, Mindoro. Mindoro (Thomas). Epimys neglectus (Jentink). 1880. Mus neglectus Jentink, Notes from Leyden Mus, 2, 14, January. 1911. Epimys neglectus Lyon, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus, 40, 98, April 25. Type locality. — Borneo. Mindoro (Thomas). Epimys negrinus (Thomas). 1898. Mus ephippium negrinus Thomas, Trans. Zool. Soc. London, 14, pt. 6, p. 403, June. 1911. Epimys negrinus Hollister, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash, 24, 90, May 15. Type locality. — Negros Island; 2,011 meters. Negros (Thomas). Epimys norvegicus (Erxleben). 1777. Mus norvegicus Erxleben, Syst. Regn. Anim, Class I, Mamm, 381. 1908. Epimys norwegicus Satunin, Mitt. Kaukas. Mus, Tiflis, 4, 59. Type locality. — Norway. Luzon (Thomas) ; Samar (Sanchez) ; Masbate (Sanchez); Mindoro (Sanchez). Epimys pantarensis (Mearns). 1905. Mus pantarensis Mearns, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus, 28, 448. Type locality. — Pantar, Mindanao; 581 meters. Mindanao (Mearns)


42 HOLLISTER. USSA CHRYSOTRICHOS Heude. 1888. Ussa chrysotrichos Heude, Mem. Hist. Nat. Emp. Chinois, 2, pt. 1, 39. Type locality. — La Laguna and Batangas, Luzon. Ussa cinereus Heude. 1899. Ussa cinereus Heude, Mem. Hist. Nat. Emp. Chinois, 4, pt. 3, 140. Type locality. — Cebu Island. Ussa corteanus Heude. 1888. Ussa corteanus Heude, Mem. Hist. Nat. Emp. Chinois, 2, pt. 1, 37. Type locality. — Mariveles, Luzon. Ussa crassicornis Heude. 1888. Ussa crassicornis Heude, Mem. Hist. Nat. Emp. Chinois, 2, pt. 1, 23. Type locality. — Cebu. Ussa dailliardianus Heude. 1888. Ussa dailliardianus Heude, Mem. Hist. Nat. Eittp. Chinois, 2, pt. 1, 32. Type locality. — Jala-jala, Laguna, Luzon. Melanaxis () elegans Heude. 1888. Melanaxis () elegans, Heude, Mem. Hist. Nat. Emp. Chinois, 2, pt. 1, 49. Type locality. — Philippine Islands. Ussa elorzanus Heude. 1888. Ussa elorzanus Heude, Mem. Hist. Nat. Emp. Chinois, 2, pt. 1, 28. Type locality. — Bataan Province, Luzon. Ussa francianus Heude. 1888. Ussa francianus Heude, Mem. Hist. Nat. Emp. Chinois, 2, pt. 1, 24. Type locality. — Mati, Mindanao. Ussa garcianus Heude. 1888. Ussa garcianus Heude, Mem. Hist. Nat. Emp. Chinois, 2, pt. 1,29. Type locality. — Nueva Ecija, Luzon. Ussa gonzalinus Heude. 1888. Ussa gonzalinus Heude, Mem. Hist. Nat. Emp. Chinois, 2, pt. 1, 85. Type locality. — Philippines, probably Luzon. Ussa gorrichanus Heude. 1888. Ussa gorrichanus Heude, Mem. Hist; Nat. Emp. Chinois, 2, pt. 1, 21. Type locality. — Batangas, Luzon.


46 HOLLISTER. Dugong dugon Muller. 1776. Trichecus dugon Muller, Natursyst, Suppl. und Reg, 21. Type locality. — Cape of Good Hope to Philippine Islands, and further east toward the south pole and Straits of Magellan. Mindanao (Elera). SPECIES ERRONEOUSLY CREDITED TO THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS BY ELERA. In his Catalogo Sistematico de Toda la Fauna de Filipinas, Casto de Elera records from definite islands many species of mammals which simply do not and never have occurred there. These records are probably based on misidentified specimens, as nearly all are listed as represented in the collection of the Colegio-universidad de Santo Tomas de Manila. Some of them obviously represent species since described from the Philippines, which he had confounded with Indian or Chinese forms and are thus accounted for in the present list. The records which I have ignored as quite impossible, or too improbable for serious consideration without better evidence, are listed below. Doubtless a few of these species, or their local representatives, especially certain of the bats, will eventually prove to inhabit the Islands. CHIROPTERA. Phyllorhina larvata (Hipposideros) Luzon. Vesperugo noctula (Nyctalus) Luzon. Vesperugo maurus (Pipistrellus) Luzon. Vesperugo abramus (Pipistrellus) Luzon. Vesperugo tylopus (Glischropus) Palawan. Vespertilio chinensis (Myotis) Luzon. Vespertilio capaccinii (Myotis) Luzon. Vespertilio muricola (Myotis) Sulu. CARNIVORA. Viverra zibetha Negros; Palawan; Panay. Viverricula malacensis Cagayan; Luzon. RODENTIA. Pteromys petaurista, Ft. philippensis, and Pt. innornatus (Petaurista) Palawan. Funambulus vittatus (Sciurus) Samar. Bandicota gigantea (Nesokia) Luzon. PRIMATES. Semnopithecus albipes (Presbytis) Sulu. Macacus speciosus (Pithecus) Sulu. Macacus nemestrinus (Pithecus) Luzon.


FISHERY RESOURCES OP THE PHILIPPINES, I. 519 THE MILKFISHES. Family Chanid^. (PI. X) The five or milkfish Chanos chanos (Forskal), called baitgos, haiigod, kaivag-hawag, and iumulocso by the Filipinos and iangellus by the Moros, is one of the most important commercial fishes in the Islands. It ranges over the entire group, from northern Luzon to Sitanki and is the most abundant fish in the Manila market. Frequently, during protracted rough weather it is the only variety obtainable. It is raised chiefly in the fish ponds at Malabon and at other places near Manila and therefore can be secured at any time regardless of the weather. This fish is particularly adapted to pond culture, being a vegetable feeder of rapid growth. The bangos superficially resembles the mullet, but can easily be distinguished by the fact that the mullet has two fins on the back, while the bangos has but one. The bangos frequently reaches a length of 12 meters and then it is termed Iumulocso. The eggs are deposited in the sea. The young appear during the months of April, Maj, June, and July and are called kawag-kaivag. They are supplied with a yolk-sack which furnishes them with food until they are about 14 millimeters in length. At this age they are to be found in great numbers along the beaches of Zambales, Batangas, Mindoro, Marinduque, and doubtless in numerous other places. Here they are captured by the natives and placed in large earthen jars full of water called palyok. They are then conveyed to the fish ponds, frequently a hundred miles distant. (Fig. 1) One of the jars, palyok, contains about 3, 500 young biiitgos. They sell for from 20 to 25 pesos per isong lacca (10,000) ; about six lacs (60,000) are used to stock one pond of 1 hectare. As the fish grow they are thinned out by transfer to other ponds. Thirty-three per cent should reach marketable size. Four months after the transfer the bangos should each be 25 centimeters in length. This size of fish retails for 9 centavos each; in 8 months the young are each 40 centimeters long and bring 20 centavos, while a yearling should measure half a meter and bring from 50 to 60 centavos. FISH PONDS. Almost any kind of ground other than a sandy soil will do for a fish pond. It should be near salt water and not beyond the influence of the tide, as the bangos thrive best, in brackish water. A complete system should have at least four ponds. These should be so constructed that one equals in area at least that of the other tliiee combined. 'I am indebted to Mr. W. D. Carpenter of Malabon for most of the information regarding fish ponds.


THE PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Vol. 16 FEBRUARY, 1920 No. 2 PHILIPPINE TURTLES By Edward H. Taylor Of the Bureau of Science, Manila SEVEN PLATES INTRODUCTION As compared with Borneo, Java, Sumatra, or Japan, the Philippine Islands are not rich in either genera or species of terrestrial turtles. In fact only three genera, represented by four species, are positively known; these are Cyclemys, Heosemys, and Pelochelys. Several species representative of other genera have been reported, but there appears to be no specimen to substantiate any of the records. Borneo has representatives of nine genera and about fifteen species ; Java, seven genera and nine species; Sumatra, ten genera and thirteen species; Japan and Formosa, six genera and seven species. On the other hand only two genera and two species are known from Celebes. One new species, Heosemys leytensis, from the southern part of Leyte, is described in this paper. Two specimens were collected there by Gregorio Lopez, together with other turtles to be used for dissecting in the zoological department of the University of the Philippines. He obtained forty specimens belonging to three species; namely, Cyclemys dhor, C. amboinensis, and Heosemys leytensis. It would appear that these land turtles are plentiful in that locality. In most localities they are rare; in collecting during seven years I have found less than a half dozen specimens, all of which belonged to Cyclemys amboinensis. According to Manobo accounts a large turtle with a hard shell occurs in Agusan River. Rewards offered for specimens failed to bring forth this turtle; nevertheless, it is extremely 169667 111


12 2 Dipterocarpaceae. {Doona. Moist low country up to 2500 ft. or more ; rather common. Near Navalapitiya ; Ambagamuwa ; Singhe Raja Forest ; Morowak Korale (Capt. Walker) ; Pelmadulla (F. Lewis). Fl. April. Endemic. Easily recognised by the fine small raised reticulation of the upper surface of the leaf. The name 'Yakahalu' is applied, with different prefixes, to several other species of this family in South of Ceylon. This is called ' BeraliyaYakahalu ' in S. Prov. There appear to be several varieties recognised by the natives, and possibly more than one species are confounded here. The fruit of the Ambagamuwa tree (2200 ft.) is shorter and has smaller fruit-sep. than as above described. The fruits are dried, pounded, and made into flour for food, and are largely consumed when they can be got, but are said to be produced only every seventh year. It was abundant in the S. Prov. in 1887. 6. D. congestiflora, Thw. Enum. 35 (i8i;8). Tiniya, S. [Plate XL] C. P. 341 1. Fl. B. Ind. i. 312. A very large tree, young parts velvety -pubescent ; 1. 3^—4^ in., oval or ovate-oval, rounded at base, rather thick, shortly acuminate, lat. veins 10-12, curved, more conspicuous above than beneath, petioles \ in., rugose ; fl. \ in. diam., very shortly pedicellate, crowded at the ends of branches of short, stout, pubescent, axillary and terminal panicles ; sep. glabrous, oblong, obtuse ; pet truncate, notched ; enlarged fruit-sep. if-2 in., often unequal, wings oblong-linear, nut f in., much exceeding the thickened bases of sep. Moist low countr)'; rare. Hiniduma; Hewesse; Singhe Raja ; Bambarabotuwa ; Gilimale, Sabaragamuwa (F. Lewis). P^l. August, Sept.; pale pink. Endemic. Wood pale reddish -brown, rather light, moderately hard. 7. D. cordifolia, Thw. Eman. 35 (1858). Beraliya, 5. C. P. 3340. Fl. B. Ind. i. 312. A large tree, bark smooth, coming off in large flakes, young parts slightly pubescent ; 1. 4-6 in., ovate or oblongoval, rounded or slightly subcordate at base, tapering to long caudate-acuminate apex, lat. veins about 10, often less, curved, conspicuous beneath only, petioles \^ m., fl. and ripe fruit not seen. Moist low country ; rather rare. Sabaragamuwa; Lihinigala, Hewesse, abundant ; Lunugala ; Uva(.') ; near Matara (^Walker). Fl. Feb. ; said to flower every third year. Endemic. Only seen by me in very young fruit in 1887. Hop-like globular leafy galls are abundantly produced on this species,


