Figure 1. Endometriosis. (Image Source Bruce Blaus via Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 3.0)


Figure 2. Ectopic Pregnancy. (Image Source: Bruce Blaus via Wikimedia Commons, CC BY SA 4.0)


human_repro$$$Sex Chromosome Number Disorders Figureure 1

Figure 1. The symptoms of Klinefelter’s syndrome in a human male. (Image Source: Wikimedia, CC BY SA)


Figure 1. Hormones during the menstrual cycle and at menopause


Figure 1. The sperm cell consists of a head, mid-piece, and a tail. The acrosome covers the head. (Image Source: OpenStax Anatomy & Physiology 2E, CC BY 4.0. Access for free at OpenStax Anatomy and Physiology 2E online)


human_repro$$$Accessory Glands Figureure 1

Figure 1. Bold labels highlight the placement of seminal vesicles, paired ejaculatory ducts into prostatic urethra, bulbourethral glands. (Image Source: vector by Tsaitgaist, CC BY 3.0).


human_repro$$$Scrotum and Testes Figureure 1

Figure 1. The Scrotum and Testes (Image Source: OpenStax Anatomy & Physiology 2E, CC BY 4.0. Access for free at OpenStax Anatomy and Physiology 2E online)


human_repro$$$Scrotum and Testes Figureure 2

Figure 2. (Image Source: OpenStax Anatomy & Physiology 2E, CC BY 4.0. Access for free at OpenStax Anatomy and Physiology 2E online)


human_repro$$$Scrotum and Testes Figureure 4

Figure 4. Testicular veins


human_repro$$$Scrotum and Testes Figureure 5

Figure 5. Varicocele (Image Source: (c) Mayo Foundation. Used here for educational purposes under fair use)


human_repro$$$Hormones of the Menstrual Cycle Figureure 1

Figure 1. Hormone Levels in Ovarian and Menstrual Cycles. The correlation of the hormone levels and their effects on the female reproductive system is shown in this timeline of the ovarian and menstrual cycles. (Image Source: OpenStax Anatomy & Physiology 2E, CC BY 4.0. Access for free at OpenStax Anatomy and Physiology 2E online)


human_repro$$$Hormones of the Menstrual Cycle Figureure 2

Figure 2. Hormonal action during ovarian and Uterine cycles. (Image Source: OpenStax Anatomy & Physiology 2E, CC BY 4.0. Access for free at OpenStax Anatomy and Physiology 2E online)


human_repro$$$Female External Genitalia Figureure 5

Figure 5. Batholin’s cyst. Source: Ernest, Diseases of Women


The historic taboo associated with the examination of  female genitalia  has long inhibited the science of gynaecology. This 1822 drawing by Jacques-Pierre Maygrier shows a "compromise" procedure, in which the  physician  is kneeling before the woman but cannot see her genitalia. Modern gynaecology no longer uses such a position.


Marked atypia of  type 2 pneumocytes  is a characteristic finding in association with treatment with  busulfan  and other chemotherapeutic agents.


An Ayre spatula (bottom) with a slide holding bottle


Illustration of Bartholin glands vaginal abscesses.


Left image: Mild sexual arousal. Right image: Strong sexual arousal with erection of the vestibular bulbs under the skin on both sides of the vaginal opening and exposed clitoral glans.


3D image of  clitoris in an erect state (with the adjacent organs of the uterus and urinary bladder)


The internal anatomy of the human  vulva , with the  clitoral hood  and  labia minora  indicated as lines.


Cusco's speculum


Section of the fold in the mesonephros of a chick embryo of the fourth day


A.—Diagram of the primitive urogenital organs in the embryo previous to sexual distinction. The common genital cord is labeled with gc. * 3. Ureter * 4. Urinary bladder * 5. Urachus * cl. Cloaca * cp. Elevation which becomes clitoris or penis * i. Lower part of the intestine * ls. Fold of integument from which the labia majora or scrotum are formed * m, m. Right and left paramesonephric ducts uniting together and running with the mesonephric ducts in gc, the common genital cord * ot. The gonadal ridge from which either the ovary or testis is formed * ug. Sinus urogenitalis * W. Left Wolffian body * w, w. Right and left mesonephric ducts.


