56 COLLECTIONS FEOM MELANESIA. 44. Voluta volva, var. (Plate V. fig. K) Chemnitz ), Reeve, Conch. Icon. fig. 24. Volta pallida, Gray, Kiener, Coq. Viv. pi. 48. Hah. Thursday Island, Torres Straits, 3-4 fathoms. Typical specimens of V. volva should be uniformly of a fleshy buff tint, exhibiting the slightest indication of two bands of a somewhat darker colour across the body-whorl ; the normal volutions should be spotted with dark brown immediately beneath the suture, and stained with yellowish brown above it, and the aperture at a short distance from the margin of the lip should be of a lighter brown. Two specimens from Swan River, presented to the British Museum by Capt. Mangles, R.N, possess the above characteristics, but in addition have numerous, more or less wavy and zigzag pale brownish lines, most conspicuous upon the two indistinct transverse zones, extending downwards from the suture, but not reticulating in a longitudinal direction. The only specimen obtained by Dr. Coppinger, although having the labrum much broken away, still possesses considerable interest in that it resembles the specimens just mentioned, but with all the tints much darkened, in which respect it approximates more closely to V. reticulata. Reeve ; indeed the group of Volutes from North, North-west, and West Australia includes a number of species which appear to have several characters in common, and present considerable difficulty of distinction such are, in addition to those previously mentioned, V. turneri. Gray, V. pratexta, Reeve, and V. ellioti, Sowerby. 45. Ranella rana. Murex rana, Linn, Hanley, Ipsa Linn. Conch, p. 284. Ranella albivaricosa, Meeve, Conch. Icon. fig. 2; Kohelt, Con-cab. p. 133 pi. 38. figs. 4, 5, 8, 9. Bursa siiensonii, march. Cat. YOMI, p. 106. Var. Ranella subgranosa, Bee, Reeve, Conch. Icon. fig. 1 ; Sowerby, Conch. III. fig. 18; Kohelt, Con-cab. p. 135, pi. 39. fig. 2. Ranella beckii, Kiener, Coq. Viv. p. 5, pi. 4. fig. 1. Hah. Port MOUE, Queensland, 14 fms, rock. Other localities attributed to this species are China and Ceylon albivaricosa) ; Philippine Islands and China (subgranosa) ; Nicobar Islands suensonii). 46. Ranella pucbella. Forbes, Voyage of the Rattlesnake' vol. ii. (1852), p. 382, pi. 3. figs. Q ah. Rauella jucunda, A. Adams, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853, p. 70. Hah. North Australia (Adams) ; dredged in 8 to 11 fms. water, on a bottom of sand and shells, between Cumberland Island and Point Slade (lat. 21° S, long. 149° 20' E) (Forbes) ; Port Curtis,


MOHTTSCA. 59 Torres Strait (Coppinger) ; Cape Grenville, North-east Australia (15 fms), and Long Island, Torres Straits Brazier). The operculum is narrow, deeply and acutely serrate on one margin, smooth on the other, and has a raised ridge running from the smaller end almost to the opposite extremity. 53. Terebellum subulatum, Lamarck. Sab. Flinders Is, Clairmont Is, North-east Australia, 11 fms. Coppinger). 54. Cypraea arabica, Linn. Hah. Port Molle coral-reef. 55. Cypraea lynx, Linn. Hah. Port Molle coral-reef. 56. Cypraea annulus, Linn. Hah. Port Molle coral-reef. 57. Cyprsea errones, Linn. Hah. Port Molle, Queensland (Coppinger) ; New South "Wales, rare (Angas). The only example of this species from the above locality is af unusually small size. It is only 19 mulim. in length and 10 wide. 58. Cyprsea walkeri. Oray, Seeve, Conch. Icon. figs. 50 a, h, c. Hob. Flinders Is, Clairmont Is, North-east Australia, 11 fms, sand and mud Goppinger) ; Philippine Islands Sowerhy, Thes); Palm Island and Cape Grenville, North-east Australia, also Darnley Island, Torres Straits (Brazier). 59. Ovnla (Iladins) angasi. Ovulum angasi, Adams, Beeve, Conch. Icon. figs. 43 a, h. Volva angasi, Angas, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1867, p. 207. Hah. Port Curtis, 11 fms, sand and shell 'bottom (Coppinger) ; Port Curtis (Beeve) ; Watson's Bay, New South Wales, on a branch of red Gorgonia, amongst the rocks at extreme low water (Angas). In the brief description in the Conchologia Iconica one or two important characters are not noticed. The dorsal surface of the shell towards both ends is very prettily sculptured in an oblique direction with fine wavy striae, as indicated in the figure in the above work, the waviness being due to the fine transverse lines of growth. The colour is white, more or less transparent,


68 COLLECTIONS PROM MELANESIA. des Inches in 13 fms, also Friday Island and Prince of Wales Channel (5-7 fms), Torres Straits ( Goppinger) ; Zebu, Philippines Mus. Guming) ; Nagasaki (Lischke) ; Matoza Harbour, Japan, 6 fms. Gape. St. John). 73. Cerithium granosum. Kiener, Coq. Viv. pi. 4. fig. 3 ; Sowerhy, Conch. Icon. fig. 73. Hob. Friday Island, Torres Straits Coppinger) ; Port Essington Brit. Mus) ; Eed Sea Kiener). 74. Cerithium novse-hollandais. A. Adams ; Sowerby's Thes. Conch, vol. ii. pi. 178. fig. 54 ; Reeve, Conch. Icon. fig. 80. Hah. Port -Molle, Queensland, Prince of Wales Channel, and Friday Island, Torres Straits Goppinger) ; Cape York, Mud Bay, N. Australia Brazier). 75. Lampania australis. Cerithium australe (Q. Sr G) ; Kiener, Coq. Viv. pi. 8. fig. 2. Hab. Port Curtis. 76. Pyrazus sulcatus, Bom. Hab. Thursday Island, Eoko Island, in mangrove-swamps Gop-pinger) ; Dungeness Island, Torres Straits Brazier). 77. Telescopium fusciim, Schumacher. Hab. Eoko Island, Endeavour Straits, in mangrove-swamps. 78. Siliquaria anguina, Linn. Sowerby, Conch. Icon. figs. 7 o-7c. Hab. Port Darwin, 8-12 fms. The single specimen from the above locality belongs to the purplish-rose variety of the species. 79. Siliquaria ponderosa. Morch ; Sowerby Conch. Icon. pi. 2. fig. 3. Hab. Port Molle, Queensland, and Prince of Wales Channel, Torres Straits, 5-7 fms. 80. Narica cancellata. Chemmtz; ORMUZ, Maffde ZOO118A5Y111Q; Sowerby, Conch. Icon. figs. ab (Vanikoro). Hab. Port Molle, 12-20 fms. Coppinger); Moluccas and Lord


1OY-A-THLE, Smith. Sori globose, dorsal on a vein or veinlet or in the axil of a veinlet; receptacle elevated, globose or shortly columnar. Indusium inferior, membranaceous or somewhat horny, globose, at first quite enclosing the sorus, afterwards evanishing or breaking down and becoming cupshaped, with an entire or more or less irregularly lobed or laciniated margin. Caudex arborescent, often beautifully marked with the scars of fallen fronds. Fronds mostly large and divided, rarely simple (not in malayan material); veins free, simple or forked. Hk. Bk, Syn. Fil, tab. I, fig. 4 Tropicaland extra-tropical in the southern hemisphere. a. Fronds simply pinnate. (1) C. moluccana. aa. Fronds 2-pinnatifid to 2-pinnate. h. Main rachis densely scaly. () Ci-philippinensis. bb. Main rachis naked or nearly so. c. Pinnae pinnatifid throughout. (5) C. aneitensis. cc. Pinnae pinnate, at least at the base. d. Pinnae pinnate near the base. e. Pinnae jsi '' broad. Secondary segments 5 m. M. broad. (4) C. dulitensis. ee. Pinnae 3 — 8 cm. broad. Segments in mm. broad. (S) C. alternans. dd. Pinnae pinnate nearly throughout. (6) C. sarawakensis. aa. Fronds 3-pinnatifid to 4-pinnate. 1. Tertiary segments very small, roundish, not more than J, mm. long. (7) G. Macgregorii. 11. Tertiary segments oblong to linear, much more than 21 mm. long. 8. Pinnulae pinnatifid, sometimes pinnate at the base. 3. Main rachis not prickly, naked. See also G. orientalis). S. Tertiary segments entire or slightly crenate. . Veins 7 — 8 on eachsideof the costulae, deeply forked. (8) G. polypoda. . Veins i2 on each side of the costulae, 2 — 3 X forked. (9) G. leucotricha.


FOOD PRODUCTS OF THE SEA — FISHES. 275 Carrying out the same calculation for the entire catch of the Atlantic States, the potential yield of the menhaden fisheries would exceed ten millions of pounds of "extract of fish" Among various food preparations of fish and other sea animals put up in America are the following — Cod-fish balls, canned fish chowder (cod and haddock), smoked smelts and canned smelts (Osmerus niordax), canned mackerel Scomber), smoked Spanish mackerel Cymbium maculatum), smoked halibut (Hippoglossus vulgaris), pickled clam chowder, pickled scallops (Pecten irradians), pickled mussels (Mytilus edulis), pickled oyster crabs Pinnotheret ontreum), and devilled crabs. Some of the purely national dishes of different nations are most extraordinary things, such as the Swedish lutfisk on Christmas eve. Lut-fisk is the salted stock or cod fish steeped in a solution of potash until, in fact, decomposition takes place. On Christmas eve, the great evening of Sweden, this mess is boiled and eaten with oil, and this and from, which is simply boiled rice, are the Christmas dishes of Sweden, just as roast beef and plum pudding are with us. The smell of the lut-fisk is terrific, but a true Swede clings to his national dish on Julaften as much as any beef-eating Englishman does to his. Very many food fishes are preserved in oil, and thus form considerable articles of commerce and food dainties, such as the tunny, the halibut, the sardine, menhaden, and small pilchards. Ish Sauces. — We have our anchovy, lobster, and shrimp sauce for fish, but the ancients and some of the Eastern nations also indulged in fish sauces, as their garum, balachong, gna-pee, and other condiments prove. Balachong is a compound made of prawns, sardines and other small fish, pounded and pickled. This article, is of universal use as a condiment, and one of the largest articles of native consumption throughout both the Malay and Philippine Archipelago. It is not confined


244 SNAKES OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS Table 52. — Measurements and scale counts of Disteira ornata (Gray) — Continued. upper labials, the separation of the second pair of chin shields, the temporal, and the narrow lower labials. No other variety of Disteira ornata appears to have been discovered in the Philippines. I strongly suspect that this Philippine form merits specific designation. In young males the narrow whitish bands on the neck are evident, and they sometimes persist in adult specimens. Young females are colored like the adults.