62 XXII. DIPTEROCARPEAE. [Monotes Var. /3. hypoleucus ; V. africana, var. hypoleuca Oliv., I.e. ; Welw., I.e., p. 17, t. 5, fig. 12 ; F. hypoleuca Welw., I.e., p. 17. HuiLLA. — Sparingly in the stony shorter woods between Mumpulla and Nene, in flower-bud Oct. 1859, in full flower Dec. 1859. No. 1036. The following is intermediate between a and /3 : — A small tree, 6 to 8 ft. high ; trunk erect ; crown divaricate, lax ; flowers yellowish, HuiLLA, — Sparingly in the higher wooded thickets of Proteaceae between Lopollo and Monino, in flower-bud Nov. 1859, fl. Dec. 1859, in young fruit Jan. 1860. No. 1077. The following belongs to this species : — HuiLLA. — A small tree, with simple leaves and the calyx-segments after flowering expanded into red rather rigid wings. Coll. Carp. 242. XXIII. MALVACEAE. The Malvaceae of Angola form one of the principal constituents of the herbaceous and shrubby vegetation of the country, and are fairly abundant in all regions from the coast up to 6000 ft. (in the highest regions and plateaux), but are most abundant between 1500 and 4000 ft. They contribute both by the beauty and variety of their leaves — and even more by the size and l3right colouration of their striking large blossoms — very greatly to the adorning of the meadows and plains, the jungles, and the margins of the woods and cultivated places, and relieve the somewhat monotonous colour of the vegetation. The species decrease in number from Mossamedes and the high plateau of Huilla southwards. Malvaceae manage to subsist on many kinds of soil ; one and the same species is often seen to occur sometimes in dry hot sandy drifts, or in stony situations divested of other vegetation, and at other times in fertile situations on the margins of primitive forests or in inhabited districts on land previously cultivated ; the difference is that in poor ground the flowers are larger and more brilliant, while in rich ground there is more luxuriant development of stalks and foliage. The varying circumstances of soil and position exercise an important influence on the indumentum and render very difficult the discrimination of species and varieties, especially in the case of the genera Sida, Abutilon, etc. The shape and size of the glands, which occur on the nerves of the leaves and calyx in several species of Urena, Hibiscus, Gossyjnum, etc., are very interesting, but they are too indefinite and variable on the same plants to afford characters for the diagnosis of species. In order to avoid errors, it must be remembered that many species with yellow flowers turn their corollas red in drying, and also that several species, especially of Sida, Abutilon, and Hibiscus, at the time of flowering, lose the long-stalked principal leaves of the main stem and retain only the very different younger leaves of the axillary shoots. The native medical men employ several species as emollients in baths and gargles in the same way as they are used in Europe.


358 Polygala acicularis, Oliv.; F.T.A. i. 132; Chodat, Monogr. Polygalac. 368. Plains between Hepham and Ropp, 4600 ft., 5 July; 2 ft. high, petals cream coloured with fine purple veins, keel blue or purple, No. 373. Distrib. — West Africa from N. Nigeria to Angola, and in Uganda. Hypebicaceae. Haronga paniculata, Lodd. ex Steud. Nom. ed, II. i. 722. Arungana paniculata, Pers. Syn. PL ii. 91 (1807). Haronga madugascariensis, Choisy Prodr. Monog. Hyper. 34 (1821); F.T.A. i. 160; Holland, 62. Naraguta, 5 Aug., robust shrub 5-6 ft., on rocks on stream banks, flowers greenish white, orange coloured sap,. Hausa " Alibiba rafi," No. 493. Distrib. — One of the most widely spread of African shrubs, also in the Mascarene Islands. PORTULACACEAE. Portulaca oleracea, i*W. ; F.T.A. i. 148; Holland, 61. Taura, 6 May; 6-12 ins., leaves fleshy, flowers yellow in clusters. DiPTEROCARPACEAE . Monotes caloneurus, Gilg in Engl. Bot. Jahrb. xxviii. 136 (1901), Naraguta, on rocks 8 Aug.; flowers green. No. 517. Distrib. — South Eastern Sudan and in Angola. Malvaceae. Sida linifolia, Cav. ; F.T.A. i. 179. Naraguta, 20 June, petals yellow with red basal blotch, 15 ins. high, No. 279. There is evidently colour variation in the flowers, for Dalziel and Parsons describe them as white with purple centre. Distrib. — Throughout West Africa to Angola and also in the West Indies and the north east coast of S. America. Sida spinosa, Linn.; F.T.A. i. 180 Lemme, 2600 ft., 1-2 ft., No. 140 Sida cordifolia, Linn.; F.T.A. i. 181 Panyam, 4500 ft., 17 July, flowers yellow, 1/2 in. diameter, No. 437. Urena lobata, Linn.-, F.T.A. i. 189; Holland 68. Ringim Mukr, 2500 ft., 22 May, flowers bright pink, stream banks, 2-3 ft. high. No. 218.


34 MOLLUSCA. BX EDGE, A. SMITH. With the exception of Mr. John Brazier's report on the Mollusca of the Chevert expedition there does not appear to have been published any -work of importance treating exclusively on the forms of North and North-eastern Australia. Dr. Tapparone-canefri has written a few papers on the fauna of Papua, and a large number of species have, at various times, been described in different works and periodicals by Reeve, A. Adams, Watson, and others, from Port Essington, Torres Straits, and the coast of Queensland. Many of the species found in this district range as far as or even further north than, the Philippine Islands, and westward to Swan River, and, even in a few cases, to Ceylon and the Mauritius ; but the general character of the fauna may be regarded as Malayan, although many of the species appear to be limited in their distribution and not as yet met with in the Archipelago. I. CEPHALOPODA. 1. Octopus polyzenia. (Plate TV. figs. A-A 3) Ch-ay, Cat. Cephal. Anteped. Brit. Mus. p. 13. Animal small (perhaps young), minutely and closely granulated upon the back pf the body, head, arms, and connecting web ; the lower surface of the body, head, funnel, and web above it being more sparsely granulated. Body (in spirit) wider than long, rounded at the end, exhibiting a faint central ventral groove from the opening at the neck to the extremity. Head broad but narrower than the body, with a single papilla near the upper hinder edge of the ocular opening. Arms not very long ; three upper pairs subequal in length, ventral pair rather longer. Lower surface and membrane between them very. minutely granulous. Membrane between the arms extending about one third their length and also in a narrow strip up the side of them, but between the dorsal pair it is almost entirely wanting. Cups on the upper arms gradually decreasing in size from near the mouth to the extremity, on the three other pairs of arms enlarging gradually as far as the sixth pair (these being nearly twice as large as any on the dorsal pair), and then gradually Pro. Linn. Soo. New South Wales, vols. ii. and iii.


66 COLLECTIONS FROM MELANESIA. 68. Cerithium torresi. (Plate V. fig. 0) Shell elongate-pyramidal, white, blackish towards the apex, ornamented with transverse series of dark-brown dots upon the first between the longitudinal granose costae. Whorls 11, very slightly convex, separated by a deepish suture, costate and transversely Urate, the points of intersection of the ribs and ridges being developed into prominent white nodules. The spiral Urae which become nodulous are three in number in the upper whorls, the uppermost being situated close to the suture, the next a little above the middle, and the lowermost below it, but more remote from the suture than the uppermost. In addition, there are one or more simple thread-like lines revolving between the granules ridges, which are also articulated with brown. The body-whorl has about eight principal transverse ridges, of which the three uppermost are the thickest, the two next rather finer and also granules, the three remaining ones being still more slender and more feebly nodulous. The longitudinal ribs are about twelve on a whorl, one of them being swollen or varicose. The last varix on the body-whorl is situated on the left of the aperture ; this is small, obliquely oval, terminating anteriorly in a short, oblique, and very slightly recurved canal. The columella is considerably arched, white, covered with a thin callosity, developed at the upper part into an elongate ridge which runs within the aperture. Labrum varixed externally, also thickened a little within and shallowly grooved, the grooves corresponding with the external ridges. Length 14J millim, diam. 5 ; aperture 4| long and 2 wide. Hah. Prince of Wales Channel, Torres Straits, 3-4 fms. 69. Cerithium (Colina) macrostoma. Cerithium macrotoma, Islands, Vol. 'Sulphur' p. 27, pi. xvi. figs. 11, 12 ; Sowerby, Thes. Conch, pi. 184. fig. 219 ; id. Conch. Icon. figs. 118 ab. Var. Oolina pupiformis, A. Adams, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853, p. 176, pi. XX. fig. 14 (enlarged). Ceiithium pupeeforme A. Adams), Sowerby, Thes. Conch. vol. ii. pi. 184. fig. 221 ; id. Conch. Icon. figs. 122 a, b (bad ). Var. Colina costata, A. Adams, P. Z. S. 1854, p. 86. Cerithium costiferum, Sowerby, Thes. Mih. vol. ii. pi. 184. figs. 222 ; id. Conch. Icon. figs. 117 a, h. Var. Colina pygmsea, H. Adams, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1867, p. 308, p 19. fig. 19. ffab. Thursday Island, Torres Straits, 5-7 fms. (Coppinger) Straits of Macassar, 11 fms. (Hinds); Damaguete, Philippine Islands Cuming for O. pupiformis) ; Philippine Islands (Cuming for C. costata); Borneo (H. Adams for O. pygmcea). The above-named and so-called species I believe to be mere variations of one and the same shell. Compare the extreme forms ( C. macrostoma and 0. pygmy), and one perceives a vast difference in outline and the number of whorls ; but even here several features in common wiu be found, namely the spotted expanded outer lip,