Tail end of human embryo thirty-two to thirty-three days old. The endodermal cloaca is visible at center left, labeled in green.


Development of external genitalia. A: common development. C, E: male development. B, D, F: female development


Diagrams to show the development of male and female generative organs from a common type


An illustration of a dilation and curettage


Closeup of enlarged labia, standing


There is substantial evidence that the  Skene's gland  is the source of female ejaculation.


Vaginal fluids after ejaculation


Positive fern test with amniotic fluid as seen under the microscope


A  Pap test  showing a low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (LSIL).  Pap stain .


Illustration of embryo in a medieval reproduction of Soranus' treatise


A Roman midwife aiding a woman in giving birth


Medieval woodcut depicting the birth of Julius Caesar


Galen  of Pergamon, an ancient Roman doctor


A set of Hegar dilators, from Hegar 4 to 17 (right to left)


Diagram of HGSC theories of origin


The vagina within the female genitals


The opening to the human vagina lies just below the  urethral opening  at the back of the  vestibule


Hysterectomy


Myomectomy


Sutured uterus wound after myomectomy


Schematic drawing of types of hysterectomy


Part of page 2 and page 3 of the Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus


The knee-chest position  [ 1 ]


Pathophysiology of vomiting in pregnancy


Leopold's maneuvers


The cover of the 2005 edition, described as a "new edition for a new era".


Model of ovarian reserve from conception to the menopause


Micrograph  of the ovarian cortex from a rhesus monkey showing several round follicles embedded in a matrix of stromal cells. A secondary follicle sectioned through the nucleus of an oocyte is at the upper left, and earlier stage follicles are at the lower right. The tissue was stained with the dyes  hematoxylin  and  eosin .


The process of ovulation and gamete production, oogenesis, in a human ovary


Polycystic ovaries typically found in  polycystic ovarian syndrome


Ovarian torsion . Present in rats.


Ovary of a marine fish and its parasite, the nematode  Philometra  fasciati


Micrograph  of a  Peutz–Jeghers colonic polyp  – a type of hamartomatous polyp.  H&E stain .


Aristotle


Sims' double bladed vaginal speculum


The disposable bivalved plastic vaginal speculum is used in office gynecology


Three types of ancient Roman specula c. 50 AD.


14th, 15th and 16th century specula


Two cylindrical-shaped glass specula


Position of the opened speculum during vaginal examination


Different sizes and shapes of specula commonly used in gynecology


Dilating vaginal speculum inflating vagina and light illuminating (cervical brush inserts through top inlet)


The single-billed Sims speculum is still in use today.


Medical instrument


Duckbill shape of a two-billed speculum


Two examples of nasal specula: ancient and modern


Ear specula are funnel-shaped.


Eyelid speculum (right) in use during cataract surgery


Medical mannequin placed in the Trendelenburg position


Trendelenburg position


Reverse Trendelenburg


A historic depiction of the Trendelenburg position


London, Wellcome Library, MS 544 (Miscellanea medica XVIII), early 14th century (France), a copy of the intermediate  Trotula  ensemble, p. 65 (detail): pen and wash drawing meant to depict "Trotula", clothed in red and green with a white headdress, holding an orb.


Trotula  transitional ensemble, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France, MS lat. 7056, mid-13th century, ff. 84v-85r, opening of the  De ornatu mulierum .


Illustration of a woman taking a therapeutic bath and of a medicinal tampon in a 15th-century copy of the Middle Dutch translation of the Trotula ( Bruges, Public Library , Ms. 593).


Bacteroides fragilis


A urethral diverticulum seen on urethrogram


Another view of a urethral diverticulum seen on urethrogram


Microbiome analysis flowchart


Epstein–Barr virus


Escherichia coli


Candida  sp.