32 MALAYAN FISHES. The Siakap or Kakap (Lais calcarifer) is also found in the-seas and estuaries of India where it is known to Europeans as the '■ Cock-up '" and its range extends to Queensland and Western Australia, where it is generally known as the " Barramundi' It is a fine sporting fish and runs to a considerable size. The largest that I have heard of was taken in the Bay of Bengal by the Government trawler " Golden Grown '" and weighed 580 pounds. Before I read of this fish I used to le satisfied with 40 or 50 pounders. Tlie Kerapu (Epinephelus sp) are very well represented in our waters and are fine edible fish. Some species lose their bright colouring soon after they are caught and have a dull mottled appearance when exhibited in the fish market which would not attract a purchaser unacquainted with the fish. From an edible point of view the Kerapu differs little from the Ikan merah, the latter fish owing most of its popularity to its colour. Kerapu from 50 to 70 pounds in weight are occasionally Feen in the markets and the Keretang (E. pantherinus) is commonly seen up to two or three hundred pounds in weight. Any Malay fisherman will tell you of a Keretang of fabulous size which he hooked and fought for hours, being worsted in the end because his boat and gear were too light to make any impression on the fish. Yery large ones are occasionally taken in fishing stakes (Kilong) and I have heard that the captors, on these occasions, tickle the monster until they get it (pines and then pass a strong rotan through its gills by which it is finally secured and hauled up. The largest Keretang I ever saw was taken by a Malay and myself. "We had to sink our boat after we had fought the fish to a finish in order to load it; the weight, for there were no means of weighing it, was estimated at 6 piculs, ie. round about 800 pounds. This fish appears to me to be identical with the Queensland Groper illustrated in Stead's "Edible Fishes of New South Wales' under the name Promicrops itaiara. I have read that this fish derives its name Grapes from its habit of groping about the rocks but I suggest that the name originated in Malaya or India. The Tamil name is Kurrapu. The Malay name is Kerapu. The Brunei Malays below it as Kuroda. In the Philippines it is known to the Filipinos as Qarropa from which the transition to Groper or Grouper is a slight one. One of our Kerapu (E. tauvina) is known in Australia under the names Bro-mi -spotted Find and Black-spotted Eoek-cod. and of this fish Eoughley writes, "It is of fine edible quality and grows to. a length of at least four feet" In America nienilers of this family arc known as Sea-bass.


62 BOURNS AND WORCESTER: PRELIMINARY NOTES. Viverra tangalunga Gray. Viverra tangalunga Gray; Everett, P. Z. S. 1893, p. 495. Siquijor, Panay, Mindoro, Mindanao, Palawan, Calamianes. Like the preceding species, V. tangalunga ranges throughout the group. Pells bengalensis Kerr. Felis bengalensis Kerr; Blanford, P. Z. S. 1887, p. 631. Felis lulnuta Temm; Everett, P. Z. S. 1889, p. 223. Panay, Negros, Cebu. An animal which was in all probability a cross between this species and the common house cat was seen by us at the house of Mr. 0. R. Blair Pickford, Toledo, Cebu. Hystrix pumila Gunther. Hystrix pumila G; Everett, P. Z. S. 1893, p. 495. Palawan, Calamianes. Sciuropterus nigripes Thos. Sciuropterus nigripes Thos; Everett, P. Z. S. 1893, p. 495. Palawan. Sciurus steerii Gunther. Sciurus steerii G; Everett, P. Z. S. 1893, p. 496. Palawan. Sciurus samarensis Steere. Sciurus samarensis Steere. List B. & M. Steere Exped. p. 30. Samar. Sciurus mindanensis Steere. Sciurus mindanensis Steere, List B. and M. Steere Exped. p. 29, 1890. Mindanao, Basilan. Sciurus mindanensis Steere and Sciurus cagsi Meyer seem to be synonyms. Sciurus coccineus Thomas. Sciurus coccineus Thomas; Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (6) vol. ii, p. 407 (1888). Sciurus philippinensis Steere, List B. and M. Steere Exped. p. 29. Mindanao, Basilan.


Section 2: What are MPA Networks & Systems? to the take of certain species, are not considered MPAS. There are exceptions, however, such as the Fish Habitat Reserves in Australia, which have been assigned an LUCN protected area management category, and are established under fisheries legislation to protect key fishery habitats including estuaries and sea grass beds. Fishing is allowed in these areas, but activities that will damage the habitat are prohibited (Ward and Hegel, 2003). There has been much recent discussion on the role of MPAS in fisheries management, some of which was summarized through the 2006 workshop hosted by the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) on this topic, where a Draft framework for Technical Guidelines on the design, implementation and review of MPAS as a tool for fisheries management was developed prepared (FAO, 2007). Seasonal and temporary management areas: These include areas such as the conservation 'boxes' established in European Union (EU) waters, or the seasonal closures found in inshore waters in Okinawa, Japan (Kakuma in litt, 2008) within which seasonal, full-time, temporary or permanent controls are placed on fishing methods andor access. The Irish Sea Cod Box, for example, is designed to conserve cod stocks in the Irish Sea by restricting fishing activities during the spawning period. A similar box has been established for fisheries management in the waters of the Shetland Islands (Gubbay, 2004). These are critically important conservation areas for sites, such as fish spawning aggregation areas or migratory routes, where species are vulnerable at specific and predictable times of the year but may not need any greater management than surrounding areas at other times. Whale Sanctuaries: The International Whaling Commission (IWC) has a mandate to establish whale sanctuaries that provide permanent no-take zones for cetaceans (Phillips, 1996; WWF, 1998). These are not recognized as MPAS, as their objectives address only the capture of certain species and they are not considered legally 'permanent, although they are subject to regular review. Mangrove Forest Reseres: In some countries, all mangroves are classified as forest reserves (such as in Ecuador). Sometimes these are considered to be protected areas, as in Tanzania, while in other cases, they are not nationally recognized or have not been submitted for listing in the IDEA. 212. NETWORKS AND SYSTEMS The words 'network' and 'system' are used interchangeably in much of the conservation literature to describe a group of protected areas spread across a country or region. The use of the two words can be confusing as neither term has a globally accepted definition and they are often used with the same meaning in the same document, as in the US Federal Register (US Federal Register, 2000). Although there are exceptions, the word 'system' tends to be used most frequently for protected areas in general, and also for terrestrial protected areas. The LUCNWCPA guidelines, for example, refer to national protected area 'system' plans (Davey, 1998). The term 'network' Is more prevalent among MPA practitioners and is defined by WCPA-MARINE as follows (LUCNWCPA, 2008a): A collection of individual MPAS or reserves operating co-operatively and synergistically, at various spatial scales and with a range of protection levels that are designed to meet objectives that a single reserve cannot achieve. Agardy and Wolfe (2002) suggest that 'systems' are protected area groupings that have an element of governance and management, as well as a biological rationale, for their structure and composition. A system thus has a functional sense in that it implies consistent institutional and managerial arrangements with co-originated planning, as well as describing geographical and physical relationships. It does not however imply that there should be a single management authority. An effective system could equally comprise a number of management areas under different governance regimes adapted to local conditions. In contrast, a 'network' has a primarily geographical and physical sense, ie. a group of protected areas with 'connectivity' between them, although in the context of MPAS, the term 'network' is often used to imply governance and management relationships as well. An additional confusion is due to the fact that the word 'network' is also used to describe organized groups of people, projects and institutions involved in protected area establishment and management. These 'social, 'institutional' and 'learning' networks may be regional (such as the North American MPA Network (NAMPAN), Mediterranean Protected Area Network (MEDIAN), the Wider Caribbean MPA Managers Network and Forum (CAMPAM) and the Local Marine Management Areas (LIMA) network in the Pacific) or national (such as Vietnam and the Philippines) and all are equally Important aspects of effective protected area management (Christie and White, 2007). The term 'ecological network' is often used to distinguish a group of MPAS from a 'social network' of Individuals and organization. In Decision VII5 on marine and coastal biodiversity, the CBD uses the term 'network' for the global level and 'system' for national and regional levels. The 20


Section 1: Introduction Table 1. Examples of national targets relating to MPA networks compiled from information gathered in during preparation of this report Country Targets American Samoa 20% of reefs to be protected as no-take areas by 2010 Australia Soutin Australia 19 MPAS by 2010 Bahamas 20% of the marine ecosystem to be fully protected (no-take) for fisheries replenishment; 20% of marine and coastal habitats to be protected by 2020 (Caribbean Challenge) Belize 20% of all bioregions 30% of reefs 60% of turtle nesting sites 30% of manatee distribution 50% of American crocodile nesting 80% of spawning aggregations Brazil National MPA system by 2012 Chile 10% marine area protected by 2010; national marine network of conservation and management sites by 2015 Colombia San Andres Archipelago Seaflower MPA, 2000 km to be no-take Cuba 22% of continental shelf protected (14678 km), including: 15% of insular shelf 25% of coral reef areas and 25% of each subtype of wetland Dominican Republic 20% of marine and coastal habitats to be protected by 2020 (Caribbean Challenge) Fed States of Micronesia 30% of nearshore marine ecosystems protected by 2020 (Micronesia Challenge) Fiji 30% of reefs protected by 2015; 30% of waters managed as an MPA network by 2020 Germany 38% of waters as MPAS Grenada 25% nearshore marine resources protected by 2020 (Caribbean Challenge) Guam 30% nearshore marine ecosystems protected by 2020 (Micronesia Challenge) Indonesia 100,000 km protected by 2010; 200,000 km protected by 2020 Jamaica 20% of marine and coastal habitats to be protected by 2020 (Caribbean Challenge) Madagascar 100,000 km marine waters protected by 2012 Marshall Islands 30% of nearshore marine ecosystems protected by 2020 (Micronesia Challenge) New Zealand 10% of marine environment protected by 2010 Northern Marianas 30% of nearshore marine ecosystems protected by 2020 (Micronesia Challenge) Palau 30% of nearshore marine ecosystems protected by 2020 (Micronesia Challenge) Peru Representative MPA system to be established by 2015 Philippines 10% fully protected (no-take) by 2020 Senegal Creation of an MPA network St Vincent and Grenadines 20% of marine and coastal habitats to be protected by 2020 (Caribbean Challenge) Tanzania 10% of sea protected by 2010; 20% of sea by 2025 United Kingdom Network of Marine Conservation Zones (MASS) to be established by 2020 USA Central California 29 MPAS covering 18% of state coastal waters (528 km), witt 243 km as no-take areas 15