DESTRUCTIVE FISHING Fishers in Southeast Asia have adapted to market demands by using specialized, often destructive, fishing techniques such as poison fishing and blast fishing. Each of these methods contributes to overfishing of economically important fish and may cause the unintended exploitation of countless other species, fundamentally changing the marine ecology of the region. Poison Fishing Traditional communities throughout the region have long used natural poisons to capture fish. However, these practices were typically small-scale and had only incidental consequences. Today, poison fishing is far more damaging. The commercial use of poisons to capture live reef fish began in the Philippines in the 1960s and soon spread to Indonesia, Vietnam, and parts of Malaysia. Poison fishing typically employs sodium cyanide, a deadly broad-spectrum poison. Crushed into plastic squirt bottles and applied to reefs by divers, the poison acts as an anesthetic, stunning fish and making them easier to capture. Unfortunately, other fish are damaged, killed, or left exposed to predation as the poison stuns them. Corals are also affected. Initial exposure can cause effects ranging from slight to full coral bleaching, and repeated applications of cyanide may cause coral death. Poisons are the predominant method used to obtain high-value live reef fish in Southeast Asia. The full extent of poison fishing is unknown because it targets some of the most pristine and isolated coral reefs, where observations are limited. (See Box 5) Governments and nongovernmental organizations in the region are working to combat poison fishing, which is illegal in most countries in Southeast Asia. However, poison fishing remains a widespread problem in Indonesia and Vietnam, where laws have been difficult to enforce. Blast Fishing Although outlawed throughout Southeast Asia, blast fishing is practiced regularly in most countries in the region. During World War II, Japan and the Allied powers left behind thousands of unexploded shells, littering the waters of Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific. In the past, these shells were repacked with explosives to make bombs for fishing. Today, fishers no longer employ World War II era shells but instead use dynamite or grenades. They also fill empty beer or soda bottles with potassium nitrate, an artificial fertilizer, and pebbles, topping them with a commercial fuse or blasting cap. The bombs kill most fish nearby by bursting their gas-filled swim bladders. Although some fish float to the surface, many sink and are not retrieved. Bombs can cost US1 -2 to construct but may bring in a catch with a market value of US15-40-' The effects of blast fishing can be devastating to both reefs and people. Prematurely exploding bombs have led to lost limbs and lives. Depending upon the distance from the substrate at the time of explosion, a typical I -kg beer bottle bomb can leave a crater of rubble 1-2 m in diameter The extent and severity of damage to reefs often depends on the amount and type of explosive, the depth of the water, and the distance to stands of corals. Regularly bombed reefs frequently exhibit 50-80 percent coral mortality" In a few areas, community-based education programs and active community management are helping to change fishing practices at local levels' Use of explosives on a coral reef destroys the reef structure, and can leave a crater of rubble several meters wide. Local conditions, including nutrient and sediment levels, presence of herbivores, and the availability of coral larvae, affect whether the reef will recover. < 28


-6Myrtaceae, Euphorbiaceae. and Latrraceae (Penafiel 1980). Mossy forests have little consnercial value but they have an important role to play in ensuring watershed stabilization. iv) Molave forests Molave forests occur in regions with a very pronounced wet and dry season and are usually associated with the presence of well drained, limestone-derived soils. The molave tree Vitex parviflora a member of the teak, family, is the dominant species from which the whole forest association takes its name. The woods of the molave forest trees are noted for their natural beauty and durability but since these forests are easily accessible they usually occupy the areas immediately behind the beach woodland or mangrove forest where climatic conditions are too dry for dipterocarps most have now been felled. v) Pine forests Two species of pine forming pure stands are found in the Philippines. They are the Benguet pine P ins insularis and the Mindoro or tapulau pine P merkusii i Benguet pine forests occur in regions with distinct wet and dry seasons at elevations between 700 and 1800 m asl. The two known tapulau pine forests occupy an area mainly between 100 and 500 m asl. Grasslands are an integral part of the pine forests and most stands of pine occur as groves on grass meadows. The Benguet pines are used as mining timbers and for general construction purposes but the tapulau pine has practically no economic importance in the Philippines. All the forest formations of the Philippines have been considerably reduced by agricultural development and logging, and in many areas they have been replaced by tall tropical grasslands composed primarily of Imperata Saccharum and Phragmites species. These grasslands occur on almost every type of relief from mountain summits and ridge tops to rolling hill country, plateau land and flat coastal plains. They are a minor source of thatching materials. They are also used for grazing purposes but because they are of relatively low nutritive value they provide only a very poor pastureland.


12 Hyloterpe albiventris Grant. Juv, No. 2360, Irisan, Benguet, April 27, 1903. — Above dark reddish brown, lighter on rump; lower parts light reddish brown, brighter posteriorly; wings blackish brown, first four primaries edged with white, the inner primaries and bastard wing edged with olive; secondaries and coverts margined with olive brown and reddish brown; the very short tail light olive green. In fully grown young birds this nestling plumage is intermingled with that of the adult, producing very curious effects. Chimarrhornis bicolor Grant. Rare and difficult to obtain. A male and female were killed by us near Irisan. Bill and nails black; legs and feet ver dark brown. Measurements of Chimarrhornis bicolor. No. Date. Sex. Wing. Tail. Tarsus. Culmen. 2684 May 20 May 5 Male 303 294 222 220 096 096 056 2475 Female 058 Megalurus ruficeps Tweed. While this species is abundant about Irisan, M. palustris was not once seen, although it is common enough in the vicinity of Trinidad and Baguio. ZOSTERORNIS whiteheadi Grant. Our specimens have the crown duller than, and lack the yellow line over eye, shown in plate (Ibis, 1894, PI. XV). Bill black, legs and feet dull greenish, nails light horn gray, iris brown. PSEUDOTHARRHALEUS CAUDATUS Grant. This is another Lepanto species whose range we have extended to Benguet. Three males were obtained near Irisan. Measurements of Pseudotharrhaleus caudatus. No. Date. Sex. Wing. Tail. Culmen. Tarsus. 2316 Apr. 25 May 12 May 22 Male 240 242 246 338 338 327 058 061 062 105 102 104 2575 Male 2702 Male The bill, legs, feet, and nails are dark brown; lower mandible lighter; iris tan brown. LOLE PHILIPPINENSIS (Gm. . The fruit thrush of Lu bang does not differ from the Luzon form. Several Verde specimens are of a curiously light plumage, but may be referred to the Luzon species; they are certainly not lole mindorensis, which is a very distinct species.


LIST OF BIRDS COLLECTED BY THE STEERE EXPEDITION TO THE PHILIPPINES, WITH LOCALITIES AND WITH BRIEF PRELIMINARY DESCRIPTIONS OF SUPPOSED NEW SPECIES. For convenience of reference the same arrangement of orders and families has been used as in Sharpe's and Lord Walden's published lists of Philippine birds. The names of genera have been made to agree with those given in the British Museum Catalogue of Birds, as far as that has been issued. As the supposed new species are in almost all cases representative forms, each strictly limited to one or several adjacent islands, they have been named, as far as possible, to show their distribution. The names of distinct islands only are given in the localities collected from. In the few cases where collections were made from more than one place in a single island, these were generally so near together and so similar in conditions that they showed little difference in fauna. The islands are given in the order in which they were visited and collected in, and the date at which a species was collected, in any island, can be readily made out from the following schedule Paragua, August and September, 1887. Mindanao, October. Basilan, November. Mindanao, again in December. Guimaras, December. Panay, January, 1888. Negros and Siquijor, February. Cebu and Bojol, March. Samar and Leyte, April. Masbate and Marinduque, May. Mindoro, June. Luzon, July. PSITTACI. PLYCTOLOPHID.E 1. Cacatua h^maturopygia. Paragua, Basilan, Mindanao, Guimaras, Cebu, Leyte, Samar, Masbate, Marinduque, Mindoro.


are taken commercially in the central Mediterranean, including the Ligurian, Tyrrhenian, Ionian, and Adriatic Seas, but there are no reports of catches by anglers (de Sylva, 1973). Africa. — Sailfish occur along the African coast from at least Dakar to the Gulf of Guinea. This species supports a sizeable commercial fishery off the Gulf of Guinea (Ovchinnikov, 1966). The world-record Atlantic sailfish of 64 kg came from the Ivory Coast, a location where sailfish are reported to occur frequently. Undoubtedly, sailfish are potentially plentiful to the angler along the coast from Dakar into the Gulf of Guinea, although angling facilities including suitable trolling boats are probably scarce. Blue marlin are reported from off Dakar, Guinea, Sierra Leone, and into the Gulf of Guinea, and have been caught by anglers at Ascension and St. Helena Islands. Black marlin are reported in the Japanese longline catches to occur along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (Ueyanagi et al, 1970); however, no authenticated catch has been made by a commercial or sport fisherman. Swordfish are frequently taken from deep waters along the West African coast. East and South Africa. — Excellent marlin and sailfish angling (Williams, 1970) occurs from Malindi (Kenya) southwards to Durban (Natal). Black marlin, striped marlin, blue marlin, and sailfish are taken seasonally along the coast. White marlin, shortbill spearfish, and longbill spearfish have been reported from waters off South Africa, in an area of mixing between Atlantic and Indian Ocean currents (Penrith and Wapenaar, 1962: Ueyanagi et al, 1970), but their occurrence is rare. Kenyaand Mozambique are also extremely important areas for sportfishing for black marlin and sailfish (Howard and Ueyanagi, 1965), while swordfish are taken on longlines in this region. Large black marlin are taken commercially off northern Madagascar, and sailfish are reported to be taken commercially from waters around the Comoro Islands. There is good angling for black marlin off Mauritius, while commercial charts reveal heavy concentrations of black marlin in the Indian Ocean east of Madagascar along the parallels of lat. 0-10° (Howard and Ueyanagi. 1965; Howard and Starck, 1974). To the north, sailfish have been caught by anglers in the Gulf of Aqaba, Red Sea, and the Gulf of Aden. This species may develop as a sportfishing resource as facilities become available. However, no data are available on seasonal or relative abundance of sailfish in this area. Large sailfish are taken occasionally by anglers in the Persian Gulf. India and Ceylon. — Black, blue, and striped marlin and sailfish are known to occur in Indian coastal waters, but there has been little angling expended in the area. Ceylon has yielded some large black marlin, while shortbill spearfish and swordfish are commercially taken in deeper waters. Deraniyagala (1937: 348) reported that the swordfish "is not uncommon in deep water to the south and east of Ceylon" In the central Indian Ocean east to Sumatra and western Australia, commercial fishing records reveal good catches of black, blue, and striped marlin. Occasional swordfish and shortbill spearfish are also taken. However, sportfishing facilities are limited in these waters and probably will not increase greatly in the future. Howard and Starck (1974) present seasonal distribution charts of longline catches of billfishes from these waters. The South China Sea and Malaysia. — From longline catch records marlin and sailfish are reported to occur throughout Indonesia, the South China Sea, and the Timor and Arafura Seas. Little sport fishing occurs in these waters, largely because of the lack of port facilities and angling equipment. Commercial concentrations of black marlin occur throughout this region. Patrol boats working the Indochina coast have, in their so-called leisure time, seen and hooked black marlin not far from South Viet-nam, though the fish are small and scattered. Although sailfish are common in the fall season close to the coast off Nhatrang, South Viet-nam, the shallow continental shelf along Indochina appears unfavorable ecologically for the larger members of the billfish family. Japan and the East China Sea. — Huge concentrations of striped marlin and sailfish occur off southern Japan. But these concentrations are sufficiently far offshore to be past the ordinary range of potential sportfishing vessels. Presently, however, there is little demand for offshore sportfishing facilities in the area despite the occurrence of many potential game fish species in Japanese waters. Black marlin occur throughout this region, but are not fished for by anglers. Billfishes are also common east of Taiwan, where they are taken commercially, but no sport fishery exists for them. Indonesia, Philippine Sea, and the Philippines. — Billfishes are relatively uncommon in this region, possibly because the thermocline, which is reported to concentrate food, is deep and below angling depths. Scattered catches of black marlin and sailfish are reported by commercial fishermen, 20


DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES 19 a height of about 10 meters, and often nearly exclusively occupying considerable areas. Forester Medina has surveyed two tracts of this bamboo in Bataan Province, one containing 1,200 hectares, of which 800 hectares have a dense stand; the second containing 650 hectares, of which more than 40 per cent is covered with Schizostachyum lumampao. There are also very extensive areas in other parts of Bataan, in Zambales, and in the Cagayan Valley. Fifteen small plots of Schizostachyum lumampao have been measured in Bataan Province back of the town of Limay. These plots aggregated 35 hectares and covered stands at widely separated intervals. The surveys showed an average of 8,983 canes per hectare. One of the surveys of one quarter of a hectare indicated a stand of 19,162 canes per hectare. This thin-walled bamboo is the species chiefly utilized in making the building matting known as sawale. It is also used for making baskets, fences, fish corrals, fish poles, flutes, and for many other purposes. Buho has been thoroughly investigated by Richmond as a paper-making material, and it is probably the one species of Philippine bamboo that, without extensive cultivation, promises commercial possibilities for this purpose. This point will be discussed in a bulletin on paper. Observations on its rate of growth are given later. This species is illustrated in Plate I (frontispiece) and Plates XXVIII and XXIX. SCHIZOSTACHYUM TEXTORIUM (Blanco) Merr. Kalbang. Common name: kalbang (Tagalog). This is an erect bamboo with small leaves, which is locally abundant in the Provinces of Batangas and Rizal, Luzon. The stems are used in the manufacture of looms, as they are very straight and smooth. A flowering specimen is shown in Plate XXXII. Among the other Philippine representatives of the genus are Schizostachyum palawanense (Plate XXXI), a scandent species known from Palawan and Laguna; S. hirtiflorum (Plate XXVI), a widely distributed species closely allied to and with the same growth form as S. lumampao; S. toppingii (Plate XXXIII), erect or subscandent, reported from Laguna, Rizal, and Mindoro; S. curranii (Plate XXIII), scandent, a species of higher altitudes in northern Luzon; S. luzonicum (Plate XXX), known only from Zambales; and S. fenixii (Plate XXV), reported from Abra, Cagayan, Benguet, Ilocos Sur, and Panay, known as paua in Iloilo, and puser in Abra, Luzon, and there utilized in the manufacture of baskets.


Page 80 THE VELIGER Vol. 6; No. 2 The Cypraea martini of SCHEPMAN, 1907 (Mollusca Gastropoda) BY CRAWFORD N. CATE Conchological Club of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90007 (Plate 15; 4 Text figures; 1 Map) Our knowledge of some of the rarer cowries is limited, and identification is made difficult by the lack of photographs to complement the original descriptions of many of these species. The recent discovery of a freshly dead ex pisce specimen of Cypraea (Notadusta) martini Schepman, 1907 (see Plate 15, figs. 2a and 2b) has caused me to search for other records of this rare species ; it is the purpose of this paper to collate all the available information, to publish what may be the first field report of a recently collected specimen, and to provide photographs of it and other comparable shells. Relatively litue has been known about Cypraea martini. It has been represented by only ten recorded specimens, eight of which, from the Pleistocene of northwest Celebes, were preserved in the museums at Leiden and Amsterdam. Only two Recent specimens have been recorded, one from the New Hebrides in the Schilder Collection (see Plate 15, figs. 4a and 4b) and one in the Shuttleworth Collection in the museum at Bern, Switzerland, with the locality label "Philippines" This latter specimen was misidentified as Cypraea bee kit Gaskoin, 1836, but has been definitely substantiated as C. martini by Dr. F. A. Schilder, who has examined it several times. This, then, was the status of Cypraea martini when I received a specimen for identification no examples were known outside of Europe ; most were fossil shells ; the type figure was in a foreign journal (Schepman, 1907) not readily available to most collectors of Cypraea, and the only other illustration known to me was that of Allan, 1956, which is a rather exaggerated drawing that does not provide an adequate guide for identification. The specimen on which my study is based (see Plate 15, figs. 2a and 2b) was collected during a phase of the Palawan Expedition in April 1962 that centered in the area of the Monpog sea passage off southern Luzon --more precisely, in the vicinity of Pulo Island, northeast of the large island of Marinduque and west of Luzon's Bondoc Peninsula (see map) In from one to five fathoms of water in this area, where the substrate varied from rock to coral, spearfishermen collected a specimen of fish known only as a member of the Grouper genus Plectropomus (family Serranidae). Subsequent examination of the stomach contents revealed a small brown cowrie of unknown identity. No other similar specimens were collected during the trip, nor is it known in any of the Philippine collections. Mr. Fernando G. Dayrit sent it to me for identification, and has furnished the information relating to its discovery. There is another exceedingly rare cowrie, Cypraea fultoni Sowerby, 1903, an ex pisce form whose predator fish, known to me simply as a Musselcracker, is a migratory species seen only for a short time each year off the coast of South Africa. Since it is not known where the Musselcracker travels during the remainder of the year, it is impossible to ascertain an exact locality where C. fultoni lives. With this analogy in mind, I inquired into the living habits of the Grouper family. Mr. John E. Fitch, Research Director of the California Department of Fish and Game, informed me that his department has studied the behavior of certain species of Grouper, applying marking tags and checking the movements of those particular species; the results of the study showed that these fish normally live within a general area of no more than a square mile, not moving about as do the Mussel-crackers of South Africa. The non-migratory characteristic seems to be typical of all the species of Grouper studied ; therefore it can probably be assumed to be true in this instance also. The supposed habits of the fish from whose stomach the C. martini was taken would seem to establish the Pulo Island vicinity as a reasonably reliable locality record for this mollusk; further, the small size of this shell (approximately 15 mm in length) suggests the possibility that if the mollusk had been ingested more than a few hours (and, consequently, some miles away) before the fish was caught, normal digestive


The Veliger 304)408-41 1 (April 1, 1< THE VELIGER CMS, Inc, 1988 Two New Species of Liotiinae (Gastropoda: Turbinidae) from the Philippine Islands by JAMES H. MCLEAN Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History, 900 Exposition Boulevard, Los Angeles, California 90007, U.S.A. Abstract. Two new gastropods of the turbinid subfamily Liotiinae are described: Bathyliotina glassi and Pseudoliotina springsteeni. Both species have been collected recently in tangle nets off the Philippine Islands. INTRODUCTION A number of new or previously rare species have been taken in recent years by shell fishermen using tangle nets in the Philippine Islands, particularly in the Bohol Strait between Cebu and Bohol. Specimens of the same two new species in the turbinid subfamily Liotiinae have been received from Charles Glass of Santa Barbara, California, and Jim Springsteen of Melbourne, Australia. Because these species are now appearing in Philippine collections, they are described prior to completion of a world-wide review of the subfamily, for which I have been gathering materials and examining type specimens in various museums. Two other species, Liotina peron (Kiener, 1839) and Dentarene loculosa (Gould, 1859), also have been taken by tangle nets in the Bohol Strait but are not treated here. Much of the material coming from Philippine tangle net sources comes from either of two localities: off Punta Engano, Mactan Island, Cebu (1018N, 12401E) and off Balicasag Island, S of Panglao, Bohol (931N, 12340E). These localities are at opposite ends of the Bohol Strait and are separated by a distance of approximately 100 km. Precise locality information for material from Philippine tangle nets is impossible to obtain, because the shell fishermen work the entire area and do not provide detailed localities (Jim Springsteen, personal communication). The type localities of the two species described here are given simply as the Bohol Strait. Maximum depth for the Bohol Strait is indicated as 190 fathoms on U.S. Hydrographic Chart no. 14429, from which the coordinates cited above were taken. After conversion to metres, the depth range is therefore approximately 200-350 m for this material. Holotypes are deposited in the Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History (LAM); additional para-types are deposited in the LACK, the U.S. National Museum of Natural History, Washington (USNM), and the Australian Museum, Sydney (AMS). Additional material in less perfect condition of the first described species has been recognized in the collections of the USNM and the Museum National dhistoire Naturelle, Paris (MNHN). Family Turbinidae Rafinesque, 1815 Subfamily Liotiinae H. & A. Adams, 1854 The subfamily is characterized by a turbiniform profile, nacreous interior, fine lamellar sculpture, an intritacalx in most genera, circular aperture, a multispiral operculum with calcareous beads, and a radula like that of other turbinid subfamilies. Although previously treated by some authors as a full family, the Liotiinae have recently been ranked as a subfamily of Turbinidae (Mclean, 1987). Genus Bathyhotina Habe, 1961 Type species (original designation): Liotia armata A. Adams, 1861. Recent, Korea Strait. Bathyliotina species are characterized by a broad umbilical opening, a spinose periphery, and greatly thickened final lip in which the aperture flares to its greatest extent, followed by deposition of lamellar layers that evenly decrease the diameter of the aperture to its final size. Bathyliotina is unique among liotiine genera in having the evenly decreasing lamellar layers forming the final expanded lip. Liotina Fischer, 1885, Dentarene Iredale, 1929, and Austroliotia Cotton, 1948, differ from Bathyliotina in having a greatly expanded lip followed by a constriction and then a secondary inflation to the final lip only slightly larger


INTRODUCTION H I The first part consists of a reprint of Llanos's papers, with his Spanish diagnoses reproduced and also translated into Latin, It is convenient to have these descriptions reprinted, as Llanos's chief publication, his "Fragmentos" is a rare book. The introduction consists chiefly of biographical notes relating to Llanos's life and botanical work ; see p. 25. The second paper, a botanical curiosity, is that of Mercado originally written in the last third of the seventeenth century. It deals with the medicinal properties of various Philippine plants and the discussions of various species include a curious mixture of fact, superstition, and fable in many cases The scientific names added by Fernandez-villar are not always correct. From a botanical standpoint the work is of very slight importance, but it contains some data of economic value and is of interest from a historical standpoint. The introduction contains biographical notes regarding Mercado, an interesting discussion of the early botanical writings of various representatives of the religious orders in the Philippines, and a history of Mercado's manuscript. The original illustrations, in color, were not reproduced when the paper was published. The 473 plates, illustrating the third edition of the Flora de Filipinas, are usually in two unbound volumes, but in some copies they are scattered through the four volumes of text. They are unnumbered in the edition de luxe, and their proper numbers can be determined only by reference to the text of the Novissima Appendix or to the list of illustrations usually found at the end of the Novissima Appendix or sometimes placed in the first volume of plates. This list consists of six pages numbered by the Roman system. The identification of the plates is the work of Naves, but there are numerous manifest errors, both in relation to Blanco's species they are supposed to represent and to binomials of other Fragmentos de Algunas Plantas de Filipinas no incluidas en la flora de las islas de la primera ni segunda edicion dispuestas segun el sistema Linnean por el P. Fr. Antonio Llanos, Agustino Calzado, anadidos con otros trabajos del autor y vertidos al Latin por el P. Fr. Celestino Fernandez-villar del mismo instituto (1880) XVI 1-108. Libro de medicinas de esta tierra y declaraciones de las virtudes de los arboles y plantas que estan en estas islas Filipinas compuesto por el P, Predicador Fr. Ignacio de Mercado filipinense del orden de San Agustin hijo del convento de San Pablo de Manila. Corregido e ilustrado con las clasificaciones cientificas por el P. Fr. Celestino Fernandez-villar del mismo instituto (1880) VI 1-63. • Cook, A. C. Some Filipino Botany. Plant World 4 (1901) 1-5.


