NUMBER 367 47 mm SL), and a reef inhabitant. It ranges from the Red Sea to the Hawaiian and Marquesas islands (Randall, 1981a). GOBLOIDIDAE (including Taenioididae) The gobioidids are small, elongate fishes (maximum size about 470 mm SL) living benthically on muddy bottoms, typically in brackish bays, although the same species may be taken offshore in marine waters and well up freshwater rivers. There are several genera, but probably fewer than 20 species, and these occur, variously, along the warm coastal areas of the eastern Pacific, eastern and western Atlantic, and Indo-west Pacific from Africa to Guam and New Guinea. Prior to my 1980 collecting trip to Ponape, Eastern Caroline Islands, gobioidids were unknown on the Pacific Plate nonmarginally. I obtained two genera (Table C, Appendix 2) in a single collection at Ponape, in a coarse muddy area adjacent to a river mouth and mangrove shore. The Caroline Islands chain apparently serves as a conduit permitting gobioidids to disperse to the Pacific Plate. I doubt that they occur further east than Kosrae (Kusaie) at the end of the chain. See also "Addendum" GONORYNCHIDAE The Gonorynchidae consists of a single genus, Gonorynchus, and perhaps as many as six species (the genus has not been revised). The gonorynchids attain a maximum size of about 600 mm TL and are suprabenthic on sandy bottoms. The family occurs nonmarginally on the Pacific Plate only at the Hawaiian islands (Hawaiian exception); it is otherwise antitropically distributed. Gonorynchids have been reported most often from the Indo-west Pacific: Japan and Korea south to the Pescadores Islands, southern Australia (as far north as southern Queensland), New Zealand, Reunion, and southeastern Africa, but they also occur at St. Helena in the eastern Atlantic (Penrith, 1976), and Mead (1970) and Mccosker (1971) quote R.H. Rosenblatt as stating that the Scripps Institution of Oceanography marine vertebrate collection has a specimen from the Juan Fernandez and San Felix Ridge, off Chile. Some authors believe that there is only one species of gonorynchid, but the north-south disjunct distribution of the family suggests the possibility that two species or more are involved. Grammatidae The monopoly of the Grammatidae is open to serious question. For instance, Nelson (1974) included the following in the Grammatidae: Pseudochromichthys, which is a synonym of the plesiopid genus Pleswps (Aoyagi, 1943; Schultz, 1943); Fraudella, which is a plesiopid (G.D. Johnson, pers. comm; incidentally, the Plesiopidae also appears to be polyphyletic); and Pseudocremlabrus, which is a cichlid (Trewavas, 1973). Even without these three genera there is little evidence to unite the remaining five genera, and perhaps 20 species that could be considered in the family (as most recently defined by Bohlke, 1960). The western Atlantic genera Gramma, Lipogramma) are coral-reef forms of shallow to moderate depths. Stigmatonotus is known only from coastal Western Australia. Grammatonotus is known from deep water off Hawaii (Hawaiian exception; only non-marginal Pacific Plate occurrence of Grammatidae), the western Indian Ocean (based on the type species of Parabarossia Kotthaus, 1976, which Kotthaus assigned to the Plesiopidae), Japan, Philippines, New Caledonia (G.D. Johnson, pers. comm), and the Kei Islands, Indonesia. The nominal species of Caltanthias all appear to belong in the Grammatidae, as considered here. They have been reported, variously, from southern Africa, southern Australia, New Zealand, Japan, the Mediterranean-eastern Atlantic, and the Nasca Ridge (G.D. Johnson, pers. comm) and San Felix and Juan Fernandez islands in the eastern Pacific, and are, thus, bitemperately distributed. Gymnuridae The butterfly rays probably consist of a single genus, Gymnura, and fewer than ten, viviparous,


48 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ZOOLOGY species. The largest species attain over 2 m breadth. The family is circumglobally distributed, except that it is apparently absent from the Pacific Plate other than marginally, a distribution pattern duplicated by most elasmobranch groups. Fowler (1928, 1941) placed Ram pastinaca variety altavela Forster (not Linnaeus), from Tana (New Hebrides), marginally off the Pacific Plate, into the synonymy of Gymnura poecilura (Shaw), an Indo-west Pacific species. Fowler did not give his reasons for the synonymy, which I believe was in error, and also mistakenly placed Tana in the Society Islands, which are well out on the Pacific Plate. Forster's (1844) description was based on an observed specimen that, apparently, was not retained. Forster included in his description a statement that there was a single row of small spines on the middle of the dorsum of his specimen. Gymnurids lack such a feature. Forster's specimen was probably a dasyatid. In the Indo-West Pacific, gymnurids range from the Red Sea and east coast of Africa eastward to Japan, and south to the Philippines and eastern Australia. There are no records of gymnurids from New Guinea or any other islands along the southwestern margin of the Pacific Plate. Based on present information, I do not believe that gymnurids occur in the New Hebrides or on the Pacific Plate. Bigelow and Schroeder (1953398) probably followed Fowler (1928, 1941, 1944) in including Polynesia in the range of gymnurids. Haemulidae There are 1 7 genera (Johnson, 1980) and about 100 species of grunts. The species are of small to moderate size (to about 610 mm TL), free swimming, suprabenthic, and usually associated with coral reefs or rocks. Although the family is circumglobally distributed, no genus is that widely distributed. Pomadasys, the most widely distributed genus of grunts, is found in the eastern Pacific, western Atlantic, Mediterranean, eastern Atlantic, and throughout the tropical Indo-west Pacific up to the western margin of the Pacific Plate (absent from the Pacific Plate nonmarginally). Eleven of the haemulid genera are restricted to the western hemisphere; two occur only in the eastern Atlantic, one (Diagramma) only in the Indo-west Pacific (absent from the Pacific Plate), one (Parapns diploma) only in the eastern Atlantic and Indo-west Pacific (absent from the Pacific Plate), and one (Plectorhynchus) in the Mediterranean, eastern Atlantic, and throughout much of the Indo-pacific (but absent from the Hawaiian Islands), where it is represented nonmarginally on the Pacific Plate by five species at most. The family has, hence, only token representation on i the Pacific Plate. Harpadontidae The Bombay ducks comprise a single genus, Harpadon, and four species of small-to moderate-sized fishes (to about 710 mm TL) of commercial importance. These fishes are found in close-shore waters, estuaries, and relatively deep continental shelf waters (R.K. Johnson, pers. comm) of the Indo-west Pacific, but are absent nonmarginally from the Pacific Plate. Sulak (1977) placed Sandal (which in my study is included in the Synodontidae) and Harpadon in a subfamily, Harpadontinae, of the Synodontidae. The constitution of these family-group taxa in my study reflects only common usage. Harpadon has a spotty distribution. It appears to be present along the northeast and northwest coasts of India, but absent from around southern India and Ceylon, and ranges eastward through the Bay of Bengal to Sumatra, Java, Borneo, New Guinea, northern Australia, Philippines (Rau and Rau, 1980), and northward to the Yellow Sea as far as Korea. A number of authors list Zanzibar in the range of Harpadon, the earliest of which that I can locate is Bleeker (1866-1872). These reports appear to be second hand and, I believe, erroneous. Playfair and Giinther (1866) did not report Harpadon from Zanzibar, nor did they in their subsequent papers on additions to the Zanzibar fish fauna. Harpadon is frequently dried for commercial purposes. In view of the


302 AILSA M. CLARK but it is clear that throughout the range there is some variation in the relative length. However, the shape is otherwise fairly constant in being cylindrical, very few stumps being at all flaring, and there are usually three to five points at the tip. The arm spines do not normally exceed the arm breadth in length, as Lamarck commented, and indeed are often somewhat shorter, the longer ones usually just exceeding twice the segment length. Most of them are finely rugose for almost their entire length but the second and third spines from above may be smooth on the basal half, at least on the side facing the disc. These longer spines have their sides parallel or slightly tapering and the ends truncated so they cannot be described as at all clavate. The lowest spine distally (Text-fig. 4p) is always more or less comb-like with multiple teeth but in the specimen from the Seychelles the terminal tooth may be unusually enlarged (Text-fig. 4q). The colour pattern normally consists of the well-defined dark intersegmental spots on the arms said to be characteristic of punctolimbata. Distribution. Known from Mauritius, E. Africa, the islands of the western Indian Ocean, the Maldive Islands, Ceylon, the East Indies, Philippines, southern Japan, the S. Pacific islands (but not the Hawaiian Islands) and northern Australia. Records from the Red Sea and Persian Gulf need confirmation, being possibly based on material of M. hirsuta, demessa or elongate. Macrophiothrix lorioli sp. nov. Text-figs. 3p, 4s, 5s, yn, pi. i, fig. 4 Ophiothrix punctolimbata: de Loriol, i8g3a 416-419, pi. 15, fig. 2; Koehler, 1905 93-95; 1922 237, pi. 32, fig. 6, pi. loi, fig. 7. Non 0. punctolimbata von Martens, 1870] Material. British Museum No. 1967. 12. 13. i, north side, Gaskell Island, (Florida Islands), Solomon Islands, Dr. H. G. Vevers, Royal Society Expedition, 1965, the holotype; No. 1967. 12. 13. 2, north-west side, Gaskell Island, same source, one paratype; reef platform, Graham Point, Maran Sound, Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands, Dr. P. E. Gibbs, same expedition, one specimen. No. 9282249, Macclesfield Bank, S. China Sea, 24 metres. Admiralty, one specimen. No. 821223200 (part), Tongatabu, "Challenger, one specimen. No. 945181, coral reef, Tongatabu, R. B. Leafe, one specimen. Description. The holotype has dd. 16 mm. and arm length c. 300 mm. and c. 225 mm. on two arms measured, giving ratios of i 19 and i 14. The disc is closely covered with elongated stumps (Text-fig. 3p) having two to five points, most often three; most of them are flared from close to the base with transparent flanges ending in the points. The longer stumps are c. 0-4 mm. long. The radial shields are about 6 mm. in length and closely covered with stumps similar to but smaller than those on the disc scales; again these are mostly trifid. On the ventral side of the disc the stumps tend to have fewer points, especially the proximal ones, which may consist of a single tapering thorn. These stop short of the genital slits and the oral shields, which are broad rhombic, with length breadth 1-25 1-9 mm.