Acknowledgements South Asian Seas: Ashanti Perera East Asia: Srisuda Jarayabhand (East Asian Seas Regional Co-ordination Unit); Shinichiro, Kazunni Wakita (PERSEA, Philippines), Eleanor Carter (Coral Triangle Initiative) Cliina: Wanfei Qiu Japan: Shinichiro Kakuma and Kohei Hibino Indonesia: Cherryta Unia, Lida Pet-soede, Sangeeta Manghubai Philippines: Porfirio Alino (Marine Science Institute) NOWPAP: Jeung Sook Park Mediterranean and Black Sea: Abderrahnnen Gannoun, Daniel Cebrian and Christine Pergent-Martini (RASPA, Mediterranean Action Plan); Paul Mifsud (UNEPMAP); Alessandra Pome (WWF Mediterranean Programme), Giuseppe Notarbartolo di Sciara (WCPA Marine); Catherine Piante (WWF France); Oksana Tarasova (Black Sea Commission); Zrinka JAKI and Anamarija Francica (Croatia) Europe: Hanna Paulomaki (Helsinki Commission, Finland); Richard Emmerson, Paulo Domingos-paixao Stefan Leiner and Micheal Obriain (European Commission Environment Directorate-general); Richard Emmerson (OSPAR Commission); Iain Shepherd (European Commission's Maritime Task Force); Jeff Ardron (MCI formerly of Bundesamt fiji Naturschutz) UK: Paul Gilliland (Natural England) Baltic: Asa Andersson (Baltic Sea Programme, WWF Sweden) Pacific: Dominique Benzakem (PREP); Eric Clua (CRISP Programme) Fiji: Bill Aalbersberg Solomon Islands: Shankar Aswani New Zealand: Jeremy Nelson Arctic: Jeanne Pagan (WCPA-MARINE Arctic Region); Soffia Guamundsdottir (PAME) Antarctic: Denzil Miller and Keith Reid (CCAMLR, Hobart, Tasmania) High Seas: Colleen Corrigan and Francine Kershaw (UNEP-WCMC) Thanks also to all individuals and institutions who gave permission to use their images: Alejandro Arrivillaga, Philip Kramer Jeanine Almany and Nate Peterson (TNC) Marion Howard (Brandeis University) Anthony Mitchell (CORALINA) Alessandra Pome and Catherine Piante (WWF) Melanie Mcfield (Healthy Reefs for Healthy People Initiative) Dan Laffoley (WCPA-MARINE) John Turner (University of Wales Bangor) Susie Grant (BAS) Charlotte Karibuhoye (LUCN) Frances Humber (Blue Ventures) Richard Wilson (Australian Government Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts) Sebastian Troeng (CI) Anne Walton and Sean Hastings (NOAA) David Johnson and Corinne Michel (OSCAR) 12


Contents 322. Chile 45 323. Ecuador 46 324. Peru 47 325. Panama 47 33 Brazil 47 34 North America 48 341. Baja California to the Bering Sea (B2B) 48 342. Scotian Shelfgulf of Maine 49 343. Mexico National MPA System and Sub-national Gulf of California MPA system 49 344. USA National MPA system 50 345. Canada National MPA Network 53 4. AFRICA AND MIDDLE EAST 57 41. Eastern Africa Regional Seas Programme 57 411. Eastern African Marine Ecoregion (SAME) Programme 57 412. Tanzania Proposed National MPA system 58 413. Seychelles Proposed Integrated MPA system 59 414. Mauritius Proposed MPA system for Rodrigues 60 415. Madagascar 61 42. South Africa Proposed National MPA system 62 43. Western Africa Regional Seas Programme 63 44. Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Regional Seas Programme 65 441. Yemen Socotra Marine Zoning Plan 66 45. Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment (ROPE) Region 67 46. Caspian Sea Independent Partner Programme 67 5. ASIA 69 51. South Asia Seas Regional Seas Programme 69 52. East Asian Seas Region 70 521. Southeast Asia MPA Network 71 522 Sulu-sulawesi Marine Ecoregionseascape MPA Network 72 523. Philippines National Network 72 524. Indonesia National and Sub-national MPA Systems 73 525. Vietnam National MPA Systems 75 53. North-west Pacific Region 75 531. China National MPA System 75 532. Japan 76 533. Republic of Korea 76


Executive Summary fully involved and scientific design principles applied. Although some MPA networks are being designed to be implemented as a single package, as in some states in Australia, USA and Canada, a step-wise process is often more practical. Pilot areas can be implemented, lessons learnt, and the network progressively built up, the plan being refined as information, funding and capacity becomes available. The establishment of clear goals and objectives for the network is essential. The main issue is often deciding whether the network is primarily for biodiversity protection or for resource management for human use (such as fisheries management), since different approaches may be required. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (LUCN) Protected Area Management Categories can be used to ensure that MPAS with a range of objectives are incorporated into a network, as demonstrated by Cuba and Australia. An MPA network will also often consist of sites under different forms of governance. Although individual MPAS need to work together so that overall goals and objectives are achieved, if an MPA network is to function fully, the sites do not necessarily have to be managed in the same way. The LUCN typology of governance types (divided into four categories: Government managed; Co-managed; Private; and Community managed) may provide a useful tool for the development of MPA networks. SOCIAL NETWORKS Social and learning networks, comprising managers and other MPA practitioners and linking different institutions, are essential catalysts and facilitators for the development of ecological networks of MPAS. At the global level, WCPA-MARINE provides an umbrella network of experts, and numerous social networks are being established at regional and national levels. Examples include the Locally Managed Marine Area (LIMA) network in the Pacific, the Caribbean MPA Managers Network and Forum (CAMPAM), the Mediterranean Protected Area Network (MEDIAN), and national social networks in the Philippines and Vietnam. RECOMMENDATIONS These reflect Resolution CGR4MOT067, passed at the World Conservation Congress in Barcelona, October 2008: 1. Clarify terminology and harmonise approaches: Common terms need to be agreed and clear definitions and standardized nomenclature should be developed to facilitate monitoring of progress. WCPA-MARINE, with The Nature Conservancy (TNC), has already started this process through the production of its guidelines, and other organizations such as the CBD Secretariat should be consulted to ensure an agreed approach. For example, use of terms such as 'marine and coastal protected areas' (MAPS) and 'fully protected' MPAS need clarification. Further guidance is needed on how the different types of MPA network, such as those comprising HAS only or those that exclude sites with very little sub-tidal habitat, can contribute to broader marine spatial planning approaches. 2. Strengthen capacity for MPA network establishment: Capacity building is needed at both individual and institutional levels. Technical support, training, and the development of tools and resources must be expanded, methodologies for MPA network and systematic conservation planning should be promoted and disseminated, and additional guidelines and materials produced where necessary. Greater awareness of the benefits of and reasons for MPA networks will increase support from all stakeholders. The compilation of case studies and lessons learned should be encouraged and facilitated, and shared between countries and regions. Social networks facilitating the sharing of experiences, challenges and successes amongst regions should be enhanced through workshops, study tours and twinning arrangements, and electronic networking. Organization including LUCN, the CBD, UNE-RSP, international NGOS, and donors have a role to play in building capacity for MPA network development, and initiatives such as the Marine Learning Partnership that was established by TNC, CI, Wildlife Conservation Society (WAS) and WWF, should be encouraged.


Section 5; Asia 521. SOUTHEAST ASIA MPA NETWORK In 2002, the then LUCN WCPA South-east Asia Marine Working Group (WCPA SEA Marine)' developed a Regional Action Plan to Strengthen a Resilient Network of Effective MPAS In Southeast Asia 2002-2012 (RAP) (Fortes et al, undated) (Box 3) to help co-ordinate, guide and implement the various MPA networks. The initial portfolio included 15 projects, three from each of five themes: planning and design, adaptive management, co-ordination and enforcement, community awareness and development, and sustainable financing. TNC set up a South East Asia Center for MPAS (SEACMPA) in Bali to assist with the establishment of regional networks of MPAS in South-east Asia, undertake training and other capacity building activities, and co-ordinate the implementation of the RAR In 2008, the SEACMPA in Bali was changed to the Coral Triangle Center (CTC) but maintains the same general functions as intended for the SEACMPA. Activities directed at developing a regional MPA network for Southeast Asia will now evolve with the CTI as this develops. Box 3: LUCN WCPA Regional Action Plan for an MPA network in Southeast Asia key components Vision: A region with an effective, self-sufficient and resilient representative network of MPAS, sustaining biodiversity and human uses, designed to adapt to local and global environmental change, managed by an empowered, responsible citizenry. Goal: To establish an effective, functional representative network of MPAS by 2012, that is officially recognized and actively supported at all levels by governments in Southeast Asia, and implemented by a regional national, national andor local management authority. The South-east Asian MPA network should: Be representative of all coastal and oceanic habitats, and the regions biodiversity of residential and migratory marine species; Include replicated sites in order to build resistance and resilience; Integrate biological connectivity and manage critical processes such as larval dispersal and re-seeding, and migratory corridors of large marine life (such as cetaceans and turtles); Be large enough to be self-sustaining in the long-term; Be based on the latest ecoregional planning principles incorporating mitigation strategies; Develop innovative financing mechanisms; Facilitate sharing of management technical assistance across the network; Provide an opportunity for testing high technology distance learning. 522. SULU-SUUWUESI MARINE ECOREGIONSEASCAPE MPA NETWORK At the apex of the Coral Triangle, the SAME or Sulu-Sulawesi Seascape (SSS) an area of nearly one million km2, covers the Sulu-celebes Sea LME and includes parts of the SEEDS of Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines (Figure 12, overleaf). From 19992001, biophysical and socio-economic assessments were carried out under the WWF SAME Programme (eg. WWF, 2003 for the Philippines). In 2003, the ecosystems within the broader region were mapped by TNC and ecoregions were defined. A Framework for a Network of Marine Protected Areas in the Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion was developed by WWF (WWF-SAME Program, 2004). In 2004, an MOU was signed between the governments of Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines to adopt a Conservation Plan for the SOME, and a tri-national Committee has been established to oversee this. The SSS Project of CI, with the involvement of some 30 partners, is now working in this area, with a focus on four corridors the Trinational Sea Turtle Corridor, the Cagayan Ridge, the Balabac Strait, and the Verde Island Passage. The Framework was developed through a series of workshops, with expertise shared through three working groups, each of which developed a separate framework based on information available for the particular issue: Species of Special Concern; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems; and Fisheries. Draft frameworks were prepared in the initial planning process separately for each issue. Subsequently the biophysical and socio-economic matrices were combined into a general framework, using the decision support approach used to design the MPA network for the Great Barrier Reef in Australia. A similar approach was taken for developing the actions required to create, plan and implement the network with three groups established for different WCPA-MARINE now has an East Asian regional group 71