REMARKS UPON TWO SPECIES OF DEER OF THE GENUS CERVUS FROM THE PHILIPPINE ARCHIPELAGO, BY D. G. ELLIOT, F. R. S. E In a former paper, issued last May (1896), I described two species of deer from Basilan and Culion, respectively, of the Philippine Archipelago, the first as C. steerii; and in the case of the latter I refrained from bestowing a name upon it, as I had not seen the paper on Philippine deer published by Heude in China. Cervus steerii was compared with C. philippinus and C. nigricans, Brooke. Last autumn, having had an opportunity to examine the type of C. philippinus in the Natural History Museum in the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, through the courtesy of my friend, Dr. E. Oustalet, I ascertained that my new species was hardly comparable with it in any way save a similarity in the shape of the antlers; C. steerii is not much over half the size of C. philippinus, and differs also in the color of the coat. In fact it would seem to belong to quite another section of the group, than that represented by C. philippinus. Beside the type, there were several other examples of the species in the Museum, but all of them, even the young animals, were much larger than the type of C. steerii. It would seem, therefore, that we must look for its near ally in some other species of Philippine deer, as yet unknown to me. In the splendid library of the Zoological Society of London, I was able to find a copy of Heude's paper on the deer of the Philippine islands, and after careful search was unable to ascertain that the species of deer described by me from Culion was mentioned. The paper is really of little assistance in determining the various species, and the author appears to have seen a new one in almost every example he procured, and unless one has access to the material in his possession it will be practically impossible to recognize the animals upon which he has bestowed so great a list of names. Therefore I propose to christen the animal from Culion, and call it CERVUS CULIONENSIS, in order that, at all events, the Museum specimens can be intelligently referred to.


3 FIELDIANA ZOOLOGY Published by CHICAGO NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM Volume 4 April 26, 1957 No. 1 Philippine Zoological Expedition 1946-1947 PHILIPPINE SNAILS OF THE FAMILY ENDODONTIDAE Alan Solem Assistant Curator, Lower Invertebrates INTRODUCTION A new endodontic! snail in Chicago Natural History Museum, collected on Mindanao by the Philippine Zoological Expedition, 1946-47, has prompted a review of the synonymy, generic position, and distribution of the Philippine Island Endodontidae. This paper is a by-product of a survey of the genera of Indo-pacific Endodontidae undertaken at the University of Michigan in 1954-56. Completion of the major project has been delayed, and publication, at this time, of data on the few Philippine species seems worth while. Dr. Henry van der Schalie of the University of Michigan Museum of Zoology (hereafter UMMZ) permitted me to study material under his charge, and Dr. Fritz Haas of Chicago Natural History Museum (hereafter CNHM) aided this study in many ways. The excellent illustrations are the work of Chicago Natural History Museum Staff Artist, E. John Pfiffner. systematics The family Endodontidae probably contains the most primitive of the living sigmurethrous pulmonates. Predominately a southern hemisphere taxon, only in New Zealand, southern Australia, Tasmania, New Caledonia, and on the islands of the Pacific Ocean have the endodontids undergone such extensive adaptive radiations that they form an important part of the molluscan fauna. South Africa, No 819 THEUBWWOFTHE MA Y 131957 At VICTORY SURVEY


E o O N — o S E" S: c E S 8 si o u s -y; O — 57 co 4) ; 22ca o b-S o 3 3 o z E c Sl< x — U c. 5 " — Si 2 "3 c J P 3 o c i O U 35 u — N 2 5 -s 5 E -it1 ci "1 i a Is 1 — CO si? — —U o --> OC 1 A c 3> Tpt "t 00 t to 1 p, 2 d in oc' r-i r> — oo r — o o r4 t-L 1 t in r4 i ri ce — r. soon i — — no — ON 1 — 3 l t 'f m a 1 i N — O f C o Tl . 2 u. S Specimens Examined — Total 3. Site 4 (2 msu-iit); Site 13 (1 dmnh). Rhinolophus virgo K. Anderson, 1905 The yellow-faced horseshoe bat is an endemic species widespread within the Philippines. It is usually encountered in primary lowland forest from 250 to 1100 m; several records are from caves (Heaney et al, 1991; Rickart et al, 1993). We obtained one adult female from the edge of a small tree-fall gap in primary montane forest at 1275 m on 22 March 1995 (Site 7). It has small mammae and showed no indication of reproductive activity. Cranial dimensions (Table 5) fall within the range of those from Leyte and Maripipi but are slightly smaller than those from Mindanao (Mt. Kitanglad; Rickart et al, 1993; Heaney et al, unpubl. data). Specimens Examined — Total 1. Site 7 (1 fmnh). Family Vespertilionidae — Common Bats Murina cyclotis Dobson, 1872 The round-eared tube-nosed bat is widespread in southern Asia and was previously known in the Philippines from a few specimens from the central and southern portion of Greater Luzon as well as Greater Mindanao, Sibuyan, and Siquijor, with records from disturbed and primary lowland and montane forest from 250 to 1500 m (Heaney et al, 1991, 1998, 1999, unpubl. data; Rickart et al, 1993; Ruedas, 1994; Lepiten, 1997). We netted one adult female in May 1994 in secondary lowland forest at 1000 m (Site 4). Specimens Examined — Total 1. Site 4 (1 msu-iit). Pipistrellus javanicus (Gray, 1838) The Javan pipistrelle is found from Korea to Java and throughout the Philippines. It is generally common in primary montane forest and uncommon in primary lowland and mossy forest, though it has been found from sea level to 2250 m (Ingle, 1992; Heaney et al, 1998, 1999, unpubl. data). A single skin without a skull, tentatively identified as this species, was obtained from Camiguin by the 1960s surveys. In March 1995, two were netted in primary montane forest at 1275 m (Site 7). Cranial and external measurements (Table 5) are comparable with those of a series from Mindanao (Mt. Kitanglad) in most dimensions (Heaney et al, unpubl. data). 38 FIELDIANA: ZOOLOGY


244 Fishery Bulletin 1032) Literature cited Alonzo, S. H, and M. Mangel. 2004. Size-selective fisheries, sperm limitation and spawning per recruit in sex changing fish. Fish. Bull. 1021-13. Apostolaki, P, E. J. Milner-gulland, M. K. Mcallister, and G. P. Kirkwood. 2002. Modelling the effects of establishing a marine reserve for mobile fish species. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 59405-415. Ainsworth, P. R. 2001. Effects of fishing on a protogynous hermaphrodite. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 58568-578. Bannerot, S, W. F. Fox, and J. E. Powers. 1987. Reproductive strategies and the management of snappers and groupers in the gulf of Mexico and Caribbean. In Tropical snappers and groupers: biology and fisheries management, t J. J. Polovina and S. Ralston, eds), p. 561-603. Westview Press, Boulder, CO. Beets, J, and A. Friedlander. 1999. Evaluation of a conservation strategy: a spawning aggregation closure for red hind, Epinephelus guttatus, in the U.S. Virgin Islands. Environ. Biol. Fish. 5591-98. Beverton, R. J. H. 1987. Longevity in fish: some ecological and evolutionary considerations. In Evolution of longevity in animals. (A. D. Woodhead and K.H. Thompson, eds) p. 161-185. Plenum Press, New York, NY. Beverton, R. J. H. 1992. Patterns of reproductive strategy parameters in some marine teleost fishes. J. Fish Biol. 41 (Suppl. B) 41137-160. Breden, F, D. Novinger, and A. Schubert. 1995. The effect of experience on mate choice in the Trinidad guppy, Poecilia reticulata. Environ. Biol. Fish. 42323-328. Brule, T. C. Deniel, T. Colas-marrufo, and M. Sanchez-crespo. 1999. Red grouper reproduction in the southern Gulf of Mexico. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 128385-402. Charnov, E. L. 1982. The theory of sex allocation, 355 p. Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, NJ. 1986. Size advantage may not always favor sex change. J. Their. Biol. 119283-285. Charnov, E. L, and J. J. Bull. 1989. Non-fisherman sex ratios with sex change and environmental sex determination. Nature 338148-150. Coleman. F. C, A. Eklund. and C. B. Grimes. 1999. Management and conservation of temperate reef fishes in the grouper-snapper complex of the southeastern United States. Am. Fish. Soc. Sym. 23233-242. Coleman, F. C, C. C. Koenig, and L. A. Collins. 1996. Reproductive styles of shallow-water groupers (Pisces: Serranidae) in the eastern Gulf of Mexico and the consequences of fishing spawning aggregations. Environ. Biol. Fish. 47129-141. Collins, L. A, A. G. Johnson, and C. P. Keim. 1996. Spawning and annual fecundity of the red snapper lutianus campechanus) from the northeastern Gulf of Mexico. In Biology, fisheries, and culture of tropical groupers and snappers (F. Arreguin-sanchez, J. L. Munro, M. C. Lagos, and D. Pauly, eds) p. 174-188. ICLARM (International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management! conference proceedings 48, ICLARM, Makati City, Philippines. Constable, A. J, W. K. de la Mare, D. J. Agnew, I. Everson, and D. Miller. 2000. Managing fisheries to conserve the Antarctic marine ecosystem: practical implementation of the convention on the conservation of Antarctic marine living resources (CCAMLR). ICES J. Mar. Sci. 57778-791. Cowen, R. K. 1985. Large-scale pattern of recruitment by the labrid, Semicossyphus pulcher: causes and implications. J. Mar. Res. 43719-742. 1990. Sex change and life history patterns of the labrid, Semicossyphus pulcher, across an environmental gradient. Copeia 1990787-795. Cowen, R. K, K. M. M. Lwiza, S. Sponaugle, C. B. Paris, and D. B. Olson. 2000. Connectivity of marine populations: open or closed? Science 287857-859. Fu, C, T. J. Quinn, II. and T. C. Shirley. 2001. The role of sex change, growth and mortality in Pandanus population dynamics and management. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 58607-621. Fulton, E, D. Fault, B. Mapstone, and M. Sheaves. 1999. Spawning season influences on commercial catch rates: computer simulations and Plectropomus leopardus. a case in point. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 561096-1108. Greene. C. J. Ltmbanhowar, M. Mangel, and T. Caro. 1998. Animal breeding systems, hunter selectivity, and consumptive use in wildlife conservation. In Behavioral ecology and conservation biology (T. Caro, ed) p. 271-305. Oxford Univ. Press, New York, NY. Gunderson, D. R. 1997. Trade-off between reproductive effort and adult survival in oviparous and viviparous fishes. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 54990-998. Haddon, M. 2001. Modelling and quantitative methods in fisheries, 406 p. Chapman and Hall, Boca Raton, FL. Helfman, G. S. 1997. The diversity of fishes, 528 p. Blackwell Science, Maiden, MA. Huntsman, G. R, and W. E. Schaaf. 1994. Simulation of the impact of fishing on reproduction of a protogynous grouper, the graysby. No. Am. J. Fish. Manag. 1441-52. Iwasa, Y. 1990. Sex change evolution and cost of reproduction. Be-hav. Ecol. 256-68. Janetos, A. C. 1980. Strategies of female mate choice: a theoretical analysis. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 7107-112. Jennings, S, M. J. Kaiser, and J. D. Reynolds. 2001. Marine fisheries ecology, 417 p. Blackwell Science, Oxford, UK. Koeller, P, R. Mohn, and M. Etter. 2000. Density dependant sex change in northern shrimp, Pandalus borealis, on the Scotian Shelf. J. No. Atl. Fish. Sci. 27107-118. Kruuk, L. E. B, T. H. Clutton-brock, S. D. Albon, J. M. Pemberton, and F. E. Guinness. 1999. Population density affects sex ratio variation in red deer. Nature 399459-461.