DANGEROUS SEA LIFE (3) Stonefish, Synanceja Zebrafish are a beautiful and ornate shallow water fish of tropical and temperate seas. They parade about coral reefs, spreading their fan-like and lacy fins in much the same manner as peacocks. They are found in pairs and present an invitation to disaster if touched. Beneath the finery are hidden long, straight needle-sharp fin spines which are a spectacular menace to anyone exploring tropical coral areas. These fish are armed with as many as 18 potentially lethal spines, each equipped with venom. The scorpionfish are inhabitants of shallow water bays and reefs. A habit of concealing themselves in crevices among debris, under rocks, or in seaweed along with a nearly perfect protective coloration makes this fish almost invisible. Upon discovery and removal from the water these fish erect spiny fins and spread out gill covers in an aggressive display. Stonefish are encountered in tidepools and shoal areas. They lie motionless while concealed or even partly buried and are fearless or even disinterested in any careless intrusion. This presents a dangerous situation to anyone with bare feet. The fish is equipped with as many as 13 dorsal spines, 3 anal spines, and 2 pelvic spines; all are short and heavy with enlarged venom glands. In natural concealment, the fish looks like a piece of mud or debris. Symptoms produced by all 3 types of scorpionfish vary in degree, but the pain is immediate, sharp, and radiates. Pain may cause a victim to thrash in a wild manner, scream, or lose consciousness. The immediate wound area may be pale, surrounded by a zone or redness, swelling, and heat. Paralysis of an entire arm or leg may result, and intense swelling of a member may impair movements. Many other symptoms may also be present. Death may be the result of an encounter, or the victim may recover after months of treatment but with general health impaired. Treatment, as for other venomous fish stings, must be administered promptly. Prevention of the sting, based on previous experiences, depends udon the warning of individuals not to handle scorpionfish with unprotected hands. Attraction of the uninitiated to touch the lacy fins or the placing of hands or feet in crevices inhabited by the fish must be prevented to avoid the danger. Recommended treatment of Venomous Fish Stings Treatment of venomous fish stings should be directed to the achievement of 3 objectives: 1. Alleviate pain. 2. Combat the effects of the venom. 3. Prevent follow-up infections. The pain is generally a direct result of the damage caused by the spine. Additional effects are produced by the venom and the introduction of slime and foreign material. Certain stings, as in the case of rays and catfish, may produce greater damage if spines are recurved or barbed edges are present. Such wounds should be carefully washed out or irrigated with cold salt water or with sterile saline, if available. It is advisable in most cases to make a small incision across the sting wound. Immediate suction for removal of poison and irrigation should then be accomplished. Since fish do not inject venom in the manner of snakes, results from this suction are not entirely satisfactory. Use of a ligature in the treatment of fish stings may help. The ligature, if used, should be placed immediately between the sting site and the body, as near the wound as possible. Adequate circulation should be allowed periodically every few minutes. Hot soaking of the wound site for 30 minutes to an hour should be maintained, with the water as hot as the patient can bear without injury. Hot, moist compresses may be used on areas not convenient for immersion. The addition of epsom salts to the water is believed beneficial. Following the soaking, a surgical removal of the lacerated or contaminated parts should precede closure of the wound by sutures. A small drain may be left for a day or two if the need is indicated by size or nature of the wound. The wound site should be covered with an antiseptic sterile dressing. Supportive measures, as described in "THE SHIPS MEDICINE CHEST AND FIRST AID AT SEA" under shock, should be attended to immediately. The patient must be watched carefully for complications and prompt attention given as described. The assistance of a physician should be obtained or medical advice requested by radio. Reptiles Notwithstanding all that has been Written concerning the subject of sea snakes, and the universal fear of most people concerning them, there has always been a great deal of misunderstanding concerning their actual existence. The sea snakes are closely allied to the cobras and form a specialized group, adapted by structure and habit to a marine existence. All are poisonous and many deadly, however, they will not generally attack without provocation and have often been described as docile in habit. Fishermen who unintentionally contact sea snakes in their work suffer most of the fatal bites. Fatalities are quite common in the Gulf of Siam and the Philippines area. Few sea snakes exceed 4 feet, but 10 -foot specimens have been caught. Color is dark above and light below with cross-bands of black, purple, brown, gray, green, or yellow. All of the marine species may be distinguished from the land forms by a paddle-shaped tail. Any confusion with eels may be resolved by the fact that sea snakes are true snakes, and their bodies are covered by scales. Eyes are covered by transparent scales and have no lids. The tongue is slender and forked. Hollow venom fangs are present. Marine snakes inhabit sheltered coastal waters, particularly the areas near river mouths. They penetrate upstream to the limits of brackish water, and a few species are found in fresh water. They tend to collect close along shore and among coral reefs in the breeding season, when they are more active and sometimes become aggressive. During this season, fishermen may net as many as a hundred at a time. This presents an especially hazardous condition, since some sea snakes have been reported to possess venom of a potency exceeding that of the king cobra. Swimming is accomplished by a lateral undulation and use of the oar-like tail. A peculiar ability to move backwards as well as forward has been reported Although sea snakes may float on the surface for extended periods of time, they are also able to remain submerged for hours. Most of their food is obtained underwater and consists nearly entirely of fish swallowed headfirst. Many of the items of food, such as eels and fish, are quickly killed by the deadly first bite of the snake. Like many other marine animals, sea snakes often feed at night and many are netted after dark when attracted by artificial lights exhibited by fishing boats. Individual snakes are frequently taken by line fishermen as they will readily accept the baited hook. The yellow-bellied Sea Snake, Pelamis platunis, ventures beyond coastal waters and is the most widely distributed of all sea snakes. It exists in East Africa and Asian waters northward to Siberia, Japanese east coast, the Philippines, Oceania, and eastward to tropical America. The sea snake Enhydrina schistosa (Figure 19) is a more aggressive species which ranges from the Persian Gulf eastward to the north coast of Australia. Other species, nearly 50 in number, inhabit the tropical Pacific and Indian Oceans from the Persian Gulf to Samoa. They also follow the warm currents northward into the western Pacific to the Ryukyus and Japan. They are not known to inhabit the Atlantic. 34


FARMING THE SEA profitable, pond managers seek supplies from fishermen who catch the fry in other areas. Thus a special fishery has grown up to supply the valli. Mullet (Mugil sp) is the most important species in these ponds; eels, sea bass (Morone labrax), and other species are also raised to a lesser extent. The annual mean production of about seventy valli in the Italian Adriatic was 3,000 tons in the 1950's, with an average of about 125 to 130 pounds of fish per acre. The principal defect of the valli culture is that the system depends largely on the capture of small fish entering the ponds with the tides, or in more recent years on the somewhat more reliable but still chancy capture of fry in the ocean. Thus the valli farmer is at the mercy of the vagaries of natural fluctuations in abundance of the fry. The shrimp is one of the marine animals most suitable for farming. It has a high market value and it grows rapidly on materials very near the bottom of the food pyramid. Shrimp are cheerfully indiscriminate eaters. They nibble on algae and bacteria; they take quantities of mud, apparently deriving sustenance directly from it as well as from a multitude of small animals and plants that it contains, including worms, small crustaceans and mollusks, larval fishes, diatoms, bacteria, and algae. Shrimp are scavengers and cannibals. Shrimp culture is important in the Philippines. Here the young of the shrimp called "sugpo" Penaeus monodon, are caught as they appear in shallow water near shore and are transported to specially prepared ponds, where they are fed and carefully protected from predators until they become big enough to sell. The capture of the sugar is the weak link in the culture chain. The Philippine fisherman pursues them with unlikely tools, including clumps of weed called "sons-sons" white porcelain dishes, and earthenware jars. He takes advantage of the fact that the sugar likes to cling to sticks, seaweed, or other material floating in the water. He sets out bon-bon lures consisting of bundles of twigs or grass attached to lines, and ties these to poles set into the bottom in shallow, brackish water where the tide runs. Tiny plankton creatures such as copepods and worms attach themselves to the weeds, and they, along with the shelter the weeds offer, attract the shrimp to the lures. Sculling among the lures in a small dugout, the fisherman visits them two or three times a day, shaking the little shrimp from the bundles of grass into a fine-meshed dip net and transferring them to his porcelain dish; the dark bodies of the young sugpo show up plainly against the brilliant white of the porcelain. The little shrimp are dumped into an earthenware jar, whose porous sides 79]


NOTES ON PHILIPPINE SHARKS, I By Albert W. C. T. Herre Chief, Division of Fisheries, Bureau of Science. Mamta Throughout the ages sharks have been of well-nigh universal interest. Without the gorgeous colors or flowerlike brilliancy of some fishes or the superb symmetry and grace of others, they yet irresistibly attract attention. Though as a rule of a dull uniform gray or bluish cast and without beauty of form, by their size, speed, greediness, and ferocity they have aroused curiosity from earliest times. Though a few sharks are notable for singularity of shape, it is their more degenerate and less-active kindred, the skates and rays, that have developed the strangest forms and the most uncanny powers. Although some sharks attain a length of only a few inches, even when fully matured, as a whole they are of large size, and certain sharks and rays are the largest of all fishes. Many species of sharks are very ferocious when hungry and do not hesitate to attack any other animal in the water, regardless of its size. Sharks are no worse in this regard than many other fishes, as any very large carnivorous fish may be dangerous to man. Barracuda and the giant sea basses of the East Indies and Polynesia are more dreaded in some localities than are sharks. No shark is more ferocious or dangerous to man than are the small and apparently insignificant caribe fish of the South American rainy tropics. The sharks and their allies represent an entirely distinct and divergent line from that of the bony fishes. They have no air bladder, no true scales, and no membrane bones, the operculum being always absent in the living species, while the skeleton not only presents a number of peculiarities but also is much less specialized both in form and in material, always remaining more or less cartilaginous. The shoulder girdle is not fastened to the skull but to one of the vertebrae some distance behind it, so that there is a neck similar to that in higher animals. The males of all living species have attached to the ventral fins a pair of claspers or copulatory organs. These serve as a penis 67