Section 5: Asia Sulu-sulawesi Seascape -Sy ( MO go BOO I Trtnoial Sea Turtle Corridor I Balabac Cotridcr Figure 12: Sulu-sulawesi Seascape. Source: Conservation International Highlights the four focal "corridors' of CI as part of their Seascape project. time horizons: Immediate (0-2 years); Intermediate (up to 5 years); and Long-term (3-10 years) (WWF-SSME Program, 2004). In tlie Framework, the term MPA network< is used to describe a system of MPAS that fulfils biodiversity conservation goals, and that also functions as a 'learning network' for the managers of the sites within it (ie. that provides a social MPA network). The ultimate aim is that each MPA should consist of one or more fully protected areas (ANTS) surrounded by sustainable use zones, and that the system should be fully integrated with broader ICM, CRM and fisheries management and development plans. The development of the MPA network is to be based on criteria listed in the framework (and based on those in Noss (1992)): 1. Representation: Examples of all biological communities and habitats to be included; 2. Viability: MPAS to be large enough and their distribution broad enough to maintain viable populations of all species of special concern in the SAME; 3. Ecological and evolutionary processes: MPAS to be large enough, their distribution broad enough, and controls in place on activities taking place outside MPAS, to ensure continuation of essential ecological and evolutionary processes; 4. Resilience: MPAS selected for strict protection to include sites known or likely to be sources of recruits for other parts of the SAME, and sites that have a high survival or recovery rate following impacts. 52,3. PHILIPPINES NATIONAL NETWORK The Philippines has an estimated 1170 MPAS (World Bank, 2006; Arceo et al, 2008). The majority (9001000) are small co-managed sanctuaries and fishing reserves, generally managed at municipal level jointly by communities and local government and comprising small (2-200 ha) ANTS or sanctuaries, surrounded by fishing reserves within which traditional forms of fishing are allowed. Of those with known sizes, 35% are less than 10 ha and 48% are between 11-100 ha; the more recently established MPAS tend to be in the larger category and are increasingly being integrated into ICM plans (Arceo et al, 2008). There are also 13 larger MPAS proclaimed by the government as Protected Seascapes (multiple use) and Marine Parks (no take areas) as part of the National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS), and managed by the Protected Area Management Board, but few are considered effectively managed except for the Tubbataha Reef Natural Park in the Sulu Sea that is managed as a no-take reserve. Additional types of MPAS are mangrove forest reserves and protected artificial reefs. Following a series of workshops at which terms, definitions and goals were agreed (Arceo et al, 2003) the Philippine Marine Sanctuary Strategy was formulated. This sets a target of 10% of 'marine waters' to be fully protected (ie. NTA) by 2020 in an MPA network that will include 10% of the country's coral reefs. Criteria for selection of sites are listed in White et al. (2005) and address essential principles, including minimum size, amount of habitat to be included and connectivity. Five major biogeographical regions were identified in White et al. (2005), revised to six in Arceo etal. (2008), based on geomorphology, ocean basins, bathymetry, and major water circulation patterns: South China Sea, Visayas, Northern Philippine Sea, Southern Philippine Sea, Celebes Sea and Sulu Sea. MPA networks are to be established for each bioregion which will contribute to the national level network. Support for the establishment of the bioregion MPA networks is coming from a variety of sources. The Sulu Sea area is being addressed through WWF'S SAME programme (see above). The Fisheries 72


Section 5: Asia Kalimantan have no formal protection, and tliat reefs in South Java, south-west Sulawesi, Halmahera and Timor-leste are poorly represented in MPAS. Over 70 sites have been proposed as new MPAS, but these do not necessarily reflect a systemised consideration of ecological criteria (biodiversity, representativeness, ecosystem status, resilience, importance for fisheries) or the 1984 plan. The National Committee for Marine Conservation, recently established under the Directorate General of Marine, Coasts and Small Islands (Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Affairs) and including representatives of the Directorate General Forest Protection and Nature Conservation (Ministry of Forestry), the Ministry of Environment, and a range of NGOS, is responsible for reviewing the existing MPA network and identifying gaps in the system (Pet-soede, 2006). The large size of Indonesia means that it is essential to consider a national MPA system in terms of several linked sub-systems, and this is being initiated at 'ecoregion' and 'seascape' level. Three areas in the Eastern Indonesia seas Birds Head Seascape, Sunda-banda Seascape, and Tukang Besi Archipelago are a particular focus because of their important location between the Pacific and Indian Oceans and are being addressed through the CTI initiative. The surface water masses come from the Pacific via the North Equatorial Current, which splits at the Philippines into the northward flowing Kuroshio Current and the southward flowing Mindanao Current. There are also numerous upwellings and the region is strongly influenced by the monsoons. It is a major migratory route for many large marine animals including cetaceans, sharks and rays, turtles and large fish, and the location of key feeding, breeding, calving and nesting grounds. The reefs are relatively healthy and well connected to other reefs by currents. MPA networks are being developed here for: Bird's Head Seascape, Papua (North west Papua, formerly Irian Jaya): This comprises a number of components that will be linked in overall network. CI is looking at genetic differentiation between reef species: n Raja Ampat MPA Network: an archipelago of c 600 islands west of Bird Head Peninsula. Important for sea turtle nesting, spawning aggregations, migrating cetaceans and high biodiversity (535 hard corals, 1149 fish species), with cool upwellings and likely high larval recruitment on account of strong currents between the Indian and Pacific Oceans. A network of seven MPAS extending over 900,000 ha was declared in May 2007, with support from TNC, WWF and CI; D Kaimana MPA; D Teluk Cendrawasih. Sunda-banda Seascape (Timor-leste): TNC is assisting with the development of an MPA system for this ecoregion that will involve three replicated sites. One of these is the existing Komodo National Park and WHS, of global importance for the Komodo Dragon (the largest reptile in the world) as well as its high marine biodiversity (1000 fish species, 260 coral species, ten dolphins and six whales). Representation will be addressed by ensuring adequate protection of each 'seascape' within the ecoregion. The system will address connectivity by taking migration routes into account, given the importance of the area as a corridor for turtles and cetaceans; manta rays and other species are being radio-tagged. Resilient coral reefs, such as those in cooler southern waters and deeper channels, will be protected. A series of assessments are under way and Marxan will be used to identify candidate sites. A variety of governance approaches are likely to be used, according to the needs and wishes of local stakeholders. In 2006, the Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Affairs announced its intention to designate 12 million ha (120,000 km) in the Savu Sea as an "ecosystem-based management unit, and design a network of MPAS (Pet-soede, 2006); work started in 2008 on the 4 million ha Savu Sea MPA supported by TNC and WWF. Tukang Besi Archipelago (off the southeast tip of Sulawesi): Includes the Wakatobi National Park. Declared in 1996, it covers 13,900 km; TNC and WWF are assisting with the development of an MPA system. Indonesia is included in the SSMESSS described in section 522, the focus being Derawan MPA which is being supported by WWF and TNC. A network of MPAS is also being developed in Northern Aceh, Sumatra, where current MPAS do not achieve full habitat representation. A systematic conservation plan is being developed with a goal to protect 30% of coastal ecosystems. Satellite imagery, the bioregion approach of German (2005) and Marxan are being used to develop the plan. The approach of many small areas rather than a few large areas has been chosen because of habitat complexity, variation in accessibility and the large number of stakeholders involved. The process is being strengthened by the strong support among local communities for MPAS due to a traditional management system (Panglima laut) (Herdiana et al, 2008). 74


CONCLUSIONS This chapter summarizes the ley findings of the report and discusses some of the challenges that are being encountered in establishing MPA networks. 91. PROGRESS IN ESTABLISHING MPA NETWORKS The report does not provide a globally comprehensive review but general conclusions can be drawn, as the many initiatives underway are providing a solid body of experience on how MPA networks can be established in practice, and how the process may need to respond to different needs and priorities. The wide range of approaches and different spatial or geographical scales being used makes comparison difficult but there is much value in the experimentation underway. A key finding is the length of time needed to develop MPA networks, if stakeholders are to be fully involved and if scientific design principles are to be applied. The principle of representation is relatively easy to address, provided adequate classifications and biodiversity distribution (or suitable proxies) are available. However, the principles of adequacy, resilience and connectivity are proving more difficult to incorporate, since specific guidelines on applying them are still lacking due to dearth of clear scientific understanding. 'Rules of thumb' are being used where possible (see LUCNWCPA, 2008a), and the rapid growth of research in this field means that new information is constantly becoming available. 911. NATIONAL ECOLOGICAL NETWORKS OF MPAS Annex 1 summarises the case studies and information provided in Chapters 3-8 and lists 30 national and 35 sub-national MPA network initiatives. The majority of MPA networks are currently under development with very few formally gazetted, and even fewer effectively managed. MPA networks that have been declared and are being implemented are limited mainly to networks that either cover small areas (eg. in the Philippines) or that are part of large management initiatives or multiple-use MPAS (such as the GERMS in Australia). A total of 34 of the 123 countries that have reported to the CBD during the period of 2005-2008 stated that they have a national MPA system (assumed to mean network) in place, and 60 reported that they are developing one (Global Ocean Forum, 2008). However, the CBD reporting process does not require elaboration as to how MPA systems are defined and what criteria are being used. The CBD Programme of Work for the protection of marine biodiversity recognizes the need for at least three levels of spatial planning for MPAS within a country: A core system of No Take Areas (NTAS) within a large MPA. A larger system of multiple-use MPAS, including fishery management areas. A national MPA system embedded within a national integrated coastal management programme and overall management framework for the EEZ. Many countries are starting to take this multi-level approach and develop it further. In terms of the three-tier structure proposed by the CBD, the following conclusions can be drawn: Networks of ANTS: The concept of a core network of ANTS within larger multiple use MPAS is widely accepted, and many MPAS are zoned to include one or more WAS. In some countries, national or state-level networks of ANTS are being developed, such as the Bahamas (section 313), and the state of Victoria in Australia (section 623). This is a useful approach, but raises the question of how the multiple use MPAS that exist in addition to the no-take MPAS will fit into the overall framework. The GERMS in Australia (section 624) and the Channel Islands Marine Sanctuary in California (section 344) provide good examples of how the key principles (adequacy, representation, connectivity and resilience) can be used for NTA network establishment. Networks of different types of MPAS: The majority of national MPA networks being developed comprise a range of different types of MPAS including 109