35 Behavior 351 Migrations and local movements Sailfish perform long-range migrations of thousands of miles as well as fairly extensive short-term movements most likely based on local environmental conditions. Mather et al. (1974) reported on the results of 18 yr of billfish tagging under the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Cooperative Gamefish Tagging Program. Over 12,000 sailfish were tagged and 95 recoveries were recorded (Table 7). The longest distance between release and recovery was from off Cape Hatteras, N. C, to just north of Surinam, a distance of over 1,853 km (Fig. 5). The longest time at large was over 4 yr. Voss (1953) believed that there is a population of sailfish present off Florida all year long, but in summer with the extension of warm water northward there is a movement of sailfish northward along the inside edge of the Gulf Stream. With the arrival of the winter northerlies these fish are driven southward to regroup off the coast of Florida. Squire (1974) reported on the results of a billfish tagging program in the eastern Pacific from 1954 through 1971. Over 4,700 sailfish were tagged; only 8 were recovered. Most recaptures were near the tagging locality and the longest period at large was 15 mo. Nakamura et al. (1968) stated that sailfish in the western Pacific migrate from New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and the Philippines along the Japanese Current to Japan and the Pacific coast of Mexico. In autumn sailfish enter the warm Tsushima Current and move into coastal waters where they are sometimes captured in traps. In the East China Sea, Koto et al. (1959) reported that sailfish migrate northward in summer and return southward in autumn where they overwinter in the southernmost area. They also reported that fish under 160 cm long move into the area between May and July while fish over 160 cm move southward out of the area, probably for spawning. In the Indian Ocean, Williams (1970) and Merrett (1971) discussed the movements of sailfish off the coast of East Africa. Williams believed that there are two overlapping migratory patterns, one a localized onshore-offshore migration with a superimposed migration from the north and northeast with the intrusion of the Somali Current. Merrett believed that the onshore migration was a postspawning, feeding migration. 352 Schooling Sailfish occasionally form schools or groups of from 3 to 25 or 30 individuals. More often, however, concentrations of sailfish occur in loose aggregations over a broad area. Large numbers of sailfish occur off the southeast coast of Florida during the winter months. Voss (1953) reported that in early morning sailfish off the Florida coast were scattered, but by 0900 schools of up to 30 fish began to form and feed on concentrations of small forage fish. Furukawa (1961) presented a method of calculating the size of an average school or aggregation using the Table 7— Releases for Atlantic sailfish, Istiophorus albicans, in the western North Atlantic by years, and returns from these by months at liberty (from Mather et al. 1974). Releases Months at liberty 0-09 1-19 2-59 6-119 12-179 18-239 24-359 36-479 Totals Total 12,005 22 11 24 24 5 6 10 9 6 9 17 13 10 5 1 1 95 110


146 yellow variegations. Length of head and body 390 mm; tail 80 mm. Fig. 60. Rhabdopliuhum forsteni (D. & B) X 'A-Side view of head. Habitat: Celebes! (Tomohon, Rurukan). 34. Pseudorhabdium Jan. (Jan. Arch. Zool. Anat. Phys. II p. lo, 1862). Head not distinct from neck; eye small; pupil round; nasal very small; internasals small; loreal absent; praeocular small or absent; temporals absent; the parietals in contact with the labials. Maxillary teeth 10 — 12, equal; anterior mandibular teeth longer than posterior. Body round, covered with smooth scales without pits, in 15 rows; ventrals rounded. Tail short; subcaudals in two rows. Distribution. Malay Peninsula and Archipelago; Philippines, A single species in the Indo-australian region. I. Pseudorhabdium longiceps (Cant). Calamaria longiceps Cantor, Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal XVI 1847, p. 910, pi. 40, fig. I. Pscudoihahdium longiceps Boulenger, Cat. Sn. II 1894, p. 329. Snout pointed; rostral small, as deep as broad, visible from above; internasals small; frontal as long as or shorter than its distance from, the tip of the snout, shorter than the parietals, more than twice as broad as the supraocular; praeocular small


9 10 212. SHOREA ROBUSTA/^ 213. Gaertn. sem. 3. p. 4 8, tab. 18 6. DIPTEROCARPUS TURBINATUS Gartn. sem. 3, p. SI. tab. 188. Salu the Sanscrit name, and Saul of the Hindoos and Bengalese GENERIC CHARACTER. Gal7/x 5 -leaved, imbricate, permanent, and enlarging into five long Wrings, round the capsule. Gorol 5-petalled. Capsule above, one-cell'd, one-valved, one-seeded. Tiliah-gurjeon of the Hindoos, in Tipperah and Chittagong. GENERIC CHARACTER. Ca/j/x beneath, one-leaved, permanent; two of the five divisions of its border growing, with the pericarp, into two very large membranaceous wings. Corol five-petalled. Capsule ovate, one-cell'd, one-seeded. DESCRIPTION. Trunk, straight, of great thickness and height in full grown trees ; beams being sometimes brought down 24 inches square, and thirty, or more, feet in length. Leaves alternate, short-petioled, cordate-oblong, entire, smooth, DESCRIPTION. Trunk straight throughout to the very top of the tree, and growing to an immense size ; even so large as to be made into canoes that will carry one hundred men. Bark pretty smooth, firm, pale-greenish colour, with many simple, parallel, nearly Branches ascending: branchlets alternate, bifarious, round, smooth. Leaves alternate, short-petioled, bifarious, ovate-oblong, some entire, some waved, and even some are serrate ; both sides smooth, deep shining green ; veins many, straight, simple, and parallel; from four to twelve inches long. opposite veins ; from 4 to 8 Inches long;. Stipules Panicles terminal, and from the exterior axills, spreading, very ramous, downy. Flowers numerous, pretty large, pale yellow. Bractes small, caducous. Calyx beneath, five-leaved : leaflets unequal, downy on the outside, permanent, and enlarging into five long wings, surrounding with their base the pericarp. Petals five, obliquely ovate-lanceolate, 3 or 4 times longer than the calyx; margins towards the apex revolute ; on the outside somewhat sericeous. Filaments from 25 to 30, longer than the calyx, inserted round the base of the germ ; lower half broad and membranaceous. Anthers two-lobed, gaping round the apex, with a minute bristle between the openings. Germ conical. Style awl-shaped, permanent. Stigma small. Capsule ovate, pointed, one-cell'd, of a tender consistence, covered with soft, grey down, and enveloped by the enlarged leaflets of the calyx, each of them being now furnished with a long, wedge-shaped, reticulated, membranaceous wing. Seed solitary (rarely two), of the shape, and size of the capsule. OBSERVATIONS. This majestic tree is a native of the skirts of the northern mountains of India ; Calcutta is supplied with the timber thereof, chiefly from Morung ; flowering time the hot season, seed ripe In three months thereafter. The wood of this tree Is In very general use near Bengal, for beams, rafters, and various other economical uses ; it is of an uniform light brown colour, close grained, and heavy ; at the same time It does not appear to be very durable, and on that account greatly Stipules within the leaves, large, sword-shaed Spikes subaxillary, solitary, shorter than the leaves, smooth. Flowers solitary, remote, alternate, large. Calyx beneath, one-leaved. 7"m^^ rather gibbous. ^^r</^r five-parted, irregular ; two of the divisions being very much larger than the other three ; these two continually increasing, until the seed is ripe. , Petals five, narrow, obliquely wedge-shaped, smooth on both sides and entire, except that sometimes they are emarginate. Filaments about thirty, short. Inserted round the base of the germ. Anthers ensiform, ending in long, tapering, acute points. Germ above, ovate. Style erect, length of the stamina. Stigma perforated. Capsule ovate, pointed, one-celled, one-valved, of a tender consistence, covered with short, soft, hairy down, and enveloped in the enlarged Calyx ; the two larger divisions of its border are now, two very large, linear oblong wings, beautifully reticulated with veins and nerves. 6'^^</ solitary, shape of the capsule ; from its apex the embryo of the future plant issues. inferior to Teak ; for In strength it certainly surpasses it consider-and houses in India. OBSERVATIONS. This Immense tree Is a native of Chittagong, Tipperah, Pegu, and other countries to the eastward of Bengal, Flowering time the beginning of the hot season ; seed ripe in June and July. This tree is famous over the eastern parts of India, and the Malay Islands, on account of its yielding a thin, liquid balsam, commonly called Wood-oil ; which is much used for painting ships ably, and appears to me to deserve the second place amongst our India timber trees. Teak being the first. This as well as some other species of the same genus, yields large quantities of the resin, commonly called Dammer in India, and very generally used, as a substitute for pitch In the Marine yard. The best pieces are also frequently used, instead of the common incense, (Benzoin,) in the temples of the Hindoos. In the plate, the dissected flower Is magnified; the fruit of its natural size. * So named in honour of the Right Honourable Lord Teignmoutli, late Governor General of Bengal, kc. VOL. III. To procure the balsam, a large notch Is cut Into the trunk of the tree, near the earth ; say about thirty inches from the ground, where a fire Is kept up until the wound is charr'd, soon after which the liquid begins to ooze out. A small gutter Is cut in the wood, to conduct the fluid into a vessel placed to receive it. The average produce of the best trees, during the season. Is said to be sometimes as high as forty gallons. It is found necessary every three or four weeks, to cut off the old charr'd surface, and burn it afresh; and in large, healthy trees, abounding in balsam, they even cut a second notch, In some other part of the tree, and