Philippines the actual work of maintaining protected areas. Activities include patrols, habitat restoration, maintenance and interpretation for visitors (PAWB, 1991). PAWB has a number of major programme areas, but one of the most important is the establishment and management of protected areas. Activities include identification of new sites, boundary marking and periodic assessment, as well as restoration of degraded sites, management of buffer zones and visitor facilities. Protected areas administration has historically been weak, due to the many institutional reorganisations as well as institutional and juridical struggles. This was particularly true during the period when the Parks and Wildlife Office was subsumed into the Bureau of Forest Development (Nrmc1983)furtherstaffingfunding, training and administrative support have been inadequate (Fernandez, 1988; Penafiel, 1990). In common with terrestrial areas, marine protected areas also suffer from a confused legislative and administrative background and there is no national governmental mechanism to manage marine areas. In 1977 the Marine Parkreserve Development Inter-agency Task Force was set up by Special Order No. 61 to formulate an integrated system of plans and programmes for marine conservation. Under the Presidential Proclamation No. 1801 of 1978 the Philippine Tourism Authority (PTA) assumed responsibility for the promotion and development of aquatic sports. This has led to the establishment of several marine reserves and tourist zones. The Coral Reef Research Team, within the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (Ministry of Natural Resources), is responsible for marine conservation within marine reserves. The non-governmental organisation movement in the Philippines has been gaining considerable momentum over the last few years. Since the overthrow of the Marcos government, both NGOS and the media have become more vocal against issues of pollution, forest degradation and destructive practices in the marine environment There are now some 11 conservation and environmental NGOS and 17 university or academic-related organization in the country. The Haribon Foundation has taken on a leading role for the environmental NGO network and an environmentally sympathetic constituency is forming among the public and in the new senate and congress (Petocz, 1988). The Haribon Foundation has also been directly involved in the development of protected areas (Balete, 1990). University research centres and institutes, such as the Marine Science Institute at University of Philippines, Diliman, the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology and Marine Research Institute at Silliman University, the Institute of Environmental Science and Management at University of Philippines, Los Banos and Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources stationed at University of Philippines, Los Banos have all contributed significantly to developing conservation activities in the country. Systems Reviews Tropical forests originally covered ahnost 280,000 sq. km (93) of the total land area of the Philippines, and still two-thirds of it at the end of World War II (Cox, 1988). There are many published estimates of the current extent of forests, but these are based on different definitions of forest cover and on various information sources covering different periods of time. Consequently, an overall synthesis of the situation is difficult. An estimated 30% (90,000 sq. km) still supports productive or regenerating forest (Cox, 1989). Figures published by Revilla (1986) indicate, however, that forest with at least 40% crown cover may cover only 22% of total land area. The most valuable forests, both economically and biotically, are old-growth dipterocarp formations which cover 9,840 sq. km (33) (Penafiel, 1991). Multispectraspot satellite imagery from 1987-1988 clearly shows the fragmentary nature of the remaining cover, as forests are divided into increasingly isolated vegetation islands (Collins et al, 1991). Furthermore, forest cover is largely restricted to higher land, as human activities preferentially clear lowland vegetation. Major forest blocks, therefore, are restricted to the Sierra Madre and Cordillera Central in Luzon, Central Samar, the highlands around Mt Ragang and other areas to the east in Mindanao. The only extensively forested island is Palawan, principally due to low human population density. However, projected deforestation trends suggest that all but an irreducible minimum of approximately 1 000 sq. km of montane and low quality scrub forest will remain in Palawan by 2010 (HTS, 1985). The annual rate of national deforestation is difficult to define precisely. Estimates range from the highest of 3,790 sq. km between 1972 and 1982 (Ganapin, 1986), 3,235 sq. km between 1970 and 1979 (FAO, 1981), to low estimates of 1,700 sq. km (Cox, 1988) or 910 sq. km (WRITHED, 1986). Existing tropical rain forest cover may be lost by the end of the century (Petocz, 1988). Mangroves, which covered some 4,500 sq. km in 1920, have been depleted both by legal and illegal felling over the last 60 years (Alvarez, 1984). Some 1,461 sq. km of mangroves remained in 1978 (Davies et al, 1990), but only 1,190 sq. km remained in 1990 (Penafiel, 1990). Only 814 sq. km can still be classified as undisturbed (Petocz, 1988) and cover is declining by 50 sq. km each year (Howes, 1987). Other major wetland habitats include estuariesmudflats, seagrass beds, lakes, freshwater swamps and marshes; a descriptive inventory of wetlands considered to be important for conservation is given by Davies et al, (1990). The Philippine fauna is exceptionally rich with some 960 terrestrial vertebrates. Many species are forest obligates and are acutely threatened by forest loss. Endemic collectively amounts to 43% of species, with 59% endemic mammals ( 1 00 species out of a total of 1 67) and as many as 85% of non-volant mammals (79 species) (Heaney, 1986; Petocz, 1988). There are 162 endemic bird species out of a total of 388 resident species (Bruce, 1980). Endemism is also unusually high in the 115


In the front line What happens when ecosystem services are lost? Just as it is hard to calculate accurately the economic value of different ecosystems, it Is equally difficult to predict the cost to society of losing their various services. It was thought that the bleaching event of 1998 in the Indian Ocean would have a major impact on tourism and fisheries. It was estimated, for example, that Tanzania would potentially suffer a direct loss of US20 million from tourism revenue (Westmacott et at, 2000al. However, neither sector underwent the expected decline: tourism fluctuated but probably more as a result of worldwide political and economic changes; while fisheries are still in decline largely because of overexploitation. Both the 1997 bleaching and the 200i tsunami were single, if acute, events, and reefs and mangroves are expected to recover from damage incurred. A more typical scenario is of reefs and mangroves undergoing steady decline. Ecosystems that can no longer provide their full ecological services have a social and economic 'cost' to humanity, which can be felt in areas or situations many miles away Ultimately, therefore, degradation of coral reefs and mangroves will cause loss of fishing and tourism revenue and other forms of livelihood, loss of export earnings, malnutrition due to lack of protein, increased coastal erosion, and destruction from storms and catastrophic natural events. It is predicted that, for example, over a 20-year period, blast fishing, overfishing and sedimentation in Indonesia and the Philippines could lead to a net economic loss of US26 billion and US25 billion respectively for these two countries (Burke et al, 20021. In the Caribbean, coral reef degradation continuing through to 2050 could reduce benefits from fisheries, dive tourism and shore protection by a predicted total of US350 million to US870 million over that period (Burke and Maidens, 2004). LOSS OF REGULATING SERVICES The impact of the loss of the protective functions of coral reefs and mangroves is already being felt in some countries. Parts of Sri Lanka, India, Indonesia and the Maldives, where coral mining and collection has almost eliminated some reefs, have already seen serious erosion. In Sri Lanka, erosion on the south and west coasts now averages an estimated in cm a year, considered to be partly due to damage to reefs. Some US30 million has already been spent on breakwaters and other constructions to curtail this, and it has been estimated that the cost of replacing the coastal protection provided by these reefs would be US246 000-836 000 per km (Berg et a, 19981. A hotel in West Lombok, Indonesia, spent an average of US125 000 a year over a seven-year period restoring its 250-metre-long beach, which had been eroded largely because of offshore coral mining (Riopelle, 19951. Modelling and predictions of the impact of the loss of natural shore protection provide dire warnings. Modelling of the changes in wave energy striking some island shorelines in the Seychelles (Sheppard et at, 20051 indicates that wave energy has recently doubled as a result of sea level rise, loss of corals from reef flats due to bleaching, and changes in reef crest profiles and wave 21


In the front line A mangrove boardwalk for tourists on Wasini Island in southern Kenya, managed by a local women's group, generates several thousand dollars a year which are used for maintaining the boardwalk and for community development activities (LUCN, 20041. recreation, with a total value of US205 million a year Iseenprachawong. 20031. This provides a major incentive for careful management of the reefs post-tsunami, to ensure that they recover rapidly and continue to provide tourism benefit. Mangroves are not traditionally thought of as tourist attractions or suitable sites for recreation, but this is changing fast with the realization that this ecosystem provides a fascinating educational experience and also harbours a range of unusual species that can be easily observed once boardwalks have been installed. Visits to mangroves and birdwatching tours are now generating significant revenue for local communities. valued species] in Belize, Honduras and Mexico is directly dependent on the health of the adjacent barrier reef, the longest in the hemisphere. Sustainable annual catches of fish from reefs vary from 02 to 30 tonneskm, with an average of 5 tonneskm' (Jennings and Polunin, 19951. Depending on the value of the fish, reef fisheries are thus potentially worth US15 000-150 000km' a year, based on catch values of US1 -1 per kg Talbot and Wilkinson, 2001 1. Reef fisheries in South-east Asia generate some US2. A billion a year (Burke et al, 2002), and in the Caribbean US310 million a year (Burke and Maidens, 200A). There is now a global market for reef species. Commercial reef fisheries are a major source of employment and foreign exchange, supplying export markets and retailers around the world, as well as the restaurant and hotel industries. The live reef fish trade supplies restaurants throughout South-east Asia with products from the Pacific and Indian Oceans (Hughes et al, 20031. Tuna fisheries, such as those in the Maldives and Lakshadweep, are often supported by reef-based bait fisheries, and tuna themselves depend in part on reefs for their food (Whittingham et at, 20031. Reef-based recreational fisheries generate over US100 million annually (Cesar etal, 2003). A large proportion of fish and invertebrates in the aquarium trade comes from coral reefs, shipped to the 152 million people in Europe and North America who have aquaria. Sri Lanka, for example, earns about US56 million a year exporting reef fish to about 52 countries, an activity that supports directly and indirectly around 50 000 people. Large quantities of corals, shells, starfish, pufferfish and other species are used in the curio tade. Reef-based PROVISIONING SERVICES Fisheries and other marine products Coral reefs and mangroves support numerous different types of fishery: artisanal, commercial and recreational; food, curios and souvenirs, bait, and items for decoration; and fish, lobsters, crabs, molluscs, sea cucumbers and many other species. However, much of the harvesting of these species, as well as of species taken for non-food purposes, is unsustainable, and current economic benefits may thus be short term. Of the estimated 30 million small-scale fishers in the developing world, most are dependent to some extent on coral reefs for food and livelihood. In the Philippines, more than 1 million small-scale fishers depend directly on coral reefs for their livelihood. The productivity of the fisheries sector (shrimp, lobster, conch and other high-Some estimates suggest that reefs contribute up to 25 per cent of the annual total fish catch in developing countries, providing food for 1 billion people Caesar el al, 20031. 19