Section 9: Conclusions Table 91. Examples of regional MPA networks (involving two or more countries) Region Mesoamerican Barrier Reef Gulf of Mexico 'Islands in the Stream' North-east Pacific South-east Pacific Tropical Eastern Pacific Marine Corridor Network (MAR or Corredor Marino) Baja California to the Bering Sea (B2B) Countries Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, Honduras USA, Mexico, Belize Countries from Mexico south to Colombia Countries from Panama south to Peru Colombia, Costa Rica, Panama, Ecuador San Jose Declaration USA, Canada, Mexico Scotland Shelfgulf of Maine Canada, USA Eastern African Marine Ecoregion (SAME) Programme MPA network for the countries of the Indian Ocean Commission Western Africa regional network PERSIA MPA network Caspian regional MPA network South-east Asian MPA network Sulu-sulawesi Marine Ecoregion (SAME) Natura 2000 Mediterranean OSCAR HOLCOM Antarctic Arctic Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, South Africa Madagascar, Mauritius, France (Reunion), Comores, Seychelles Progress SEAS and multiple use; several initiatives underway to develop the network with support of TNC and WWF Early proposal Proposal developed Recommendation; to include MPAS and MAPS Implementation of network of five existing MPAS underway 28 sites identified Priority 'seascapes' identified and ranked by WWF and support provided to protect some of these Data-gathering underway Mauritania, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea-bissau, Initial steps underway Guinea, and Cape Verde Djibouti, Egypt, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan and Yemen Azerbaijan, Islamic Republic of Iran, Kazakhstan, the Russia Federation and Turkmenistan ASEAN and other countries Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines Member countries of the EU All countries bordering Mediterranean Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, UK Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russian Federation, Sweden 34 members of CLAMS Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, USA Master Plan for the network prepared and some sites established Initial discussions underway Action Plan prepared Framework for network developed with criteria for site selection Under development and many sites established Under development; to be comprised of several sub-regional networks Criteria and guidelines developed and process well underway; sites currently being nominated Criteria and guidelines developed and process well underway; sites currently being nominated Planning underway for a regional MPA system Discussions underway for an MPA network 112


Section 9: Conclusions approaches and lack of guidelines for regional MPA networks however are obstacles to measuring progress. It may be valuable to look at the ways in which the different types of region (such as NEW RAPS, ecoregions, seascapes) are being used for systematic conservation planning, and whether there would be value in attempting to harmonise some of the approaches. 913. NETWORKS OF INTERNATIONALLY DESIGNATED MPAS The World Heritage and Wetland Conventions (Ramsar) and the international MAB Programme both contribute to the development of the global MPA network. MPA networks may include one or more sites with international designations, or an entire network may lie within a larger internationally designated area. The World Heritage Convention allows for the nomination of 'serial' or 'cluster' sites, which means that several protected areas, or a network, linked by a common theme or feature may together form the WHS. Thus the Belize Barrier Reef WHS comprises seven MPAS, rather than the entire Barrier Reef. The potential for cluster nominations is helping to drive the establishment of ecologically representative and resilient MPAS in Indonesia, as well as the CAR network managed by Colombia, Ecuador, Costa Rica and Panama. No analysis of WHSS has been undertaken to assess the extent to which the network is ecologically coherent (this is of course not a stated objective of the Convention, since it deals with 'unique' locations). An analysis of marine and coastal Ramsar Sites to assess their representativity in relation to the MEOW classification showed that 92% of the realms in the MEOW classification are represented, but only 73% of provinces and 52% of ecoregions. About 112 ecoregions have no Ramsar representation, including four in the temperate North Atlantic (Spalding et al, 2007). PAMPAS will be another form of international designation and as described in section 83, these are being planned using a systematic approach and knowledge gained from the development of networks in waters under national jurisdiction. 914. SOCIAL MPA NETWORKS Networks of individuals, such as managers and other MPA practitioners, and of MPA institutions are essential catalysts and facilitators for the development of ecological networks of MPAS. At the global level, WCPA-MARINE provides an umbrella network of experts, and at the regional and national levels, there are now many social and learning networks (Table 92). The LIMA networks in the Pacific demonstrate how social networks, although initially based around groups of MPAS that are not linked in an ecologically meaningful way, can contribute to and accelerate the rapid development of ecological MPA networks. Inter-regional networks of MPA practitioners may also be of value; for example, an Ibero-american Network of Marine Reserves (FIRM) is reportedly being established to exchange information. Social and learning networks are generally a key aspect of the successful management of an ecological MPA network, as demonstrated by the Philippines (section 522). Table 92. Examples of social MPA networks Regional Caribbean MPA Managers Network and Forum (CAMPAM) North American MPA Network (NAMPAN) Mediterranean Protected Area Network (MEDIAN) Proposed WIOMSA network of MPA professionals Regional Network of Protected Coastal and Marine Areas in the South-east Pacific Tropical Eastern Pacific Marine Corridor Network (MAR or Corredor Marino) Pacific Local Marine Management Area (LIMA) Network National Philippine MPA Support Network Vietnam social MPA Network Fiji LIMA Network Ecuador Grupo Nacional de Trabajo sobre Biodiversidad Marina 92. PROGRESS IN ADOPTING PRINCIPLES AND CRITERIA FOR ECOLOGICAL NETWORKS The previous section showed that in many countries and regions, establishment of MPAS is being 'scaled up' to create networks. This section looks at the extent to which these networks are being set up using the principles and criteria that are being promoted, focusing on the four key criteria: adequacy, representation, resilience and connectivity. Several regions and countries have also developed their own sets of criteria and principles. Thus, for the North-east Atlantic, four criteria were established for assessing whether the OSPAR network of MPAS (see section 75 and Appendix 3) is ecologically coherent: adequacy, representativity, replication and connectivity (MASH, 2006). Four criteria have also been developed for the proposed network of MPAS in the Sulu-sulawesi Marine Ecoregion (section 521): representation, viability, resilience and ecological and evolutionary processes. Australia has developed a set of INCA principles (section 62). 113


Section 10: Recommendations and successes amongst regions should be enhanced through workshop, study tours and twinning arrangements, and electronic networking. A wide range of organization and agencies, including LUCN, the CBD, UNE-RSP, international NGOS, and donors can play a role in facilitating and supporting such work, but much can also be done at the local level. One example is the Marine Learning Partnership established by TNC, CI, WIS and WWF, with funding from US-AID (Corrigan, 2006). The goal of this is to accelerate MPA network development by improving knowledge and understanding of MPA network implementation in the field by improving conservation practice on ground, scaling up from MPA sites to ecological networks, and generating and disseminating increased knowledge of MPA networks though inter-organizational collaboration, in particular, by including local MPA managers in the initiatives. The Partnership comprises some 30 representatives of MPAS in South-east Asia (Philippines and Indonesia), the Pacific (Fiji, Micronesia, Palau and Papua New Guinea), the Caribbean (Belize, Mexico, Jamaica, Virgin Islands), the Eastern Tropical Pacific (Baja California, Costa Rica, Galapagos) and Africa (Madagascar, Tanzania, Senegal and Gabon). A series of field trips and study visits were undertaken to different sites in the Partnership and workshops undertaken to learn about and develop work plans relating to biophysical aspects of network design, sustainable financing and social financing. Further initiatives of this nature would be valuable. 3. EXPAND REGIONAL, NATIONAL AND LOCAL INITIATIVES TO ESTABLISH MPA NETWORKS MPA network planning must start, or be increased, in all coastal countries as soon as possible, and implementation fully addressed, if real progress is to be made by 2012. The 2008 CC resolution calls on States to accelerate their efforts to meet the target, and on civil society, regional organization, and bilateral and multilateral assistance agencies, to support the commitments of governments to create and improve the effectiveness of MPAS and networks. The CC Resolution recommends States to define MPA networks using a diversity of complementary tools to allow the combining of highly protected areas (ANTS) with managed multiple use areas. MPA networks need to be larger, contain the most resistant and resilient populations of marine organisms, and be connected in such a way to ensure free transfer of larvae, juveniles and adults to restock populations and repair damage. Scientific guidance is now available through the CBD and WCPA-MARINE (LUCNWCPA, 2008a) with agreed guidelines and principles, suitable biogeographical classifications (eg. MEOW) and decision-support tools (eg. Marxan) have been developed, and encouragement must given to countries to use these, adapt them where necessary. The basic science for developing MPA networks is understood and should not therefore be considered an obstacle, but there is an important role for scientists and academic institutions in further developing understanding of concepts such as adequacy, connectivity and resilience. Full and effective participation of indigenous and local communities, in accordance with the national legislation and applicable international obligations, is essential. Lack of funding, political will and government commitment is a constraint in many countries, particularly when it comes to implementation of plans that have been developed, and, as recommended by Leslie (2005), assessments of the costs and benefits of the network approach are needed so that countries can budget for it and appreciate its value. Linking the development of MPA networks with overall national conservation system planning, and harmonising the process with the establishment of terrestrial protected area systems should also be considered. Appropriate policies and legislation must be introduced where needed. Gaps In MPA network development at the regional level could be reduced by improved coordination between government, international organization and NGOS, and the development of guidance on how regional networks might best be established. The value of UNEP-RSP as a framework for MPA network initiatives is recognized (IRAN, 2005), but this organisation lacks adequate financial resources and capacity to take this role on fully, and there is a need to establish specific work plans, and obtain the necessary resources, including dedicated staff, for this activity. Better cooperation and coordinated action regarding the establishment of MPAS is required is also required with the RIMS, both within and beyond areas of national jurisdiction. Support for the growing number of social networks will also help to promote the development of ecological MPA networks. 120


The current marine World Heritage sites are based on large coral reef systems. The Great Barrier Reef and the Belize Barrier Reef are the two largest barrier reefs in the world. The reef and associated fauna is also protected at Tubbataha Reef Marine Park in the Philippines. The Philippines is host to around 1,500 species offish and 400 species of coral and the Great Barrier Reef around 1,500 species offish and 350 species of coral. Other sites include coral reefs within the boundaries of more terrestrial parks such as Aldabra Atoll in the Seychelles. Coral reefs can be found globally but the reefs surrounding 6 countries account for more than 50% of the total cover. In Australia this is represented by the Great Barrier Reef and to a smaller extent Shark Bay, Western Australia and the Lord Howe Island Group. Important sites in Indonesia are represented by Ujung Kulon National Park and Komodo National Park. There are no natural World Heritage Sites in Papua New Guinea, Fiji or the Maldives. Mangroves are shrubs and trees that live in the intertidal zone. These are represented by 69 taxa, which although have a wider distribution than the coral reefs, are also restricted to 30N and 30S. Mangrove communities are less diverse than reef systems, but are unique in their ability to provide habitat for marine and terrestrial species alike. In addition, they are important in the stabilisation of shorelines and their protection from coastal storms. It has been estimated that over 50% of the world's mangrove forests have already been lost, due to natural and human causes, such as the clearance trees for shrimp farms. The most species rich mangrove communities are distributed in the Indo-pacific. This diversity can be seen in World Heritage sites such as, Kakadu National Park and to a lesser extent Shark Bay, Western Australia and Komodo National Park, Indonesia. The Sundarbans, India and Bangladesh are an important remaining site of mangrove diversity. There are no sites containing mangroves in Papua New Guinea, the Philippines or Malaysia. A map (Map 1 8) illustrating the distribution of mangroves and coral reefs within World Heritage sites accompanies this report. 10. Key Findings There are currently 150 natural and mixed (cultural and natural) properties inscribed on the World Heritage list. Using these identified criteria, a coarse GIS analysis was undertaken to determine those natural and mixed World Heritage sites that are of particular importance for biodiversity. Table I summaries this information on a site-by-site basis. Further breakdown of this information at criteria level is contained in the "Tables" section of this report. In summary a total of 141 sites have been identified as being of particular importance for biodiversity in this study. These are represented within 64 countries and extend over 142 million ha of protected areas. Criterion (iv) 95 sites Udvardy Biogeographical Provinces 96 provinces currently contain I or more natural or mixed World Heritage sites. Provinces best represented include the following: Mediterranean Sclerophyll — 9 sites Oriental Deciduous Forest 7 sites East African Woodlandsavannah 7 sites West African Woodlandsavannah 6 sites 12