248 Flora Malesiana [ser. I, vol. 9^ Fig. 5. Ground-carpet of seedlings of Shorea multiflora (Burck) Sym., 9 months after flowering. Note the drip-tips. Brunei, Andalau For. Res., lowland dipterocarp forest, 100 m alt. (Photogr. Ashton, Aug. 1959). under controlled humidity conditions and found that species differ in their tolerance of dry conditions at germination: the coastal hill and ridge-top species Shorea curtisii is paradoxically highly sensitive to dry conditions at germination, though apparently more tolerant of water stress than related species at maturity. He estimated that 40"o of 5. curtisii seedlings fail to survive the first month following germination, and another 10°o succumb in the following dry season c. 3 months later. Mortality in the life cycle is consequently greatest during fruit development and the 2-3 years following seedling establishment. General ecology. Following successful establishment carpets of seedlings of a single species are seen around the boles of the parent trees. Fig. 5, 81. At this stage competition is therefore mainly intraspecific, and it is interesting that, though this is the period of maximal mortality, morphological and anatomical differences between allied species are at their least. Knowledge of the ecology of dipterocarp seedlings is almost entirely empirical, derived from silvicultural experience. Sunderland (unpubl.) has demonstrated however that though seedlings of the slow-growing heavy hardwood Shorea maxwelliana and the fast growing light hardwood S. leprosula share compensation points, total daily net photosynthesis and rates of dark respiration are much higher in the latter. Though the former can survive under lower light intensities, neither can survive without the occurrence of sunflecks. If, as seems probable, dipterocarps form complex ectotrophic mycorrhizal associations (^Hong, 1979), then the clumped distribution imposed by their reproductive biology will facilitate and be enhanced by the events leading to the establishment of their rhizosphere associations. Many basidiomycetes are known to produce carpophores in response to drought; under lowland rain forest conditions carpophore formation appears to be, perhaps as a consequence, less frequent. In wetter areas it may be that reproduction is largely vegetative therefore, the mycelia persisting and


982] DIPTEROCARPACEAE (Ashton) 545 long, singly or doubly branched, terminal or axillary, straight. Flower hud to 7 by 4 mm. Sepals narrowly deltoid-ovate, subacute, pubescent on parts exposed in bud. the inner 2 smaller than the outer 3. Petals lanceolate, hispid on parts exposed in bud. Stamens 15. in 3 unequal verticils; filaments slender, compressed, tapering to the small subglobose anthers; appendage to connective slender, short, as long as anther, anthers and appendages becoming reflexed. Ovary and stylopodium narrowly conical. densely pubescent; style slender, filiform, glabrous, c. 1/2 length of ovary and stylopodium. Fruit pedicel to 1.5 cm long. Calyx puberulent; 3 longer lobes to 7.5 by 1.3 cm. narrow, spatulate. obtuse, c. 3 mm broad above the c. 6 by 5 mm ovate thickened saccate base; 2 shorter lobes to 3.5 by 0.2 cm. subequal. linear, acute, similar at base. Sui to 1.5 by 0.8 cm. ovoid, pale buff pubescent; style remnant c. 1.5 mm long, tapering. Distr. Malesia: Borneo (N.E. Sarawak. Brunei. S.W. Sabah). Ecol. Local. Heath forest on terraces and sandstone plateaux to 1200 m. Vern. Meranti kerangas (Sarawak), seraya daun tajam (Sabah). 156. Shorea ovata DYER ex BRANDIS. J. Linn. Soc. Bot. 31 (1895)91; MERR. En. Born. (1921)406; SYM. Card. Bull. S. S. 7 (1933) 140. pi. 40; Mal. For. Rec. 16 ( 1 943 ) 82. f. 38. 50; BROWNE. For. Trees Sarawak & Brunei (1955) 148; ASHTON. Man. Dipt. Brun. (1964) 230. f. 16; ibid. Suppl. (1968) 112; MEIJER & WOOD. Sabah For. Rec. 5 (1964) 127. pi. 8 A. — S. parvifolia (non DYER) KING. J. R. As. Soc. Beng. Sc. 62. 2 (1893) 122, p.p.; FOXW. Mal. For. Rec. 10 (1932) 199. — S. plagata FOXW. Philip. J. Sc. 13 (1918) Bot. 192; ibid. 67 (1938) 308. — S. agsaboensis W.L. STERN. Brittonia 17 (1965) 36. f. 1-2; ROJO. Pterocarpus 3 (1977) 70, fig. — Fig. 114. Small or medium-sized tree. Young twig, panicle, leaf bud. stipule (both surfaces), petiole, midrib above and leaf beneath densely persistently evenly ochraceous to rust pubescent, scabrid on raceme and nervation beneath. Twig c. 1 mm apically, slender, much branched, terete, becoming smooth, glabrous; stipule scars c. 1 mm long. thin, slightly descending. Bud 3-6 by 1.5-3 mm, ovoid, obtuse. Stipule lo 13 by 5 mm. ovate, subacute, fugaceous. Leaves 4-8 by 2.5-4.5 cm. small, coriaceous, broadly ovate; base subequal to equal, obtuse; acumen to 1 cm long, narrow; margin slightly revolute; nerves 8-10 pairs, curved, prominent beneath, at c. 50 -70\ with (in Borneo) small pilose a.xillary domatia; tertiary nerves slender, densely scalariform. set diagonally to the nerves; midrib slightly depressed above; petiole 1-1.3 cm long. Panicle to 1 1 cm long, terminal or axillary, terete or slightly compressed; singly or doubly branched, branchlets to 3 cm long, bearing to 8 +/-distichous flowers; bracteoles to 3.5 by 2 mm. oblong, obtuse, sparsely puberulent outside, glabrescent within. Flower bud to 6 by 2.5 mm. ovoid, subacute. Calyx densely golden-brown pubescent outside, glabrescent within; 3 outer lobes narrowly ovate, acuminate; 2 inner shorter, broader, more acuminate; petals pale pink with cream margin, lanceolate, obtuse, pubescent on parts exposed in bud. loosely connate on falling. Stamens of 3 lengths, the outer 5 often aborting, the inner 5 about twice their length; filaments tapering gradually; anthers subglobose, narrower apically; appendage to connective short, becoming reflexed. Ovary ovoid, with a band of hairs at the apex, otherwise glabrous, tapering into the rather short glabrous style. Fruit calyx glabrescent, ± persistently puberulent at base; 3 longer lobes to 5.5 by 1 cm. spatulate. obtuse, to 4 mm broad above the to 7 by 6 mm ovate shallowly saccate thickened base; 2 shorter lobes to 3 by 0.3 cm. subequal. linear, similarly saccate at base. Nut to 11 by 8 mm. broadly ovoid, tapering, shortly evenly densely buff pubescent; style remnant to 2.5 mm long, acute. Distr. Malesia: Malaya. Sumatra (W. coast: Tapanuli. Sibolga to Painan. Bangkinang; P. Musala). Borneo (Kapuas hinterland. Sarawak to S.W. Sabah. S.E. Borneo). Philippines (Mindanao). Ecol. Sandy soils on coastal hills (especially in Borneo); inland ridges to 1 500 m (especially in Malaya and Sumatra). Vern. Meranti sarang punai bukit (Malaya), mandirawan (Sumatra), seraya punai bukit (Sabah). Notes. Formerly I pointed out (Gard. Bull. Sing. 31, 1978. 47) that S. plagata and S. agsaboensis (from Mindanao) represented the same species and referred these names to S. pauciflora. owing to the leaf shape and 8 pairs of nerves, pointing out. however, that the Philippine plants differed in the usually small leaf-size and the usual but not consistent presence of small axillary domatia up to the midrib. I also indicated that flowers would be needed for confirmation. J. P. ROJO has now collected and described (1977. I.e.) these flowers (ROJO 292. Agusan del Norte. Mindanao) and correctly pointed out that they place the species in a different section. Mutica, S. pauciflora being in sect. Brachypterae. ROJO’s excellent field description alludes to the fissured bark and bluish-red corolla, pink at the base. This matches Shorea sect./subsect. Mutica. while the description of the corolla is distinctive and clearly matches that of S. ovata. in which the leaves also bear 8 pairs of nerves and pubescent axillary domatia. Though not closely resembling the leaves of S. ovata as it occurs in Borneo, the Philippine specimens so much resemble specimens from Sumatra and West Malaysia, that I am convinced of their conspecificy. This conclusion is strengthened by ROJO’s comment that it is in Mindanao a species of high ridges, exactly as is S. ovata. except in northern Borneo where it spreads down onto sandy soils in the lowlands. 157. Shorea rubra ASHTON. Gard. Bull. Sing. 19 (1962)309. pi. 28; Man. Dipt. Brun. (1964)217.7. 16; ibid. Suppl. (1968) 118; Meijer & Wood. Sabah For. Rec. 5(1964) 144. Medium-sized or large buttressed tree with dark


FISHES OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS AND ADJACENT SEAS 199 Light brown, usually little paler below. Back and sides above with pale-blue dark-edged spots, some on head and flanks elongated and bar like. Iris brown, some small blue spots on bases of soft dorsal, anal, and caudal. Paired fins pale brown, unspotted. Red Sea, East Africa, Zanzibar, Mozambique, Mauritius, Seychelles, India, Ceylon, East Indies, Philippines, Japan, Queensland, Melanesia, Micronesia, Polynesia. Our series of specimens all show rather large spots variably present on the fins and sometimes as short vertical bars as those on the flanks in the nominal Plectropoma pessuliferum. 5522. Catbalogan, western Samar. April 16, 1908. Length 390 mm. 5521. Catbalogan. April 15, 1908. Length 218 mm. 7608. Endeavor Strait, Palawan. December 24, 1908. Length 385 mm. Figure 6— Plectropomus maculatus (Bloch), variation 6289. Manila market. January 12, 1908. Length 580 mm. 9036. Natabas Point, Samar. July 24, 1909. A. 1352. Great Tobea Island. December 15, 1909. Length 363 mm. PLECTROPOMUS LEOPARDUS (Lacepede) Holocentrus leopardus Lacepede, Hist. Nat. Poiss, vol. 4, 1802, pp. 332, 367No locality. Plectropoma leopard inum Cuvier, Hist. Nat. Poiss, vol. 2, 1828, p. 392, pi. 36 (Indian Ocean). — Schlegel, Fauna Japon, Poiss, pt. 1, 1842, p. 12 (Nagasaki). — Gunther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus, vol. 1, 1S59, p. 157 (Louisiades). — Karoli, Termesz. Fiizetek, Budapest, vol. 5, 1882, p. 150 (Ceylon). Plectropoma leopardus Richardson, Ichth. China, Japan, 1846, p. 230 (compiled). 8S 137— 30 14