Astrocoeniidae Stylocoeniella Yabe and Sugiyama 1935 11 Thorn coral (Red Sea 661, East Africa 329. Indian Ocean north to Maldives 832] and Mergui Archipelago, south to Madagascar 587, Cocos (Keeling) Islands 763] and Houtman Abrolhos Islands off western Australia 761. South-east Asia. Pacific Ocean, north to southern Japan 231, south to Lord Howe Island, east to Northern Marianas, Marshall Islands and Tuamotu Archipelago 244,761) Countries listed without reference numbers are within the distribution range shown in Veron 761] American Samoa 430; Australia; Bahrain 16,95; British Indian Ocean Territory 674,832; Brunei; Christmas Island; Cocos (Keeling) Islands 763; Comoros; Cook Islands; Djibouti; Egypt 661; Ethiopia; Federated States of Micronesia; Fiji; French Polynesia 148,244,554; Guam; Hong Kong 668; Indonesia; Jan 765; Kenya; Kiribati; Madagascar 587,591; Malaysia 186: including Sabah 848; Maldives 605,674; Marshall Islands 807; Mauritius; Mozambique 68; Myanmar; Nauru; New Caledonia 850; Niue; Northern Marianas; Oman 675; Palau 221; Pua New Guinea; Philippines 768; Pitcaim Islands 572; Reunion; Samoa; Saudi Arabia 15; Seychelles 674,845; Singapore; Solomon Islands 796; Somalia; Sudan 661; Taiwan 171; Tanzania; Thailand 186,744; Tokelau; Tonga; Tuvalu; Vanuatu 762; Wallis and Futuna Stylocoeniella is unusual because it forms large colonies only on temperate reefs (eg. southern Australia), near the limit of coral reef distribution. On tropical reefs it is uncommon and forms only small encrusting colonies 761. 3 species Stylocoeniella armata (Hemprich & Ehrenberg 1834) Stylocoeniella cocosensis Veron 1990 Stylocoeniella guentheri (Bassett-smith 1890) Family POCILLOPORIDAE Gray 1842 Madracis Milne Edwards & Haime 1849 II (Cosmopolitan, widely distributed throughout most temperate and tropical seas: 42-160 m. Western Atlantic, Caribbean 101,608,833] to Brazil, Azores, Cape Verde, Gulf of Guinea 420. Mediterranean. Red Sea 661, Persian Gulf, Arabian Gulf 95. Indian and Pacific Oceans to Hawaiian Islands 186, Galapagos Islands and Pacific coast of America 217) Anguilla; Antigua and Barbuda; Australia; Azores 728; Bahamas 381; Bahrain 16,95; Barbados 448] Belize 102; Bermuda; Brazil 420; British Indian Ocean Territory 674,832; British Virgin Islands 214] Brunei; Canary Islands 118; Cape Verde 728; Cayman Islands; Chile; Colombia 235; Costa Rica 158] Cuba 415,889; Dominica 614; Dominican Republic; Ecuador: Galapagos Islands 826,827; Equatorial Guinea: Pagalu 273; French Polynesia 554; Grenada 614; Guadeloupe 614; Haiti; Hawaiian Islands 464; Honduras; Indonesia; Israel 661; Jamaica 833; Japan 123; Madagascar 587,591; Madeira 118] Malaysia: Sabah 848; Marshall Islands 123,807; Martinique 70; Mexico 241; Montserrat 614; Mozambique 123; Myanmar; Netherlands Antilles 653; Nicaragua; Oman 675; Panama 608; Papua New Guinea; Philippines 768; Pitcaim Islands 572; Puerto Rico; Saint Kitts and Nevis 614; Saint Lucia; Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 614; Singapore; Thailand 186,794; Trinidad and Tobago; Turks and Caicos; USA: Florida; Virgin Islands of the United States; Venezuela There are probably 6 species in the Caribbean, where Madracis is a fairly common reef-building (hermatypic) coral 847. In the Indo-pacific there is probably only one reef-building species (M. kirbyi), occurring from Taiwan south to the Philippines 768, Thailand 186,744, Borneo, Sulawesi, Moluccas, New Guinea and Australia: Great Barrier Reef 761. This species is rare and inconspicuous. Of the ahermatypic species, Madracis kauaiensis is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands 186. There are, in addition, a number of non-reefal species of Madracis which occur in temperate waters 761] 12 species Madracis asanoi Yabe & Sugiyama 1936 Madracis asperula Milne Edwards & Haime 1850 Madracis brueggemanni (Ridley 1881) Madracis decactis (Lyman 1859) Green Cactus Coral 45


Coral Reefs of the World Physical Features Bolinao is a small, hilly, coastal town surrounded by coconut palms and scrub. A fringing reef lies towards the south-western coast extending roughly 35 miles (6 km) down the coast to Balingasay Bay. A strait between Santiago Island and Cape Bolinao forms a perfect typhoon shelter for fair-sized vessels. The entrance is formed by a break in the coral reef which extends 1,6 km off shore north of the town and about 3 km north of Santiago Island (DND-BAGS, 1968). The area opposite the Bounao Harbour breakwater is rocky. The waters here are turbid as a result of the current systems which accumulate suspended sediments on the leeward side of Santiago Island (NRMC, 1979). Santiago Island lies north-east of Bolinao, separated by a channel. It is affected by strong winds from the north-east and south-west during monsoon seasons, but it is covered with "ipu-ipil" trees Leucaena leucocephala, shrubs and a few mangrove patches. A fringing reef surrounds most of the island, extending northwards approximately 3 km. Suaqui lies to the north, within Santiago's wide fringing reef, and is not subject to strong currents as it has a considerable distance from the reef breakers. North-west of Santiago, about 800 m from the shore, the reef slopes abruptly to deep waters where sandy substrates, dead corals and rock patches are found. The area is exposed at extreme low water springs. The western reef, opposite Barangay Ducoy, is buffeted by strong waves and strong currents especially during tidal changes. On the southern end of Santiago Island is a channel about 300 yards (274 m) wide which, at depths of up to 11 m, sweeps eastward in an L-shaped pattern to Panauan Islet (29 m). South-eastward of Panauan Island, the channel widens and becomes shallower (NRMC, 1979). Local boats of light draft take advantage of the narrow winding passage leading to Lingayen Gulf from the head of Borneo Harbour, through Narra, Siapar and Cabarruyan Islands, which are located on the south side of Santiago Island (DND-BAGS, 1968). The channel's substrate is primarily muddy-sut and sand mixture. Tagaporo Islet, located 1 km east of Santiago, is surrounded by a reef flat. Its substrate is typical of seagrass communities consisting of a mixture of mud, sand and coral rubble that extends toward the reef front (NRMC, 1979). Reef Structure and Corals Fringing reefs occur around most of the islands, the most extensive being the one north of Santiago Island. It is a windward reef with a deep east-west channel cutting through the crest on the north-east sector (NRMC, 1979). Suaqui Island has broad areas of seagrass beds (Thalassia sp) located nearshore and wide white sand flats with coral patches and bodies. The reef proper is 3-4 km away from the island and at its outer edge has a luxuriant growth of corals, with a drop-off sloping down to a depth of approximately 85 feet (26 m) (NEPC 1977; MPRPD, 1983). Of the 15 stations surveyed in Bolinao and its outlying islands, six (35) were good, eight (47) were fair and three (17) were poor in coral cover (UPMSC, 1979). The areas prolific in coral growth are located mainly north of Santiago, including Silaqui and Cangaluyan (located approximately 4 km due east of Santiago). Its 538% to 734% coral cover consists mostly of Pontes, Galaxea, Acropora, Lobophyuia, Platygyra, Montipora, Goniopora and Diploastrea. Fair coverages ranging from 263% to 44% are mostly seen in areas north-west of Silaqui, Bolinao and Points around Santiago Island. Poor coral coverages are surrounded by reef flats dominated by algae and seagrass, particularly around Balingasay and Tagaporo Island. Millepora and Heliopora are also common, and Organ Pipe Coral Slolonifera is common but not dominant. Noteworthy Fauna and Flora The fish populations are reasonable, tending to be more varied and interesting in deeper waters (MPRPD, 1983; UPMSC, 1979). The commonest fish are fusiliers, surgeon fish and parrot fish. Rabbit fish Siganus sp. are dominant in the seagrass beds and form a major fishery (UPMSC, 1979). During field surveys concerning the verification of data obtained from Landsat multi-spectral imagery, 40 species of marine algae were identified; the highest standing crops were observed from February to July (NRMC, 1979). Extensive seagrass communities are found in Silaqui, Santiago and Tagaporo Islands. Some mangrove patches are present at the north-east tip of Santiago Island. Scientific Importance and Research Bolinao and its outlying islands are the principal sites for most of the marine biological research done by the U.P. Marine Sciences Center (UPMSC). A marine research laboratory has been established here. An extensive survey of its reefs was done as part of the project involving the investigation of coral resources in the Philippines (UPMSC, 1979). A similar survey was done by NAME, although this was mainly through the use of LANDSAT imagery (NRMC, 1979). The UPMSC is carrying out studies on coral growth (eg. Acropora pulchra), coral reef recovery and recolonization and coral transplantation. Various aspects of these studies are reported in UPMSC (1980 and 1982), Yap (1981 and 1983) and Yap and Gomez (1981 and 1984). Artificial reefs using scrap rubber tyres were set-up in November 1978 off Lucero, Santiago Island, to determine feasibility and productivity (Murdy, 1979). Studies on trophic dynamics of coral reefs are being carried out at Silaqui and Cangaluyan Islands. Additional studies include the growth and reproductive biology of Giant Clams Tridacna spp, Strombus, scallops Amusium sp. and rabbitfish Siganus sp. Past research includes an invertebrate and floristic survey of Bolinao and its surrounding islands (Lopez, in press; Saraya, 1979 and 1982). Economic Value and Social Benefits Fishing is the primary source of income around Bolinao. Nets and fish traps are the main methods but dynamite fishing is common in the extensive reef areas of Santiago and other islands. Bolinao is one of the main collecting sites for the aquarium fish trade (Albaladejo and Corpuz, 1981). There is an important shellcraft industry on Santiago Island (Wells, 1982b). A considerable number of tourists frequent Bolinao for its diving sites and white sand beaches and the harbour is used by fair sized vessels (DND-BAGS, 1968). Disturbance or Deficiencies Dynamite fishing, fish collection using cyanide, station, and some predation by Acanthaster planci contribute to reef deterioration. Detrimental effects have been observed on invertebrates exposed to ichthyocides (Cowan, 1980). -242