Reef name: THE BOLINAO REEF COMPLEX Location: Fringing reefs on western Luzon Island in the Philippines Description: The 200-square-kilometer complex includes reefs from the municipalities of Anda and Bolinao. Of approximately 50,000 people in Bolinao, only a few thousand actually fish the reefs, but the reefs support about 20,000 people who are either workers in fishery-related occupations (fish sales, shell craft, etc) or are dependent family members. Threats: As farmlands across the Philippines have become finely divided and overutilized, increasing numbers of people have migrated into reef areas such as Bolinao to join in harvesting fish and other reef resources, contributing to their dramatic decline. Competition for these resources led to the proliferation of blast and cyanide fishing. In the late 1980s one could hear an average of 10 blasts per hour from fishers targeting schools offish and clumps of coral. The bottom cover of reef-building coral diminished from roughly 40 percent to about 15 percent over a period of about 1 5 years. Target fish were 10 centimeters in length and less. While fishers of more pristine reefs in Papua New Guinea are able to harvest up to 30 kilograms offish per day, the Bolinao fishers have had their catches reduced to an average of about one kilogram per day on reefs that were once ecologically very similar. Beginning in 1986, programs were established by the University of the Philippines and collaborators to help the Bolinao municipality. Various projects to introduce small-scale agriculture of seaweed and invertebrates were supplemented by community organizing activities. Public education and improved law enforcement have led to a reduction in blast fishing. Coral cover and fish abundances seem to be increasing. In 1997, the municipality approved an integrated coastal management plan that reflected the concerns of all major sectors. Marine protected areas are being established and fishery regulations are being revised. However, the reef remains in a critical state. The proliferation offish pens is causing problems with pollution, water stagnation, and public access to reef resources. Incomes in the area remain low, and many resources on land and sea are seriously overutilized by the dense human population. Ultimately, the greatest challenges may be yet to come — the population of Bolinao is expected to double in the next 30 years. Reef name: SCARBOROUGH REEF Location: A large atoll in the eastern South China Sea Description: Scarborough Reef is noted for high levels of biodiversity. The populations of organisms on the reefs of the South China Sea are believed to be linked through the exchange of the free-swimming life stages that characterize most reef species. Being highly isolated, Scarborough Reef may play a particularly crucial role as an "outpost" in this exchange of genetic material and in the restocking of overfished fringing reefs in the Philippines and China. Threats: Like the Spratly Islands to the southwest, Scarborough Reef is the subject of ownership disputes. The reef is claimed by the Philippines, mainland China, and Taiwan. Fishers from all three areas regularly visit the reef However, the unclear ownership and lack of regulation exacerbate competition for the resources. Fishers stock up on blasting devices and cyanide to fish the reef in short, destructive trips. The reef is a major site for shark fishing with gill nets and for the capture of large fish for the live fish trade using cyanide. Ships load their holds with coral to sell as decorations for store windows and aquariums. The U.S. military used the reef for bombing practice during the 1990 confrontation with Iraq, complicating matters. Large and unique underwater dunelike structures of organ-pipe coral tens of meters long were used as targets. Substantial areas of coral were torn apart by the explosions. Many of the bombs failed to explode, littering the lagoon with live ordinance. It is reportedly common for a fisher to drop a small explosive charge in a beer bottle, only to set off a massive explosion. Visitors to the reef over the years have reported increasing levels of degradation from the combination of abuses to the reef REEFS AT RISK 35


Tools and Techniques for Monitoring and Mapping Coral Reefs Satellite-based sensors: Satellite imagery can be used for low-cost, albeit coarse-scale mapping of coral reefs, and as such is probably the most effective way to build a comprehensive picture of where the world's reefs are located. Satellite data can also provide information on sea-surface temperatures, wave height and direction, and primary production in upper waters. They may also be useful for distinguishing living from dead coral in very shallow waters. Military agencies have more comprehensive satellite data, often at a much finer resolution; however, these data are rarely available for public use" '" Aerial photography and sensors: Photos and data from overflights of reefs can provide a more detailed picture of reef location, and can yield bathymetric data to depths of several tens of meters" However, aerial surveys and the analysis of their products are far more costly than those derived from satellite information and are difficult or impossible to conduct legally in many countries because of security concerns. These data can determine living from dead coral, but only within very shallow water Costs have been reduced by using ultralight aircraft" balloons, kites" and other devices. With improvements in computer technology, it will be possible to survey reefs with remote-controlled aircraft, further cutting costs' -" Ship and boat-based sensors: Research vessels carry a range of sensors useful for detailed mapping of coral reefs. Various types of sonar can be used to produce three-dimensional images of coral and distinguish between different types of bottom substrate. Passive acoustic analysis, along with sonar in some instances, can distinguish between live and dead reefs. Research vessels play a vital role in surveying and mapping coral reef habitats. However, they are costly to operate (generally ranging around 10,000 per day). One way to reduce costs, and better utilize existing research vessel fleets, is to conduct reef surveys during the course of other oceanographic and fishery investigations" "' Submersibles: Manned and unmanned submarines play an essential role in assessing coral reefs in waters below a 30-meter depth — beyond the practical working limits for scuba diving. Although the technological capacity available for exploring the world's oceans is highly developed, there are very few submersibles in the world that are available for undersea research. Promising new technologies are coming on line for conducting transect surveys, distinguishing live from dead coral cover using laser-line sensing devices, and conducting rapid, large area assessments at various depths including shallower waters accessible by scuba divers" ' Diving surveys: Scuba-diving scientists are the main source of information on reefs in shallower waters today (down to 30 meters in depth). However, the specific objectives, taxa of focus, and sampling approaches severely limit the comparability of the data among regions and over time. In addition, scuba-based assessments and monitoring are limited by the number of scientists available for this work and the small area that can be covered by one individual. Survey protocols are being developed so that recreational divers and others can help gather data, often on a volunteer basis. This offers tremendous potential for gathering new information on reefs, since there are several million scuba divers in the world and several times as many people proficient at skin diving with mask or goggles. Similarly, residents of coastal communities can be recruited to evaluate their reefs through participatory resource mapping. This low-tech approach is particularly relevant in developing countries, where few can afford expensive scuba equipment. Here, villagers are trained to gather general information on the coverage of various ecosystems, supplemented with descriptions of simple factors such as hard coral cover, and then transfer the data to a map using a simple compass. Work on this type of approach is underway through various programs, such as the Coastal Resource Management Program in the Philippines' 40 REEFS AT RISK


are not directly linked to conservation. They range from building sewage and industrial waste treatment facilities to minimize pollution of coastal habitats to removing the host of subsidies and incentives — in the agricultural, forestry, development, fisheries, and other economic sectors — that result in degradation of water quality, direct destruction of reef habitats, and overexploitation of reef species. For these approaches to work, legislation backed up by enforcement of these laws and regulations must be in place to protect reef resources. Restrictions alone will not work. Successful management approaches address the underlying causes of reef degradation by promoting economic development while protecting coral reef habitats. Examples include providing alternative livelihoods for people engaged in destructive activities through economic necessity, training fishers to use less destructive fishing methods, and regulating access and use of reef resources by establishing community ownership over reef fisheries and through other approaches. Environmental education plays an important role in building public support for better reef management. One of the most effective approaches for combating threats to reefs is through a well-managed, representative marine protected area system (see box "Reefs and Marine Protected Areas). Marine parks, sanctuaries, and reserves can protect reef ecosystems and species while generating tourism dollars and maintaining the vitality of nearby fisheries. The World Conservation Union has called on countries to protect 10 percent of all habitat types. However, with one or two exceptions (such as Australia), countries protect a far lower percentage of their coral reefs, and all have a long way to go in order to meet a recently proposed global target of protecting 20 percent of the oceans. Protection alone, however, cannot safeguard reefs from the sedimentation, pollution, and other threats that originate outside the boundaries of parks and reserves. Around the world, governments and people are taking steps to conserve and restore coral reef ecosystems. Seven examples, most contributed by experts who helped us with the Reefs at Risk assessment, are profiled below. Reef: BERMUDAS CORAL REEFS Location: Bermuda, Atlantic Ocean Signs of progress: Catch levels of grouper and snapper, two important reef species, declined significantly from the mid-1970s, apparently due to overharvesting. Total grouper catch per fishing pot (a fish trap commonly used to catch reef species) dropped from 18 to 065 kilos between 1975 and 1985, with smaller fish increasingly predominating. Meanwhile, fish traps and boat anchoring by fishers and recreational boats were damaging reef structure' Under pressure from hotel owners, dive operators, and other businesses, the government closed the 2 million pot fishing industry in 1990, compensating fishers for the cost of their gear and lost revenue. In doing so, Bermuda recognized the importance of its lucrative reef-based tourism and recreational industries — valued at over 9 million in 1988 — while benefiting reef biodiversity in the process" " Reef: TUBBATAHA REEF Location: Sulu Sea, Philippines Signs of progress: In the late 1980s, overfishing and destructive fishing practices were rampant here, with coral cover reduced by 50 percent over a five-year period ending in 1989" The 33,200-hectare area is now a national marine park (the only one in the Philippines) and was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1994. Non-governmental organizations and the government have worked together to manage the park since its establishment in 1988. The navy, with assistance from NGOS, is patrolling the area to stop illegal fishing. In 1997, all fishing activities were halted within the park and a ranger station was constructed. In 1998, a park management board was put into place. Environmental education materials have been disseminated to stakeholders in the area, and the dive tourism industry is helping to install anchor buoys and regulate the activities of divers on the reefs. The condition of the coral reef substrate has improved remarkably since 1989 and the diversity of fish is exceptionally high" Reef: APO AND BALICASAG ISLAND REEFS Location: Central Visayas, Philippines Signs of progress: In the late 1970s, blast and cyanide fishing, as well as other destructive fishing practices, threatened these and other reefs in Central Visayas. Thanks to a community-based marine management program, put in place in the mid-1980s, these practices ceased by 1997. Under this program, Silliman University staff helped organize local people into marine management committees. These groups then set up marine reserves that included no-fishing sanctuaries on one portion of the reef With the aid of municipal governments, residents have continued to prevent reef damage from fishermen and divers, both within and outside the sanctuaries. A growing tourism industry catering to scuba divers is providing much needed revenue to local communities. In 1992, surveys indicated that live coral cover and fish populations within the sanctuaries had increased substantially along with fish yields per unit area off Apo Island. 42 REEFS AT RISK