FORAMINIFERA OF NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN. 17 great ocean depths are very uniform, and it is in this portion of the ocean basins that universal distribution is to be looked for. Many species found at depths of 1,000 fathoms, for example, are probably to be found in similar depths in any of the great ocean basins. This is even more true of those species which are encountered at the 2,000fathom line. At depths of less than 500 fathoms species occur which in many cases seem to have a rather limited range. Many such species have been found — species, for example, which were recorded by Brady from material from a single Challenger station, and have been found again in the present study on the Albatross material from exactly the same regions and at approximately the same depths. Such species may be considered as marking definite fauna! limits where enough such species occur in any one region. On this basis the North Pacific Ocean may be divided up into several faunal regions, which, while they may have a considerable number of species in common, nevertheless have a distinctive character as a whole. Among the most characteristic of these faunas may be mentioned the coral-reef fauna, as it may be conveniently called. This fauna, characterized by such genera as Orbitolites, Alveolina, Peneroplis, Amphistegina, Polytrema, etc, is found about the coral reefs of the Philippines, the Hawaiian Islands, Guam, and other of the tropical oceanic islands of this area. It is best developed about the first two groups of islands at comparatively shallow depths. In the north this fauna extends, with certain modifications, up to the southern portion of Japan, but so far as made out it is not developed at all on the eastern coast of the North Pacific. The same fauna is found in the Malay Archipelago, in various parts of the East Indies, off the northern coast of Australia, to some extent in various parts of the Mediterranean, and also a modification of it in the West Indies. Off the coast of Central America and Mexico there is developed a peculiar fauna which is seen in a modified form in the deeper waters off the eastern coast of the Philippines. Certain of the species, or at least the genera, are also characteristic of certain parts of the extreme North Atlantic, where they have been described by Brady from the Porcupine and other dredgings. Some of the genera which are characteristic of this region are Crithionina, Bathysiphon, large species of Reophax, Verrucina, etc. Off the coasts of Japan and of the Philippine Islands in green mud at depths of a few hundred fathoms there is another rather definite fauna, which is mainly characterized by many species of the Lagenidse, such as Sagrina bifrons H. B. Brady, and many of the species recorded by Brady from the Hyalonema ground south of Japan in about 300 fathoms. This fauna appears to run northward a considerable distance along or off the Japanese coast and to extend eastward to the 16777— Bull. 7110 2


IN BORNEAN FORESTS [chap, x of a streamlet at about an hour's walk from the village of Senna. The water was clear and left no appreciable deposit, even when allowed to stand for a time in a glass tumbler. It had a sulphurous smell. A thermometer I placed in the spring reached the high temperature of 163° Fahr. On the 24th I returned to Penkalan Ampat, and the next day found me on my journey back to Kuching. On the way I stopped at Sabungo to ascend Gunong Braam, a limestone hill in the vicinity, where I got some interesting botanical novelties. In Borneo the plants which have a predilection for calcareous soil do not appear to be frequent ; on the contrary, the greater number dislike it, leaving the epiphytes out of the question. All herbaceous forest plants, as well as ligneous ones, live in the humus and extend their roots in the superficial stratum formed of vegetable detritus. This is no doubt the reason why most tropical plants cultivated in hothouses require a compost rich in humus, and must have water that is free from lime. I passed the night of the 26th at Koom, and the next day reached my house at Kuching. In December I returned to Mattang, where I found plenty to do in collecting specimens of the fruit of those trees of which I had previously collected the blossom. The Dipterocarpeae formed the special object of my search. The greater part of January was employed in constant excursions around Kuching, where I remained during the whole of February chiefly occupied in arranging and packing my collections. During March I made an excursion to Lobang Angin, one of the caves in the limestone hills along the western branch of the Sarawak river. We started from Kuching on the morning of the 2nd, in my sampan with its usual crew. Close to the banks of the river, a little above the town, I was struck by the very peculiar colour of a herbaceous plant, which caught the eye at once among the rest of the vegetation, and was called by my men daun batik angin, i.e. " the leaf that changes with the wind " — a name probably derived from the very different coloration of the leaves, which are green at the lower part of the plant, and of a brilliant salmon red at the upper part, where the flowering takes place. The plant is a Clerodendron, which I have distinguished as C. discolor (Becc, P.B. No. 35 and 3,584). I passed the night at Busso, and the next day we continued to ascend the river. On a tree on the bank I noticed two squirrels, one brown, the other perfectly white ; they were probably male and female, and this is the only albino mammal which I saw in Borneo. We also met with a crocodile sleeping on the bank, belonging to the species called by the natives "buaya katak." I snatched up my rifle, but it was too quick for me, and disappeared under water before I could fire. We next passed under Gunong Tundong, a small limestone 13


HAND-BOOK to the FLORA of CEYLON. I ^ EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. (The sign x indicates that the figure is more or less enlarged.) LIBRARY NEW YORK BOTANICAL PLATE I. GARDEN i. Acrotrema lyratum, Hk. f. A plant in flower. 2-8. A. uniflorum, Hk., var. bullatum, Hk. f. and Th. 2, bracts and pedicel, x 3, flower with petals removed, x 4, flower seen from above, x 5, group of stamens, x 6, carpels, x 7, the same, opened, x 8, ovules, x (Vol. i. pp. 7 and 9.) PLATE II. Schumacheria angustifolia, Hk. f. and Th. Branch with flowers. 1, stamens and carpels, x 2, group of stamens, x 3, anther, x 4, ovary with ovule, x (Vol. i. p. 11.) PLATE III. Wormia triquetra, Rotth. Twig with flowers. 1, buds. 2, stamen, x 3, top of anther, x 4, carpels. 5, transverse section of same, x 6, vertical section of carpel, x 7, ovules, x 8, one ovule, x 9, 10, fruit, with the persistent sepals opened out. 11, 12, ripe carpels opened, showing ripe and abortive seed, x 13, seed, x 14, section of the same, x (Vol. i. p. n.) PLATE IV. Limacia cuspidata, Hk. f. and Th. A. — Male plant in flower. 1, under, and 2, upper view of flower, x 3, stamens, x B. — Female plant in fruit. 4, ripe carpels. 5, endocarp. 6, section of the same showing seed. (Vol. i. p. 42.) PLATE V. Alsodeia virgata, Hk. f. and Th. 1, branch in flower. 2, stipule, x 3, flower, x 4, the same opened, x 5, sepal, x 6, petal, x 7, outer, and 8, inner view of stamens, x 9, ovary, x 10, ovule, x n, branch with fruit. 12, Capsule open. (Vol. i. p. 69.) PLATE VI. Erythrospermum phytolaccoides, Gardn. Branch in flower. 1, a flower, x 2, petal, x 3, stamens, x 4, transverse section of ovary, x 5 and 6, ripe fruit. 7, seed. 8, section of same, x (Vol. i. p. 72.) PLATE VII. Aueria Gardneri, Clos. 1, twig of male tree with flowers. 2, male flower, x 3, stamen, x 4, abortive pistil of male flower, x 5, twig of female tree with flowers and fruit. 6, female flower, x 7, The same, with pistil removed to show disk, x 8, transverse section of ovary, x 9, ripe fruit. 10, transverse section of same. (Vol. i. p. 74.) PLATE VIII Trichadenia zeylanica, Thw. 1, twig of male tree with flowers. 2, bud. x 3, male flower, x 4, petal of same, x 5, vertical section of petal, x 6, stamens, x 7, twig of female tree with flowers. 8, buds, x 9, female flower, x 10, pistil, x 11, vertical, and 12, transverse section of ovary, x 13, fruit. 14, same, with half of pericarp removed to show seed. (Vol. i. p. 75.) PLATE IX. Adinandra lasiopetala, Chois. 1, a twig with flowers. 2, stamens, x 3, anthers, x 4, pistil. 5, vertical, and 6, transverse section of ovary, x 7, placenta with ovules, x S, ovules, x 9, fruit with persistent sepals. 10, same with sep. removed. 11, transverse section of fruit. 12, seeds, one x (Vol. i. p. 108.) PLATE X. Dipterocarpus zeylanicus, Thw. 1, a twig with flowers. 2, calyx. 3, stamens, x 4, pistil, x 5, vertical, and 6, transverse section of ovary, x 7, ripe fruit in persistent calyx. 8, one of the smaller lobes of persistent calyx. 9, ripe fruit with the calyx removed. 10, vertical section of same. (Vol. i. p. 114.) PLATE XL Doona congestiflora, Thw. Branch with flowers. 1, Stamens, x 2, same, more enlarged, x 3, vertical, and 4, transverse section of ovary, x 5, ripe fruit. (Vol. i. p. 122.)


70 XVII. DIPTEROCARPACE^ [Shorea 4. S. Talura, Roxb.— Syn. S. laccifera, Heyne : Bedd. Fl. Sylv. t. 6; Vatica laccifera, Wight Ic. t. 164. Vern. Talura, talari, Tam ; Jalari, Tel.; Jhalli, Kan. A large tree, perfectly glabrous, only petals pubescent on the outside, and sepals ciliate on edges, wood very hard, heartwood small. Leaves 3-4 in., from a more or less rounded base, elliptic-oblong, obtuse, petiole 1/3-1/4 length of blade. Fl. light pink, 1/2 in. long, in drooping axillary panicles, ramifications slender, almost filiform. Stamens 15, in 3 rows. Anthers of the 5 interior stamens longer than the others, appendage of connective equal to anther, scabrous at the end. Larger wings of fruiting calyx 3 in. long, narrowed above the broad base, which completely encloses the fruit. Hills of the southern Deccan, also on the west side, in evergreen forests, from North Kanara southwards. Fl. C. S. Closely allied and perhaps not specifically distinct is 5. S. floribunda, Kurz, F. Fl. i. 119, Tenasserim ; base of leaves acute. 6. S. assamica, Dyer. Vern. Makai, Assam. A tall tree, shoots, stipules and young leaves softly tomentose, stipules 2/3 in., lanceolate, nearly falcate. Fl. 1/2 in. on very short pedicels, sepals and petals hairy outside. Stamens 15, appendage long, glabrous. Ovary and base of style hairy, style filiform, longer than ovary. Fruiting calyx glabrous, wings coriaceous, the longer 3-5 in., the shorter more than half as long. Upper Assam, forests at the foot of the Naga hills, in Sibsagar and Lakhimpur districts. Fl. September. 7. S. gratissima, Dyer. Tenasserim, Singapore. Glabrous except branches of inflorescence outside, of calyx and petals. Fl. 1/3 in., in unilateral paniculate racemes, stamens 20-25, top of ovary and base of style slightly puberulous. Wings of fruiting calyx thin, membranous. 6. PARASHOREA, Kurz, F. Fl. i. 117. Species 4, 1 in Sumatra, 2 in the Philippine Islands. 1. P. stellata, Kurz ; Pierre, Fl. For. Cochinch. t. 224. — Syn. Shorea stellata, Dyer, Fl. Brit. Ind. i. 304. Vern. Kaunghmu, Burm. A tall evergreen tree, attaining 150 ft. Leaves pale beneath, blade 4-6, petiole 1/2-1 in. long, secondary nerves 8-10 pair, tertiary nerves numerous, parallel, not more conspicuous than the reticulate veins between them. Fl. small, cream-coloured, in large axillary and terminal panicles. Sepals almost valvate in bud, like the petals grey-velvety outside. Stamens 15, anthers hirsute, linear, on short filaments, prolongation, of connective short, obtuse. Ovary hairy, globose, prolonged into a cylindric furrowed style, no stylopodium. Segments of fruiting calyx nearly equal, tube not enlarged, the ovoid acuminate velvety fruit free and exposed. Martaban and Tenasserim, also Malay Peninsula. Scarce in the southern portion of the Pegu Yoma. Fl. March, April. Fig. 31.—Parashorea stellata, Kurz. 1/2. 7. BALANOCARPUS, Beddome, Foresters’ Manual, 237. Trees, glabrous except inflorescence, stipules minute, deciduous. Fl. supported by 2 bracteoles, in unilateral racemes, arranged in compound panicles. Calyx on a flat torus, distinctly imbricate. Stamens 15, in some