Philippines floor is covered with sandy mud or soft mud (Pichon, 1977a). Numerous islets are found on the bank, including Pandanon Islet, the two Caubyan Islets on the outer barrier, Tood Islets at the east end of the bank, and Danajon Islet. These are low, small, wooded, and covered with bushes (MPRDP, 1982a). Minantao Reef is a small patch reef lying within the double barrier reef (Hodgson and Ross, 1981). The Danajon Bank is weu protected from intense hydrodynamic action due to the enclosed location of the Camotes Sea. It has been suggested that the double barrier developed through unique tidal currents andor resumption of subsidence after the outer barrier was formed (Pichon, 1977a). Grobe et at. (1985) studied the double barrier. Reef Structure and Corals The outer slope of the outer barrier generally has a gentle upper slope about 500-800 m wide down to a 15 m depth and a lower, vertical slope down to 50 m. The upper slope has about 50% coral cover with Pavona cactus and Aiacropora dominating. Fungiids are particularly abundant on hard and soft bottoms and include species such as Halomiira phili pinensis The lower drop-off is composed of horizontal overhangs where Leptoseris dominates. Ahermatypic forms, like Tubastrea and Dendrophyllia, occur under the overhangs (Pichon, 1977a). commercially valuable red alga Eucheuma spinosum, a source of carageenan, was set up on the north-western bank in 1975. By 1979, there were 200 farm housesplatforms constructed, 500 hectares planted, 15 million plants in the water, 2000 people working daily in the farms, and 8000 people or 1000 famihes Using on the banks fully or partly dependent on income from farming seaweeds. It is being studied as possible seedstock for numerous Eucheuma farms on the reef flats of the western outer barriers (Lim and Porse, 1981). Disturbance or Deficiencies The area is subject to considerable damage from illegal fishing, especially dynamite fishing. Coral gathering was common before the 1977 ban (MPRDP, 1982a). The immigration of sea farm workers onto the banks and the seaweed farming activities may add to the disturbance of the area. Legal Protection None. Management None. Recommendations Danajon Bank has been included in the list of candidate marine park or reserve sites (MPRDP, 1982a and 1983). It has recently been proposed as a reserve by the NAME and is considered a priority site but as yet has received no management (White m to, 30187). The reef flats of both inner and outer barriers are similar. The external part of the reef flat on the outer barrier is covered mainly with corals of various growth forms (massive, digitate, or branching). The seagrass beds of both barriers are often interrupted by sandy areas where acroporids, pocilloporids, faviids, and Millepora grow (Pichon, 1977a). The back-reefs of both barriers are composed of sandy slopes colonized by large coral heads. The back-reef of the outer barrier has indented coral-built margins, sometimes descending by a series of steps toward the lagoon floor and colonized mostly by Anacropora, Pontes, Echinopora, Pachyseris, and Pectinia (Pichon, 1977a). Hodgson and Ross (1981) describe corals collected at Minantao Reef. Noteworthy Fauna and Flora The drop-off on the outer barrier has large reef-dwelling fish and occasional rays and sharks may be seen (Smith et ai, 1982). Alcyonarians, Sarcophyton and Xenia, are particularly abundant on the outer slope. The seagrass beds are dominated by Thalassia hemprichi and Enhalus acoroides (Pichon, 1977a). Scientific Importance and Research Danajon Bank is famous for its unusual double barrier reef morphology. Pichon (1977a) gave a detailed description of the area and concluded that the present structure can be interpreted as being an example of a degraded stage (by hyperaccumulation of sediments) of the coral reef evolutionary series. In 198081, the double barrier was studied by a group from the University of Kiel, West Germany, in cooperation with the University of San Carlos, Cebu (Wefer, 1985). The area has been surveyed by the BFAR as a candidate site for a marine reserve (MPRDP, 1982a). Economic Value and Social Benefits Fishermen from Romblon, Mindoro and Marinduque regularly fish these waters. Aquarium fish collecting has been reported (MPRDP, 1982a). An experimental farm for the DOS HERMANAS Geographical Location 12-15 nautical miles (22-28 km) south of Gasan, Marinduque Island; under the municipal jurisdiction of Corcuera (Jones), Romblon, located to the south-east; 131N, 12154E. Area, Depth, Altitude Total area of islands 45 ha; maximum altitude is 70 m (Isabel Island); maximum depth of fringing reefs 30 metres. Land Tenure Government-owned. Physical Features Dos Hermanas is a pair of islands two nautical miles (37 km) apart, oriented east-wst. The larger westernmost island is Carlota; the other is Isabel. Both islands are flat-topped with coastal limestone cliffs approximately 30-40 feet (9-12 m) high (MPRPD, 1983). Carlota has a short strip of beach on the north-east. Both islands are sparsely covered with Cogon Imperata and scrub. Carlota has a cultivated area, adjacent to the beach, planted with com, cassava and bamboo. The substrate is clay mixed with pebbles and coralline materials. The cliffs on both islands are almost vertical and are pock-marked with caves and crevices. Visibility underwater is 100' (30 m). Reef Structure and Corals Carlota Island is bordered by a fringing reef which is steeply sloping except on the north side, where the island has a rocky beach and the reef slopes gently down to 20 fathoms (36 m). Isabel Island is ringed by a narrow fringing reef on all sides. At a distance of one to two kilometres on the south and south-west of both islands are reef patches and white sand that slope gradually (NEPAL, 1977; MPRPD, 1983). -245


Coral Reefs of the World patrol the area with them to apprehend illegal fishermen (Hodgson in lilt, 9287). Recommendations May be proposed as a marine reserve (White in litt, 30187). FUGA ISLAND MUSEUM Geographical Location In the Babuyan Charmel, approximately 20 nautical miles (37 km) north of the municipality of Claveria, Cagayan Province, Northern Philippines; 1850-1855N, 12ri3e. Area, Depth, Altitude The island has an approximate area of 115 sq. km (20 x 6 km); highest point is Mt Nanguringan at 191 m. Land Tenure Reported to be privately owned by the Taggat Lumber Company (MPRDP, 1983). Physical Features Fuga Island is in the Babuyan Islands, north of Luzon Island. It is an elongated island (east-west axis) with two small islands, Barit and Maybag, located on the western side. Irao Island ges approximately 10 km to the north-east (NEPAL, 1977). On the south side currents may reach 7-8 knots (13-15 kmhr) and 8 ft (24 m) swells are common (Smith et al, 1982). A drop-off of about 100 feet (30 m) starts from a shallow platform on the south face and a series of caves can be found at the base. Reef Structure and Corals Three stations were surveyed on Fuga and the surrounding islands (UPMSC, 1979). Maybag had fairly good coral cover ranging from 432% to 6125% on both northern and southern sides. Barit Island had fair coral cover of 375. No signs of destruction were observed. Dominant coral genera observed included Pontes, Acropora, Favia, Favites, Di ploastrea and Galaxea. Fuga is ringed by a fringing reef with very high coral cover. On the western side, opposite Barit Island, is a barrier reef dotted with coral mounds 12-15 fathoms (22-27 m) deep (MPRDP, 1982a). Noteworthy Fauna and Flora The surrounding waters are rich in pelagic gamefish, eg. marlin, tuna, sailfish, wahoo, etc, which are attracted to the Kuro Shio Current (NEPC, 1977). Sharks, particularly Hammerheads, Black-tips and White-tips, as well as some species of barracudas, are present in moderate numbers. There is a strong indication of precious coral beds in the vicinity (NRMC, nd). The island is noted for its lobsters. Scientific Importance and Research Fuga Island has been surveyed in connection with the project of the U.P. Marine Sciences Center "Investigation of the Coral Resources of the Philippines" (UPMSC, 1979). Economic Value and Social Benefits Fishing is the main source of livelihood for the inhabitants of Fuga Island (MPRDP, 1982). It is one of the best venues for sport fishermen and sport divers who are attracted by the rich assemblage of pelagic fish; the south side is a popular diving site (Smith el al, 1982). Disturbance or Deficiencies Taiwanese precious coral poachers have been observed in the area (MPRDP, 1983). Legal Protection Fuga Island was declared a Tourist Zone and Marine Reserve under Proclamation 1801 but has never been established as such. In addition, Fuga and surrounding islands have been declared an Underwater Museum under Proclamation 1744. Fishing and collection of any marine life form is prohibited, but regulations have never been enforced. Management Control and administration of tourist pohcies he with the Philippine Tourism Authority (NEPAL, 1977; MPRDP, 1983). The Philippine Navy and Coast Guard are expected to enforce regulations (MPRDP, 1983) but there has never been any management. HONDA BAY PROPOSED MARINE PARK Geographical Location About 8 km north-east of Puerto Princesa, on the eastern side of Palawan Island; 950-10N, 11844-119E. Area, Depth, Altitude The bay is approximately 28 000 ha. The shallow reef environment reaches 7-18 m depth. The islands are flat and rise just above sea level. Land Tenure The islands are government-owned and have not yet been subjected to land classification; at present, they are leased to private individuals for coconut cultivation. Physical Features Honda Bay is a large body of water with twelve islands scattered within it. The bay is quite exposed to the open sea and is relatively shallow, sloping down to 24 fathoms (49 m) in the middle. Reefs in the area include fringing reefs, patch reefs and some shoals. Some patch reefs have sand areas with mangrove stands and are known by local names such as Marcelo Island, Pulling Island and Isla Puting Buhangin. Some of the islands are part of larger, reef-island complexes, such as the reef complex connecting Kalungpang, Parunponon and Buguias Islands (total area of reef; 879 ha), the Meara-fraser Islands reef complex (452 ha), and the Makesi Island reef (389 ha). Some of these reefs have lagoons which are only accessible at high tide, such as the two small lagoons in the Meara-fraser Island reef and the lagoon in the Kalungpang-parunponon Buguias Island reef (NRMC, 1984b). A general description of the area and islands is given in Bruce (1981). The waters of Honda Bay are free from strong ocean currents and are relatively safe and calm. North-east monsoon winds affect the waters from November to February, decreasing visibility. The south-west monsoon season (most pronounced from June to August) does not affect the area much. Very calm and glassy smooth waters may occur between February and April. The Tandayak and Babuyan Rivers discharge on the northern coast of the bay. Reef Structure and Corals The fringing reefs have very wide and often shallow reef flats, frequently many times -248