Southeast Asia Chansang H, Satapoomin U, Poovachiranon S (eds) 11999b). Coral Reef Maps of Thailand. Volume 2. Andaman Sea. Coral Reef Management Programme, Department of Fisheries. In Thai language) Hydrographic Office (1975). Mergui Archipelago. British Admiralty Chart No. 216. 1300 000. September 1975. Taunton, UK, Maps 10b, loclodloe Coral reef data are largely based on arcs from Petroconsultants SA (1990). Some additional areas were added by experts during the Regional Reefs at Risk workshop in Manila, 2000. For the Riau Archipelago high resolution data were generously provided through the Regional Reefs at Risk project. These are based on Landsat TM at a working scale of 130 000. but further reefs were added based on simple annotation provided by Cheng-feng Dai (Professor, Institute of Oceanography, Taiwan). For China, coral reef data have been taken as arcs from Petroconsultants SA 11990. For Vietnam, coral reef data were provided on a series of hand annotated base maps (various scales between approximately 1 1 00 000 and 1 750 000), based on the expert knowledge of Vo Si Tuan (Head, Department of Marine Living Resources, Institute of Oceanography, Vietnam). Gaps in this map coverage were filled with data from Petroconsultants SA 11990). Environment Agency (1981-1987), Actual Vegetation Map, Okinawa. 1-29. 150 000. The 3rd National Survey on the Natural Environment (Vegetation). Environment Agency, Japan, 29-map series on 26 sheets). Maps 10b and 10c For large parts of Malaysia, coral reef data have been taken as arcs from Petroconsultants SA 11990). For Sabah higher resolution reef polygons were kindly made available through the Regional Reefs at Risk Southeast Asia project, which plot reefs at a scale of 1200 000. For Brunei coral reef data have been taken from De Silva et al 11992). De Silva MORN, Wright RAD. Matdanan HJH. Sharifuddin PHY, Agbayani CV 11992). Coastal Environmental Sensitivity Mapping of Brunei Darussalam. Department of Fisheries. Ministry of Industry and Primary Resources and Brunei Shell Petroleum Company, Brunei Darussalam. Maps 1 0f and log The coral reef map for the Philippines is largely based on two sources: processed satellite imagery kindly provided by the National Mapping and Resource Information Authority INAMRIAL and further details from Petroconsultants SA 11990). The former data were prepared from SPOT images taken in 1987, at a scale of 1250 000. Unfortunately expert analysis showed significant reef areas were missing from this analysis, so gaps were filled with the lower resolution Petroconsultants SA data. In addition, the sub-surface barrier reef system on the western coast of Palawan was mapped based on Hydrographic Office 11985). This data is based on Philippine Government charts to 1976, Admiralty surveys of 1850-5and US surveys to 1937. As these are sub-surface reefs, they have not been included in the reef area calculations. Hydrographic Office (1985). South China Sea Palawan. British Admiralty Chart No. 967. 1725 000. November 1985. Taunton, UK. NAMRIA (1988). Land Cover Maps, 1250 000. National Mapping and Resources Information Authority, Manila, Republic of the Philippines. Map 1 0h Data showing reef areas in the Spratly Islands were prepared by staff at the University of the Philippines Marine Sciences Institute, using source materials at a scale of 1250 000. It is possible to distinguish between surface and sub-surface reefs in this dataset, and only the former have been used in the calculation of reef areas. Map loi For Japan, coral reefs and mangrove areas for all the southern islands are taken from Environment Agency (1981-1987). For Taiwan, Petroconsultants SA (19901 was used as a base map. See Technical notes, page IOI


13 Other countries Indonesia recorded a high volume of exports of unworked coral in 1976 (Table 1), most of which was destined for Japan and the US. Although little information is available on exploitation for the curio trade, large scale removal of coral from living reefs for building foundations and roads takes place in Sabah, especially near Labuan and Kota Kinabalu (Wood, 1977). Black coral is fished off the Sulawesi coast and used for jewellery which is sold in Kendari, Ujung Pandang and Jakarta (M. Brendel 1980 in litt). Thailand also recorded large exports of unworked coral in 1976 (Table 1), destined mainly for Hong Kong. Stony corals are collected from the coast around Phuket (J.A. Burton, perscomm) for sale to tourists, but no data is available on the export trade. According to trade statistics for Hong Kong most imports of coral come from the Philippines (Table 2). Hong Kong coral imports have fluctuated throughout the 1970s; in 1979 nearly 18 tonnes were imported, most of which came from Singapore and could have originated in any of the south east Asian countries. Imports may include both precious and stony corals. A proportion is re-exported to Mainland China, which is probably precious coral since Japan, Italy and the UK all recorded imports of worked coral from Mainland China (Table 5). Indian exports are almost certainly of stony coral since very little precious coral occurs around its coasts. Exports increased between 1976 and 1977 (Table 1), most going to Spain, West Germany, Kenya and the US. Exports of ornamental shells have also increased noticeably from India (Wells, 1981), and come from the same area: the Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay and along the northern shore of Rameswaram I. Much of the stony coral collected is Porites which is used for calcium carbide production. Corals are also used for building purposes and it has been estimated that 25,000 tonnes are taken annually from these areas, the only localities in India with continuous stretches of coral reef (Mahadevan & Nagappan, 1972). In 1977 India imported large quantities of coral from the Maldives which were probably stony corals (Table 2). In 1976 and 1977 imports also came from Italy and Japan, probably precious corals destined for the carving industry. A number of countries including the UK and Italy import worked coral from India (Table 5). In 1978 and 1980, Honduras and Haiti both featured as major suppliers of corals to the US (Table 2). Haiti was found to be the only significant source of Atlantic corals for dealers in Florida and Haitian species on sale included brain corals, Acropora s pp. and Millepora sp. (Anon, 1979a). The Haitian coral trade flourished when coral collection off the coast of Florida was prohibited in 1976. At the height of the trade, 8,000 pieces of coral were being exported a month to the US and Europe. It was collected from the vicinity of Port au Prince and Leogane, and the Bay of Gonave was reported to have been virtually stripped bare. A communique was issued in 1977, banning coral exportation for two years, and it was thought that this would subsequently be made permanent but in 1979 coral was being exported hidden in consignments of shells (J. Rudloe, 1980 in litt). In 1976 and 1980 the US recorded imports of unworked coral from Tunisia. Precious corals are collected in Tunisian waters off the north coast near Tabarka (Boulhel, 1980 perscomm). In the 18th century the best coral fisheries were reputedly in North African waters off Tunisia and Algeria and were managed by the French (Douglas, I3it7).


-42. METHODS AND COMPILATION OF DATA The information included in this report is derived primarily from literature and correspondence in the possession of the run's Conservation Monitoring Centre at Cambridge (Fauna) and Kew (Flora). In view of the extremely rapid rates of habitat destruction in the Philippines however, much of this information is now outdated and were possible it has been supplemented with data obtained through correspondence with relevant government departments, institutions and scientists who have had recent fieldwork experience in the region. A list of personnel who were contacted for assistance in this regard appears in Appendix Six. FLORA, VEGETATION AND FOREST COVER 31 DESCRIPTION OF THE NATURAL VEGETATION The Philippine flora is composed principally of forest plants and has affinities with those of Borneo, peninsular Malaysia, the Sino-himalayan region and Australia. Endemism Is esteemed at about 27, with at least 33 endemic genera (LUCNUNEP 1986). There are some 8000 species of flowering plants in the Philippines of which over 3000 are arborescent species that can attain a diameter at breast height of 30 cm or more (FAOUNEP 1981). In addition there are about 900 fern species (Parris 1985) 311 THE FORESTS It is convenient to subdivide the forest vegetation of the Philippines into five very broad formations: mixed dipterocarp, tropical montane, mossy (subalpine), molave and pine forests. The following descriptions are based mainly on a report by FAOUNEP (1981).


i) Mixed dipterocarp forests Thes« occur generally up to an elevation of approximately 800 m on well drained soils and on the lower slopes of mountains in localities where the dry season is not pronounced. The family Dipterocarpaceae is represented by approximately 50 species, belonging to eight genera. The more common dipterocarp species include: apitong Dipterocarpus grandis lorus hagakhak. D validus tangile Shorea polysperma red lauan S. negrosensis almon S. almon mayapis S. p alosapis natal S. astylosa guijo S. guiso and white lauan Shorea contorta The composition of dipterocarp forests shows considerable variation depending upon local site factors. On both the larger and the smaller islands there are many microclimatic variations in precipitation and groundwater conditions within short vertical and horizontal distances which are crucial to the composition of particular associations within the broad grouping of dipterocarp forests. Four sub-formations are recognized on the basis of species dominance. They are true' lauan; lauan-apitong; yakal-lauan; and lauan-hagakhak. Dipterocarp forests provide the bulk, of the timber for the country's log export industry as well as most of the wood required for domestic building construction and infrastructure development. ii) Tropical montane forests Tropical montane forests occur in the areas extending from the upper limits of the mixed dipterocarp forest formations to the lower limits of the pine or mossy (subalpine) forest types. The forest composition is mixed aid the undergrowth is prolific. Rattans, palms, bamboos and epiphytes are numerous. Tangile Shorea polysperma and oats Quercus spp. are the main tree species but Hopea, Vatica Agathis Cinnamomum Tristania and Eugenie, species are also common iii) Mossy (subalpine) forests: Mossy forests are found in the high mountainous regions of the Philippines at an altitude ranging from 1000 to 2950 m asl. (Ramoran 1980). This montane forest type consists of a stunted tree vegetation that is often clothed with clinging mosses, liverworts, lichens, epiphytic herbs and ferns. In the Central Cordillera of northern Luzon plant families commonly occurring in mossy forest formations include Fagaceae, Melastomataceae, Podocarpaceae