Philippines The southern platform is similar to the north side in having abundant large coral heads on a gently sloping sandy bottom. Millepora sp. and small wave-resilient Pocillopora colonies are common on shallow boulders. A similar fauna exists in a know-uke formation in the south-west. This structure is cut by grooves, probably from erosion. Intermittent patches of foliose and encrusting forms occur in deeper areas. The west has a dense coral population, especially just below tide level. Acropora and Monlipora predominate, with soft corals in deeper parts. The steep drop-off has a high diversity of encrusting and foliose forms, and a wide range of gorgonians and sea whips. A large sand charmel has a wide variety of free-living corals; Psammocora and Fungia inhabit the base of the wall and some large shelf areas. Some areas support educate colonies of Seriate pora. Forty-five genera of corals have been reported at Sombrero Island (Mcmanus el a, 1981); Acropora colonies of different growth forms are dominant. Other abundant corals are: Pocillopora sp, Montipora sp, Porites sp, and Pachyseris sp. Overall coral cover was estimated at about 45. Noteworthy Fauna and Flora The grass Themada Triandra covers about 75% of the total area of the island. The fish fauna was studied by Mcmanus el al. (1981) and Murdy el al. (1981) and 329 fish species have been recorded. The top ten genera of fish in terms of abundance are Anihias, Pomacenlrus, Pleclroglyphidodon, Dascyllus, Chromis, Apogon, Thalassoma, Pseudocheilinus, Halichoeres and Cirrhilabrus. The berry Aiidamia pacifica dominates the rocky shoreline. The invertebrate fauna includes the soft corals Xenia, Sarcophylon, tunicates Polycarpa, Oxycorynia, bivalves Lopha and gastropods, especially the Money Cowrie Cyprea monela. The asteroid Linckia is found in shallow areas (MPRDP, 1982b). Scientific Importance and Research Research on the island's coral communities has been carried out primarily in preparation for its establishment as a marine park. Mcmanus et al. (1981) and Murdy el al. (1981) studied the fish fauna. A study is currently being conducted by the NAME and BFAR on the effects of tourist activities on coral reef and related fisheries; this involves the assessment of coral damage due to boat anchors and diving activities. White (1986b) included this area in a comparative study of the effectiveness of marine reserves in the management of coral reefs. Economic Value and Social Benefits The area is one of the main fishing grounds for fishermen from the nearby municipalities of Mabini and Tingloy. It is very popular with both local and foreign divers, providing an additional source of income for the local inhabitants and "bankers" (boat operators); the town of Smilax provides accommodation for tourists. Disturbance or Deficiencies Fishing, both legal and Legal, has been common around the island for a long time. Illegal practices, such as dynamite and muro-ami fishing, have been reported. Commercial fishing (illegal within 7 km from the shoreline) has resulted in a decline in the catch of subsistence fishermen. The increase in aquarium fish collecting may not only decrease fish numbers but also kill other organisms through the illegal practice of using sodium cyanide or other chemicals. The increase in the number of visiting tourists has caused further deterioration through anchor damage, careless divers, spearfishing and coral collection (MPRDP, 1981). However, the actual extent of destruction has yet to be established. Legal Protection Sombrero Island was declared a Marine Reserve and Tourist Zone under Proclamation 1801 but has never been implemented as such. Management The area has been proposed as a Marine Park. The Philippine Tourism Authority (PTA) has been charged with implementing guidelines for the management of tourist activities and there has been some management through the local resorts. Resort owners may brief SCUBA divers and tourists on the existing regulations when visiting Sombrero Island. Recreational activities such as SCUBA diving, swimming, snorkelling, underwater photography, and island picnics are allowed. Fishing in any form, including spearfishing, and collection of marine organisms, is prohibited around the island. Recommendations Recommendations detailed in a management scheme drawn up by the Marine Park Task Force of ARMS cover legislation, sustainable resource use, survey and research methods, zoning, public education, and community participation. It is recommended that enforcement of regulations within the Reserve be delegated to resort owners and employees with the help of the NAME staff. The Mayors of Tingloy, Mabini and other communities could be enacted to implement the marine park scheme among their communities. Co-operation among interested parties is needed to create the firm base necessary for proper management (White, 1984). SUMILON ISLAND MARINE RESERVE AND FISH SANCTUARY Geographical Location In Cebu Strait, about 2 km off the southern tip of Cebu Island, Central Philippines, some 17 km north-east of Dumaguete City, Negros Island; 921N, 12323E. Area, Depth, Altitude 23 ha in area and 284 m at the highest point. The total reef area to 40 m depth is about 50 ha. Land Tenure Municipal Government of Oslob, Cebu. Terrestrial area privately owned but some areas leased by Silliman University. Physical Features Sumilon is a low island of uplifted volcanic basement with a land surface of coralline limestone rock, a thin layer of topsoil, some small hardwood stands, and beach vegetation. It is surrounded by 3-5 m high cliffs on all sides except the north-eastern shore, where a narrow carbonate sand beach and beach ock line the shore and behind which lies a small mangrove lagoon. Beyond the lagoon are 20 m-high limestone cliffs. On the south end there is an abandoned Spanish tower built during the 18th century, with a modern, non-functioning lighthouse next to it -257


LIST OF THREATENED INVERTEBRATES AND THREATENED COMMUNITIES ARRANGED BY COUNTRY AND ZOOGEOGRAPHICAL REGION The zoogeographical regions first described by Wallace in 1876 are used, slightly modified, as a basis for this index. Boundaries have been adjusted in some cases in order to avoid subdividing a particular political unit. The Palearctic region is the northerly part of the Old World. It extends over the whole of Europe, U.S.S.R. and China, including the adjacent offshore islands, and includes the Mediterranean coast of Africa. In the present list the entire Arabian Peninsula is assigned to this region. The Ethiopian region covers central and southern Africa. The Oriental region covers Asia south of China from the western border of Afghanistan and Pakistan east to the Pacific Ocean including the Philippines and Indonesia. The Australasian region includes Papua New Guinea, Australia and New Zealand. The Nearctic region covers all of North America including Greenland, the Aleutian Islands and, in this volume, the whole of Mexico. The Neotropical region includes the Caribbean Islands, Central and South America. Oceanic islands have been placed in a separate section. Non-marine species (including those from brackish water and lagoons) and threatened communities are arranged by country, marine species by broad oceanic region. Since most marine species in this book have wide distributions and records for some are incomplete, countries and islands within oceanic divisions are not given. Readers are referred to the individual accounts for details. Marine threatened communities are listed under the relevant country. 'Ex' following a taxon denotes that it is regarded as extinct in that country and '' denotes lack of confirmation of its presence. NON-MARINE SPECIES PALEARCTIC REGION EUROPE Formica aquilonia Wood ant F. lurufaris " F. polyctena " F. pratensis " F. rufa " ANDORRA Parnassius apollo Apollo Butterfly Maculinea arion Large Blue Butterfly


NORTH-WEST PACIFIC OCEAN China, Japan (including Ogaswara-gunto Islands and Ryukyu Islands), Philippines, Taiwan. Corallium elatius C japonicum C. konojoi C. secundum Corallium sp. nov. Family Antipathidae Charonia tritonis Hippopus hippopus H. porcellanus Tridacna crocea T. derasa Gigas T. maxima T. squamosa Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda Tachypleus gigas T. tridentatus Birgus latro Boke Coral Aka-sango Coral Shiro-sango Coral Pink Coral Midway Deep Sea Coral Black coral Triton's Trumpet Horse's Hoof Clam China Clam Crocus Clam Southern Giant Clam Giant Clam Small Giant Clam Scaly Clam Horseshoe crab Coconut Crab SOUTH-EAST PACIFIC OCEAN Cook Islands (New Zealand), Henderson Tuamotu (France) Island (U.K), Pitcairn Island (U.K), Corallium spp. Family Antipathidae Tridacna maxima T. squamosa Birgus latro Precious corals Black coral Small Giant Clam Scaly Clam Coconut Crab SOUTH-WEST PACIFIC OCEAN American Samoa, Australia, Fiji, U.S.A. Guam (U.S.A), Kiribati (Caroline, Gilbert, Line, and Phoenix Islands), Marianas (U.S.A), Marshall Islands (France), New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tuvalu (Ellice Islands), Vanuatu, Wake Island (U.S.A), Western Samoa. Corallium spp. Family Antipathidae Charonia tritonis Hippopus hippopus Tridacna crocea T. derasa T. gigas T. maxima T. squamosa Birgus latro Precious corals Black coral Triton's Trumpet Horse's Hoof Clam Crocus Clam Southern Giant Clam Giant Clam Small Giant Clam Scaly Clam Coconut Crab


2. Legislation and international conventions Invertebrates are included in the wildlife legislation of many countries, notably in North America (see above) and Europe. In the U.K. Wildlife and Countryside Act, 19 of the 39 animals (excluding birds) listed for protection are invertebrates, including lf insects, three snails and two spiders. Specific invertebrates have been considered in some developing countries such as the Philippines and Papua New Guinea, which have enacted legislation respectively for corals and butterflies. However, legislation to protect individual species of invertebrates is not always useful unless it provides for stringent controls over habitat alteration. Legislation controlling the exploitation of invertebrates is often ineffective because this is rarely a crucial threat. No amount of protective legislation will succeed if a species' habitat is destroyed. In some cases a strict ban on collection may be a positive disadvantage if it prohibits collection for scientific work which could provide vital insight into the reasons for the decline of the species. Invertebrates are poorly represented on the Appendices of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and many of those that are listed are only incidentally, or not at all, involved in trade. Consequently, the extent to which CITES can benefit invertebrates is a controversial issue. A positive aspect of CITES listing is that international attention is drawn to the species concerned, thus assisting conservation efforts at the national level. However, this is not the main purpose of CITES. For species to qualify for inclusion in one of the Appendices they should fulfil a strict set of criteria. The difficulty of obtaining the necessary information for invertebrates, in terms of numbers and rates of change of population size, means that few meet these criteria. Nevertheless, it is generally considered that certain species merit inclusion on Appendix II in order to provide means of monitoring international trade in them. Other international conventions have paid little specific attention to invertebrates. For example, the Berne Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats, which came into force on 1 June 1982, lists only vertebrates and plants on its Appendices. Some conventions, such as the 1978 Barcelona Convention for the protection of the Mediterranean Sea against pollution and the 1971 Ramsar Convention for wetlands of international importance, may indirectly have beneficial effects. Since many invertebrates are threatened over wide geographical areas, or are migratory, international conventions could play an important role in their conservation. 3. Protected areas There are few examples of reserves created specifically for invertebrates although many species are afforded protection in national parks and protected areas established for more general reasons. However, in some countries, such as the U.K. and U.S.A. (see Insecta introduction), some sites have been selected for protection or as a high priority for conservation on the basis of their entomological importance, and there are isolated instances of reserves created for other invertebrates. Marine reserves play an important role in the conservation of marine invertebrates, ensuring the continued existence of breeding populations from which individuals can disperse to recolonize over-exploited or disturbed areas. In many parts of the world where the sea and its resources are valuable to people, marine areas and populations have been protected for centuries (8). Although such measures often arose from spiritual beliefs, many seem to have been introduced for functional purposes, such as the reduction of conflict over limited resources within and between communities of people. Many countries throughout the world are giving priority to the establishment of marine reserves. Management problems


is severely limited (21). In the U.S.A. the hooking method may tear the sponge but it leaves the centre piece attached to the substrate, from which the sponge can regenerate. The disadvantage of this method is that only shallow beds can be worked and therefore tend to be fished more often. In the Florida Keys, diving is not allowed and sponges are taken with a rope loop, the small poorly formed specimens being left as breeding stock. Dredges should be banned in those countries which still permit this fishing method (5). Close seasons would be difficult to enforce, but the most effective type would be to close sponge beds in rotation for one or two years. Unfortunately there are very few data available on the rate of regeneration of sponge beds, or of regeneration of sponges from cut bases on which to base management plans. Sponges are well suited to cultivation since small cut pieces will regenerate and in the early part of this century considerable research was carried out (1,2,12,13). The first attempt was in Florida in 1879, and a sponge farm has been in existence on Andros Island in the Bahamas for many years. Belize is reported to have had a successful sponge culturing programme, and in 1939 the Japanese carried out sponge culture experiments in the Marshall and Caroline Is. which, although not entirely successful, provided useful information (9). Attempts made at sponge culture in Yugoslavia earlier this century were not successful. In the early 1960s, experiments in Greece showed that Spongia officinalis regenerated well if cut pieces were attached to plastic cords (M). Experimentation has shown that sponges cut and tied to an artificial substrate such as cement discs or wire will grow into specimens of commercial size in 5-7 years, and that the total growth in volume of cultured sponges can greatly exceed the original over the same period. Choice of site was found to be important and shallow water where bad weather could easily destroy the beds should be avoided. The planting operation is relatively simple, and could be concentrated in a small area to save time in harvesting. Harvesting need only be carried out if an order has to be filled, and if the sponges are removed carefully, the remaining base could act as a fresh cutting. To a certain extent the quality, size and shape of the sponges can be controlled. The heavy local concentration will lead to the production of large quantities of larvae which will disperse to the surrounding environment if this is suitable. There are a few disadvantages, such as the susceptibility of such high concentrations of sponges to disease, and the fact that there are no returns until the fourth year. Furthermore the beds will not be fully productive until the seventh, although work in the Bahamas suggested that cuttings could reach a commercial size in two years (38). Since the current market for sponges appears to be larger than can be supplied by present production efforts, it is suggested that further investigation into sponge culture is warranted. Tunisia, for example, is interested in culturing sponges but lacks the necessary expertise to set up a programme (6). If managed effectively, the sponge industry could probably provide a significant income in a number of countries. Species would be unlikely to become threatened as small specimens are not taken, deep populations are not exploited intensively and the species involved have wide distributions. In Tunisia usable species are common far beyond the established fishing grounds (30) and there may be a number of countries which have sponges of commercial value and as yet do not exploit them. For example, the Philippines produce a significant quantity now, most of which are exported to Japan (12). For species which have no commercial value, further research on taxonomy, distribution, ecology and effects of factors such as pollution and sedimentation is required. Areas with diverse sponge faunas or endemic species should be protected, as is Runaway Bay cave in Jamaica (20). Attention should be paid to the deep shelf (200-300 m) faunas of the southern oceans which are at risk from trawling activities (51). Protection of the endemic freshwater 'thalassoid' sponges of Lakes Malawi, Tanganyika, Baikal, Ochrid, Posso and Tiberias may also be 16


important role in marine communities and, like sponges and bryozoans, often provide a habitat as well as food for other invertebrates and fish. Most important in this respect are the reef-building corals which provide the basis of one of the most productive marine ecosystems in the world. Coral reefs play a number of important roles. They protect the coastline from erosion by wave action; they support fisheries of major importance to many subsistence economies; and they are often the nursery grounds for species of commercial importance (68,75). The reefs are becoming increasingly important as a tourist attraction. SCUBA diving is now a popular sport, and many countries, such as the Philippines, are gearing their tourist industry to attract and cater for divers and snorkellers (25). Even in temperate waters, sea anemones and soft corals can occur locally in large numbers, where their influence on the ecology of the area must be considerable (5). Cnidarians have a number of important uses to man. Black and red corals (see reviews) have been used traditionally as medicines, and jellyfish were used in China for treatment of high blood pressure and bronchitis (If). Many species have been found to contain compounds of potential value in modern medicine. Antimicrobial substances occur in various gorgonian corals and antitumour compounds have been found in Hawaiian zoantharians. Aequorin, the bioluminescent protein present in the jellyfish Aequorea aequorea glows in the presence of calcium or strontium and is sensitive enough to enable detection of minute fluctuations in calcium concentrations in biological fluids. Calcium changes in man often reflect cellular malfunctions and aequorin may prove useful in diagnosing cardiac irregularities and other disease processes (3). Prostaglandins have been isolated from the gorgonian Plexaura homomalla (13). An extract of the sea anemone Rhodactis howesi has an anticoagulant factor and the stony coral Porites has been used as a template for artificial bone (13). Anthozoans are ideal subjects for the study of simple nervous systems and work in this field is a major current interest (10). Recent studies of several anemone species indicate that they are capable of exhibiting complicated behaviour patterns and interacting aggressively, a type of behaviour often difficult to discern in invertebrates). Cnidarians are also used as food. For over a thousand years jellyfish have been commercially exploited for food along the coasts of China, 3apan and South Korea. Since 1960 several species, particularly Rhopilema esculentum have been collected in South East Asia for export to China and Japan (If). IRT 1980, over 63 000 tonnes of Rhopilema were landed, mainly in Thailand, but also in the Philippines and Indonesia (11). Stony corals are often used as a building material and for industrial purposes such as the preparation of calcium carbide and cement (6,56,57,58). The main species exploited for these purposes are the slow-growing massive corals such as Porites Favia Favites Leptastrea and Platygyra The smaller branching species such as Acropora Seriatopora and Pocillopora are used for the ornamental coral trade. In the 1970s most of this came from the Philippines (in 1976 over 1800 tonnes were exported, 15 per cent of which went to the U.S.A), but several other countries are involved to a smaller extent (12). The precious and semi-precious corals in the orders Gorgonacea and Antipatharia are used extensively for jewellery (see following reviews). Other precious corals of commercial importance include the gold corals (Gerardia and Primnoa ) and the bamboo corals ( Lepidisis and Acanella ) and there is probably potential for the exploitation of many other deep water gorgonians (30). Sea fans are used as ornaments. Besides Eunicella verrucosa (see review), the Mediterranean species E. cavolinii and E. singularis (29), as well as many tropical species, are collected for this purpose. The hydroids Sertularia and Hydrallmania known as 'white weed, are fished commercially in Germany and irregularly in the U.K. Having been raked-up from the sea bed, they are processed, dyed and used for decorative purposes, mainly in the U.S.A. (7). THREATS TO SURVIVAL Like most marine species, very few cnidarians are likely 22


to be in any danger of extinction, since they generally have wide distributions and deep, inaccessible populations which can act as reservoirs. However, several of man's activities are injurious to cnidarians. Certain species have shown a decline in U.K. waters in recent years, including the sea anemones Adamsia carciniopados and Aiptasia mutabilis the jellyfish Aurelia aurita some hydroids, gorgonian sea fans and cup corals. In many cases it is difficult to know if such species are truly declining and, if so, what the causal factors are (2). Amphianthus dohrnii, a small anemone which attaches itself to gorgonians and hydroids, was formerly common in the English Channel and Mediterranean, but now seems to be absent from the latter and very scarce in the former (2,5). In British waters it used to occur on the sea fan Eunicella verrucosa which itself has undergone a decline in abundance in some areas recently (see review). The high value of precious and semi-precious corals has led to over-exploitation in many areas (see reviews). The scouring of the sea bed by trawls, oyster dredges and other fishing gear probably affects populations of sea fans, sea pens, alcyonarians and sea anemones, but few data are available on this subject. A number of cnidarians have restricted distributions and may be vulnerable if they occur in intertidal, marsh or lagoon habitats. The sea anemone Nematostella vectensis is one example (see review). Another is Edwardsia ivelli known only from its type locality in Sussex, U.K, a brackish lagoon which could be affected by development. Further research may reveal such species to be more common subtidally, but until this is known care must be taken to protect known littoral populations (5). Freshwater cnidarians are likely to be vulnerable to pollution. In the U.S.A, both thermal and chemical pollution have been shown to have dramatic effects on the freshwater hydrozoan Cordylophora lacustris, although there is no evidence that this species is currently declining (18). The greatest documented threat to cnidarians is the destruction of coral reefs, which is occurring worldwide on an unprecedented scale. The literature on this subject is considerable and no attempt has been made to summarize it here. The LUCN Coral Reef Specialist Group has been reviewing the overall situation and several countries have documented the status of their reefs at the national level (60,61,62). The greatest destroyers of stony corals may well be natural catastrophes, such as storms, hurricanes and rapid drops in temperature, and it has been shown that given time, reefs have the ability to recover from either natural or human-induced damage (8,26,33,36). Several studies have shown coral reefs to have a natural ecological residence (31,32), and that moderate storms actually contribute to the high species diversity of corals on a reef (3). Regeneration rates for reefs and growth rates for coral appear to be highly variable and probably depend on a wide range of factors. It was originally thought that corals had very slow growth rates and this may be true of some species. Studies of dynamite damaged reefs in the Philippines indicated a recovery time of 38 years to 50 per cent area coral cover (16). Pontes compressa was shown to have a growth rate of 2 mm a year in the field (71) although rates of up to 20 mm a year have been recorded in the laboratory (70). A growth rate of 6 mm a year has been recorded for Pocillopora damicornis in the laboratory (70) although rates of 2-4 cm a year have been estimated for P. meandrina (69). Other species grow quite rapidly, and damaged reefs have been recolonized within two to three years (53). In some of the faster-growing species, such as Acropora cervicornis which break easily, the fragments re-anchor and may have growth rates of up to 3-5 cm or even 12 cm a year (9,21,26). Over the past decade much publicity has been given to the problem of Acanthaster r planci the Crown-of-thorns Starfish, (see Echinodermata). The extent to which outbreaks of this species have damaged coral reefs has been extensively debated. Certain areas of the Great Barrier Reef are being subjected to renewed 23


Apra Harbour (51) which is under serious threat from development for a power plant and generating and industrial facilities. Pavona frondifera is already being affected by heated water discharges and it is feared that the other species could be similarly vulnerable W. 2, Disturbance Reefs near tourist resorts and industrial and urban developments are particularly vulnerable. Corals are easily damaged by boats and anchors (39f7), trampling, and fishing with explosives and chemicals such as chlorine W). In a few cases habitat destruction could have a serious effect on a coral species, since some stony corals appear to have limited ranges. For example, Oculina robusta O. tenella Labellum fragile and Caryophyllia horologium are endemic to Florida 09) and in Guam three species ( Euphyllia~ sp, Plerogyra sinuosa and Tubastrea aurea ) are thought to be vulnerable on account of their rarity (20,51). 3. Exploitation The collection of stony corals for building and industrial purposes has caused the loss of large tracts of reef in countries such as the Philippines (25), Sri Lanka (56), Malaysia (57) and Indonesia (58). The ornamental coral trade has also had localized impacts in several countries, including the Philippines (59,60) and Hawaii (23). The main problem seems to be that small immature colonies are preferred and there is intensive localization of collecting in certain areas. Colonies of Seriatopora for example, have virtually disappeared from some areas in the Philippines (25). On Hawaiian reefs collection of coral colonies by tourists had a local impact in the 1970s. Fungia scutaria one of the rarer corals found principally in Kaneohe Bay in Oahu, declined as a result of the combined effects of over-collection and pollution. Its limited distribution and low abundance made it particularly vulnerable (23, 2). CONSERVATION For many cnidarians, few data are available to assess the effects of human activities although for corals there is evidence that action must be taken rapidly to preserve a resource of great ecological and economic importance. Although there is little danger of any coral species becoming extinct it is clear that many coral reefs are seriously threatened. Fortunately, steps are already being taken to control some of man's more damaging activities. The Reefwatch project, run from the Tropical Marine Research Unit at York, U.K, is assembling data on the current condition of reefs worldwide using amateur and professional divers. Handbooks have been and are being produced by LUCN, the South Pacific Commission and UNESCO to provide guidelines for monitoring and managing coral reef ecosystems (15,41). Coral reef reserves have been established in many countries and survey work is being carried out to locate further potential sites. Consideration is being given to the type of reserve implemented, so that local people may still exploit and benefit from the resources of the reef. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park is one example. The Australian government has established a management regime which provides for multiple use of the reef while ensuring that the important qualities of the ecosystem are protected (50). Numerous examples of parks and reserves for coral reefs could be cited, and methods of establishing and managing these were discussed in detail at the Third World National Parks Congress in 1982. However, the proliferation of such reserves is not a reason for complacency, as methods for maintaining these areas, and conflict with fishermen and other users, still present considerable problems. In temperate countries little interest has been shown in cnidarians, although reserves may be required to protect species with limited distributions or restricted to vulnerable habitats such as estuaries and salt marshes. Exploitation and trade in corals and other cnidarians should be managed. In several countries eg. U.S.A. (Florida) (19), Bermuda (64), Bahamas (63) and Guam (20), the taking of corals, sea fans and other cnidarians is prohibited or restricted. Fishery management plans are being drawn up for coral resources in the Gulf of Mexico (30), and for precious coral in the western Pacific (see reviews). Corals 25