-7312 OTHKFI VEGETATION TYPES Compared with the forests, other types of vegetation in the Philippines are relatively insignificant. However, beach woodlands, brackish-water swamplands, and freshwater wetlands add to the diversity of the country's terrestrial environment and deserve conservation attention in their own right. i) Beach woodlands Beach woodlands occur both in narrow bands immediately above high-tide levels where the sand dunes have stabilized and, occasionally, on the flood plains of larger rivers. The conifer Casuarina equisetifolia is often the dominant tree species. The leaf-fall from the casuarina forests is heavy and consequently the undergrowth is confined to a few semi-herbaceous vines (eg. Wedelia biflora ) and thorny bushes (eg. Prosopis juli lora ) Casuarina equisetifolia is an important source of canoe and boat-building materials. It also produces a yellow dye which can be used to colour wool and silk. ii) Brackish-water swamplands Brackish-water swamplands occupy areas along tidal rivers where brackish, rather than saline, water conditions prevail. This vegetation association is dominated by the nipa palm Nypa fruticans The long fronds of the nipa palm are widely used for roofing purposes and in areas close to dense settlements it is usually absent (unless under cultivation) because of indiscriminate harvestintiii) Freshwater wetlands Philippine freshwater wetlands cover a total area of approximately 114 000 ha (Alvarez, not dated). Most are seasonal in character and during the dry season present extensive mud flats. In general they are created by the flooding of large rivers. The vegetation of these areas is composed mainly of low-growing marsh plants and tall reed-like grasses. In the southern part of the archipelago the sago palm Metroxylon sanu is abundant in freshwater swamps at low altitudes and is a valuable source of starch. The following wetlands have been identified as priorities for conservation action (Alvarez, not dated)


CHAPTER 12. WALKING CATFISH (PLA DUK-DAN) Introduction The walking catfish, Clarias batrachus s is native to much of Southeast Asia where it occurs widely in slow streams, flooded marshes, and fields. It is the predominant Clarias species raised in Thailand, where it is commonly cultured. Culture of C. batrachus was begun in Thailand about 30 years ago (Tarnchalanukit et al. 1983). In Malaysia, it is mainly captured wild, as the cost of trash fish for supplemental feed is relatively high. In the Philippines, where Clarias macrocephalus is the commonly cultured species, limited availability of trash fish also has caused difficulties in culture. • macrocephalus is the favored species for food and is worth more per pound due to a softer, more yellow flesh of higher fat content. In earthen pond culture in Thailand, however, it is slower growing and more difficult to rear during the early stages. The Clarias batrachus culture system in Thailand will serve as our model type, while differences in the Philippines will also be examined. In Thailand, about 240 to 320 ha are under Clarias culture each year. Annual yields from culture average 12,000 tons, or approximately 40 to 50 tons ha. Feeding Habits Clarias batrachus is mainly carnivorous and feeds actively throughout the water column in shallow ponds. In nature, it commonly feeds on invertebrates and fish, while under culture they are fed supplemental food of animal origin. (. macrocephalus is a more benthic species which feeds predominantly on detritus and benthic invertebrates. Both species can be trained to take food at the water surface) Young C. batrachus feed predominantly on zooplankton, while 87


BIRDS PROM BENGUET PROVINCE, LUZON, AND PROM THE ISLANDS OP LUBANG, MINDORO, CUYO, AND CAGAYANCILLO. By Richard C. Mcgregor. INTRODUCTORY NOTE. In this paper, which is the second in the series of reports on zoological collections made for the Philippine Museum, are recorded all identified species of birds collected or observed on recent expeditions to the Islands of Lubang, Verde, Cagayancillo, and Agutaya, and to the Province of Benguet, Luzon; also species recently secured in Cuyo and Mindoro, which are believed to be new to those islands. As a result of lack of necessary literature, it has proved impossible to identify certain of the species collected. This is especially the case with the birds of prey. These unidentified species will be listed in a supplementary paper after the receipt of the literature which we at present lack. As in the first paper of this series, the nomenclature of this paper follows closely that of Sharpe's Hand List and of the Catalogue of Birds. The work of collecting has been directed by Commissioner Dean C. Worcester, Secretary of the Interior, to whom the author is indebted for the use of literature and other assistance. Mr. Chas. W. Richmond has kindly examined and identified specimens of several species. GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. LUBANG. The Lubang Group lies west of Cape Santiago, Luzon, and north of Cape Calavite, the western point of Mindoro. The group as a whole is nearer Mindoro than Luzon. Lubang Island is about 20 miles from the Batangas coast and but little more than half that distance from the nearest point in Mindoro. Lubang i§ approximately 15 miles long by 6 wide. In, the central part of the island are mountains of moderate altitude well covered with forest. Near the coast are extensive rice fields and grassy hills. Two small streams enter the sea near Port Tilig, and at their mouths are more or less extensive mangrove swamps, the 3


THE BIRDS OF CALAYAN AND PUGA, BABUYAN GROUP. By Richard C. Mcgregor. INTRODUCTORY NOTE. Due north of Luzon are a number of small islands known as the Babuyanes, and north of this group are the Batanes. The small lot of birds secured on Fuga Island by Mr. John Whitehead has been the only collection known from any of these islands. In August, 1903, we took a steamer to Aparri, in north Luzon, where after much delay we secured a native boat to take us to the Islands of Fuga and Calayan in the Babuyanes. I intended to visit Camiguin as well, but owing to the light and variable breezes it was found to be impracticable. The present paper deals with the collection of over 1,000 skins which was made on Calayan and Fuga. A few species from Luzon and other islands are also discussed in their proper order. Three species from Ticao and one from Lubang, overlooked or not identified before, are now recorded for the first time and may be added to my lists from those islands in former bulletins. The nomenclature of this paper follows closely that of Sharpe's Hand List and the Catalogue of Birds. Salangana has been substituted for Couocalia, and Otus for Scops. My thanks are due to Secretary Worcester, who has continued to direct our collecting operations, and to Dr. Charles W. Richmond, of the United States National Museum, who has kindly identified a number of doubtful species. The following species are described as new: Turnix worcesteri. Eudynamis frater. Macropygia phaea. Zosterops flavissima. Otus cuyensis. Hyloterpe fallax. Otus calayensis. The following forms are new to the Philippines: Sphenocercus formosa. Acrocephalus sorgophilus. Oceanodroma, species. Chelidon dasypus. Sterna fluviatilis. Clivicola riparia. Polionetta zonorhyncha. Astur cuculoides. Mareca penelope. Turdus pallidus. Spodiopsar sericeus. Antigone sharpei. Chrysomitris spinus. Fringilla montifringilla. Saxicola oenanthe.


8 Turnix whiteheadi evidently begins nesting in August for several live birds from the market during that month contained eggs. Two of these eggs we were able to preserve entire. As may be seen by the measurements they are rather short. The short diameter crosses the long diameter near its middle, and the outline slopes gently to the smaller end, producing a shape less pyriform than in the eggs of our x4merican partridges. DESCRIPTIONS. No. 1. August 26, 1902. — White with numerous obscure lilac-shell markings; around the larger end a band of dark sienna 020 inch wide, whose edges are ragged and near which are a very few brown spots. The dark zone incloses a white and unspotted area 035 inch in diameter. This egg measures 078 by 063. No. 2. August 16, 1902. — Very similar to the other egg, but the dark band more broken on margins and entire larger end to middle covered with a dark-brown wash. The edge of this color area is well defined and slightly irregular, a few fine specks along its edge; smaller end of egg with a faint brown wash. This egg measures 079 by 065. If egg No. 1 were half immersed in strong coffee it would be colored nearly like egg No. 2. As these eggs were taken from the oviduct — that is, before they were deposited normally — I am inclined to think that they may be somewhat abnormal, or not fully colored, and No. 1 especially tends to confirm this idea. TURNIX WORCESTERI, new species. Type. — No. 1350, adult female, Philippine Museum Collection. Purchased in Quinta Market, Manila, August 30, 1902. Probably from Paraiiaque, Luzon. Description. — General color above, black; on the forehead, spotted with white; on crown and nape, feathers tipped with pale but! and some edged with white, producing an incomplete white line on middle of head (this line may be perfect in a well-made skin) ; feathers on back and rump barred and tipped with pale buff, on the interscapular area edged also with white; feathers on sides of face mostly white with black tips; lores white; feathers on sides of neck black, each with a wide subterminal bar of white; a small black spot behind ear; breast and throat rusty buff, extending up each side of the white chin area as rusty buff tips to the feathers and bounded above by the black-tipped white feathers of malar region; flanks, under tail coverts, and sides of abdomen and breast are also rusty buff, but paler; center of abdomen white; a few feathers on sides of abdomen are barred with blackish brown. Primaries, their coverts, and secondaries blackish gray; four outer primaries narrowly edged with whitish; secondaries barred with whitish on outer web. Scapulars like the back but with wide edges of whitish buff.


9 Secondary coverts blackish mottled and edged with pale buff. Tail blackish, edged with pale buff. Bill pale bluish; legs flesh pink, nails slightly darker; irides very pale yellow. Length, 5 inches; wing, 280; tail, 093; culmen, 041; depth of bill at angle of gonys, 023; tarsus, 066; middle toe with claw, 071. This bird is known to us from the type specimen purchased in the market where it was found with others of the same genus. It is readily distinguishable from any other Luzon Turnix by its very deep, short bill. Sphexocercus FOIIMOS Swinh. ; Salvadori, Cat. Bds, XXI, p. 13, PL L Fairly abundant on Calayan, where it is called "pu-nai' a name used for Osmotreron in many of the Philippine Islands. This bird may be distinct from the Formosa species, which is said to occur in the mountains of that country, but I can find nothing in our series of a dozen skins to justify a separation, and a comparison will be necessary for final identification. The genus is new to the Philippines. Leucotreron leclancheri (Bp). Three specimens from Calayan agree with some from Luzon and Mindoro. Shy and difficult to obtain. Carpophaga nuchalis Cab; Grant, Ibis, 1896, p. 487 (Fuga) ; Whitehead, Ibis, 1899, p. 487. Both Grant and Whitehead were very sure that the single specimen which they had from Fuga was distinct from C. miliaris of Luzon. Our four skins from Fuga and Cagayan are alike and base a dark-purplish nuchal band. With no Luzon material at hand for comparison it is necessary to let these stand as nuchalis. Fairly common on Fuga and abundant on Calayan. About the middle of November these birds collect in large flocks, sonu-times numbering 100 or more. They are easily killed if they can to pass near one, but when feeding or resting in trees they take fright at the first sign of danger. All specimens killed were extremely fat, so that good skins were out of the question. Name on Calayan, 'balu' COLUMBA GRISEIGULARIS (Wald. and Layard). A few were seen in the tops of the heaviest timber. One killed was so fat that I made no attempt to get more. MACROPYGIA PIILA, new species. Specific characters. — Somewhat similar to M. tenuirostris Bp, but larger and much darker; the inner webs of first three primaries uniform, the others but narrowly, if at all, edged with rufous. Type. — Xo. 3933, adult male, Philippine Museum Collection, Calayan Island, Babuyanes, P. I. Collected November 18, 1903, by R. C. McGregor and A. Celestino. Description. — Upper parts, including wings and tail, blackish brown ; back and rump feathers with wide edges of very dark-bluish slate (these