have been added to the U.S. Lacey Act (22) which means that corals exported illegally from their country of origin may not be imported into the U.S.A. The Philippines has a total ban on the export of all coral although, as in many countries, this has proved difficult to enforce (23,59). At present exploitation of corals for the ornamental trade and particularly for the building trade should be banned, especially in species which contribute to the structure of the reef, until techniques for managing this resource have been determined (25). Further research on the effects of pollution on corals and coral reefs is also required. It has been suggested that clean-up operations after oil spills should be carried out using suitable mechanical rather than chemical methods (17). If slicks are sighted near coral reefs they should be treated while still in deep water or diverted away from shallow reef and lagoon areas (67). Transplantation of stony coral colonies has been shown to be feasible (f27) and when techniques are perfected may assist in shortening the recovery time of coral reefs damaged by human activities, as well as preserving species endemic to certain localities Ct). The creation of artificial reefs using, for example, old motor vehicle tyres is a method that has been used in many areas to promote coral growth and to increase the habitat available to other reef organisms (52). 'Farming' of transplanted colonies has been postulated as a means of managing corals of value to man (25), but considerable research is required before economically viable methods are available. Further research is needed into fecundity, settlement and growth rates to determine recovery rates and sustainable yields. REFERENCES 1. 2. Brace, R, Pavey, J. and Quick, D. (1979). Intraspecific aggression in the colour morphs of the anemone Actinia equina ; the 'convention' governing dominance ranking. Animal Behaviour 27: 553-561. The Natural Series Marine Wildlife Conservation. B' NERC (1973). Environment Research Council, Publications No5. 3. Bayer, F.M. and Weinheimer, A. 3. (197). Prostaglandins from Plexaura homomalla ; ecology, utilization and conservation of a major medical marine resource: a symposium. Studies in Tropical Oceanography 12. Univ. of Miami Press. Coral Gables, Florida. It. Randall, R.H. and Birkeland, C.E. (1981). Preservation of rare coral species by transplantation and examination of their recruitment and growth. Project proposal. 5. Manuel, R.L. (1981). British Anthozoa Synopses of the British Fauna (N.S) 18. Kermack, D.M. and Barnes, R.S.K. (Eds). The Linnaean Society of London and Estuarine and Brackish-water Sciences Association, Academic Press, London. 6. Pillai, C.S.G. (1973). Coral resources of India with special reference to Palk Bay and Gulf of Mannar. Proc. Symp. Living Resources of the Seas around India ICAR. Special Pub, Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Cochin. 7. Hancock, D.A, Drinnan, R.E. and Harris, W.N. (1956). Notes on the biology of Sertularia argentea J. Mar. Biol. Ass. U.K. 35: 307-325. 8. Loya, Y. (1976). Recolonization of Red Sea corals affected by natural catastrophes and man-made perturbations. Ecology 57: 278-289. 9. Shinn, E.A. (1976). Coral reef recovery in Florida and the Persian Gulf. En. Geol 1: 21-25f. 10. Shelton, GATB (1981). Electrical Conduction and 26


PRECIOUS CORALS COMMERCIALLY THREATENED Corallium elatius Ridley, 1882 C. japonicum Kishinouye, 1903 C. konojoi Kishinouye, 1903 C. rubrum (Linnaeus, 1758) C. secundum Dana, 18f8 C. sp. nov. Phylum CNIDARIA Class ANTHOZOA Boke, Maguey, Momoiro-marigo Aka-sango, Oxblood Coral Shiro-sango, White Coral Mediterranean or Noble Coral Pink Coral, Angelskin Coral Midway Deep Sea Coral Order GORGONACEA Family CORALLIIDAE SUMMARY The precious corals of the genus Corallium have been highly valued since antiquity as a carving material and for making jewellery. C. rubrum is found in the Mediterranean which, until the 19th century, was the centre of the coral trade. Overfishing of Mediterranean stocks combined with the discovery of Corallium species off Japan, Taiwan and eastwards to the Hawaiian Archipelago, resulted in Pacific corals becoming increasingly important on the world market in the late 19th and 20th centuries. Precious corals are slow-growing and tend to occur in small, easily exploitable beds which makes them very vulnerable to over-collection, and there is concern that the Pacific stocks could become as depleted as those in the Mediterranean. Management of the fishery should be possible using quotas, limited fishing areas and selective fishing gear. A management plan is being implemented for the Western Pacific and further research is needed to provide base-line data for similar plans for other areas. DESCRIPTION Precious corals grow as plant-like, branching colonies, with the main stem firmly attached to a hard surface by a holdfast or base. The stem consists of cemented calcareous spicules which form a hard skeleton that can be used as a carving material. Colours vary from white to dark red and are specific to localities and species. C. japonicum is red; C. elatius is pink to dark pink; C. konojoi is white; C. secundum is pink to white; C. sp. nov. is light pink with darker spots (12). C. rubrum varies in colour from pink to shades of dark red (8); colonies in the region of Marseille are predominantly red (28). Colonies of the largest Pacific species may reach 1 m in height, but C. rubrum grows to only about 25-50 cm (lf) and in the region of Marseille most colonies are 8-15 cm in height (28). Twenty species of Corallium have been described but only six of these are of commercial importance. The Midway Deep Sea Coral was discovered in 1978, and has yet to be described but appears to be a new species. The Japanese and Taiwanese recognize a further variety in the Pacific but this has not been identified as a valid species (12). DISTRIBUTION In the Pacific, four major areas have been located as coral producing regions, all north of 22N. C. secundum and the Midway Deep Sea Coral are found in the Hawaiian Archipelago including Emperor Seamounts, and their range extends as far north as 36N. C. secundum is found as far south as Hawaii (19N); the southern limit of Midway Deep Sea Coral is unknown but it has been harvested from Hancock Seamount (30° N). C. japonicum and C. konojoi are found in the Ogaswara-gunto (Bonin) Is, from Japan south to about 25N. A third area covers the Continental Shelf and offshore islands south-west of Japan (35N) to Okinawa, where C. japonicum C. konojoi and C. elatius is found. C. elatius is found from Okinawa south to the Philippines (12,16,36). A systematic search for precious corals, especially Corallium spp. has been carried out in the South Pacific under the auspices of CCOPSPAC (Committee for Co-ordination of Joint Prospecting for Mineral Resources in South Pacific 35


Sea Coral. Yields of the darker coloured varieties from the traditional grounds have continued to decline. This has resulted in rapidly escalating prices which are primarily responsible for beds remaining viable in spite of declining production. The trend can be expected to continue unless significant new coral beds are discovered. If the Midway grounds are also depleted, the industry's major sources of raw material will be jeopardized and the economic consequences will be incurred by Taiwan and Japan as well as countries such as Italy and the U.S.A. which now depend on their exports (12). Studies in the Mediterranean have indicated that C. rubrum is very susceptible to silt and pollution and along the coast of Provence it is only found in unpolluted areas (28). CONSERVATION MEASURES TAKEN Attempts have been made to prohibit coral fishing in several places but invariably these have been unsuccessful. When recovery of the beds has occurred it has usually been accidental, for example, as a result of interruption of fishing by war (15). Between 1879 and 1890 grounds off the north coast of Africa were fished on a nine or ten year rotation but lack of enforcement eventually led to severe depletion of the beds. The selection of this length of time for recovery was based on observations by fishermen and early research (5,15,25). In Spain there is a permit system for divers and the Meda Islands have been proposed as a marine conservation area in order to preserve and possibly reintroduce C. rubrum and gorgonians (If). Before 1868 coral fishing in Japan was managed inadvertently, since the Shoguns confiscated any coral collected by fishermen, but after this date no management was attempted. In 1963 the government of Okinawa attempted to regulate the newly discovered beds south of Okinawa by limiting entry into the fishery by a permit system. However, too many permits were issued and the beds were rapidly depleted (15,23). In the Philippines, Presidential Decree 1219 of 1977 bans the export of unprocessed precious coral (6). Extensive research on the Hawaiian precious coral stocks (16,24) has led to the formulation of a Fishery Management Plan for the Precious Coral Fisheries of the Western Pacific Region (IMP). This establishes a set of conservation and management measures designed to achieve a balance between protecting coral resources and allowing a harvest on a sustainable yield basis for the Fishery Conservation Zone (FEZ) of Hawaii, Guam and American Samoa. Four categories of management areas have been designated: 'Established Beds' for which estimates of maximum sustainable yield (MSY) are reasonably precise and where selective gear would be used; 'Conditional Beds' for which the MSYS could be estimated by comparing their size relative to the established beds; 'Refugia' where coral harvesting would be prohibited and which would serve as baseline study areas and possible reproductive reserves; and 'Exploratory Permit Areas' in which coral beds almost certainly exist but have not yet been located. Only one of the Hawaiian beds, Makapuu, has been studied enough to be classified as an Established Bed. Five other beds off the Hawaiian islands are classified as Conditional, and the Wes Pac bed, situated between Nihoa and Neckar islands, has been proposed as a Refugium. As new beds are discovered and more accurate MSYS are determined, the categorization of the beds may be upgraded. Quotas and size limits have also been set for different species (the plan covers gold and bamboo, as well as pink, corals) in different beds. The MSY for C. secundum in the Makapuu bed has been calculated at 1000 kgyear (15). In the U.S.A. corals are now listed under the Lacey Act which means that the import of corals obtained illegally in the country of origin is prohibited. CONSERVATION MEASURES PROPOSED Unless some form of management is instituted, supplies of precious coral may become even more unpredictable. Precious coral can be managed by limiting harvest levels, areas or gear but a 39