Bar chart demonstrating increased publications focusing on the uterine microbiome.  A search keyword of “uterine microbiome” was used on Web of Science, and this bar chart only included articles and review papers. The date range of this search is from January 1, 2013 to March 26, 2024.


Pelvic anatomy including organs of the female reproductive system


A human vulva with vaginal opening labeled


An illustration showing a cut-away portion of the vagina and upper female genital tract (only one ovary and fallopian tube shown). Circular folds (also called rugae) of vaginal mucosa can be seen.


Medium-power magnification  micrograph  of a  H&E stained  slide showing a portion of a vaginal wall.  Stratified squamous epithelium  and underling connective tissue can be seen. The deeper muscular layers are not shown. The black line points to a fold in the mucosa.


Folds of mucosa (or  vaginal rugae ) are shown in the front third of a vagina.


Gram stain of lactobacilli and squamous epithelial cells in vaginal swab


A disposable plastic bi-valved vaginal  speculum  used in  gynecological examination


A normal  cervix  of an adult as seen through the vagina ( per vaginam  or PV) using a  bivalved vaginal speculum . The blades of the speculum are above and below and stretched vaginal walls are seen on the left and right.


Pre-menopausal vaginal mucosa (left) versus menopausal vaginal mucosa (right)


An  ultrasound  showing the  urinary bladder  (1), uterus (2), and vagina (3)


The womb represents a powerful symbol as the  yoni  in  Hinduism . Pictured is a stone yoni found in Cát Tiên sanctuary, Lam Dong, Vietnam.


1902 illustration of the female reproductive system of a  European rabbit  (vagina labeled "va")


A 1904 gynecology textbook that describes some vaginal anomalies


The ancient Greek method for treating a prolapsed uterus that has extended through and beyond the vaginal introitus


Plastic and silicone vaginal dilators


ZSI 200 NS vaginal expander


Different layers of the vaginal epithelium


Glycogen is the complex form of sugar present in the vaginal epithelium that is metabolized into lactic acid


Vaginal epithelial cells containing chlamydia bacteria


Cross section of vaginal epithelium in a post-menopausal woman


Left : The shaved  vulva  unaroused.   Right : Vaginal lubrication sometimes becomes visible after sexual arousal.


Vaginal rugae are illustrated in this 1891 medical textbook image


The bulbospongiosus muscle is highlighted in red.


The internal surface of the ilium showing where the muscles supporting the vagina insert and terminate


Histology of a Walthard cell rest in a fallopian tube with typical features (H&E stain): - Cyst (may also be solid nest) of transitional type epithelium. - Eosinophilic luminal secretions. - Uniform nuclei with irregular borders and nuclear grooves (insert image).


Micrograph  of a cystic Walthard cell rest (lower right of image) within the connective tissue of a  fallopian tube  (tubal epithelium – upper left of image).  H&E stain .


High magnification  micrograph  of a cystic Walthard cell rest showing the characteristic coffee bean-shaped nuclei.  H&E stain .


Marble relief from  Ostia Antica  showing a childbirth scene


A modern engraving of  Agnodice , a midwife and obstetrician, who according to legend disguised herself as a man in order to practice as a doctor


Ancient coin from Cyrene depicting a silphium stalk


Ancient Roman relief carving of a midwife attending a woman giving birth


Greek Attic funerary  stele , showing a seated woman who died in childbirth bidding farewell to her husband, mother and newborn's nurse,  c.  350–330 BC


A multi-generational  extended family  in  Chaghcharan ,  Ghor Province ,  Afghanistan


A multi-generational  extended family  of  Eastern Orthodox  priest in  Jerusalem ,  c.  1893


A mention of "cȳnne" (kinsmen) in the  Beowulf


An illustration of the bi-relational and tri-relational senses of  nakurrng  in  Bininj Kunwok


A broad comparison of (left, top-to-bottom)  Hawaiian ,  Sudanese ,  Eskimo , (right, top-to-bottom)  Iroquois ,  Crow  and  Omaha kinship  systems


Abang Okpo


Diagram of an ambilineal descent in a family


An aunt and her  niece  in  Tigray ,  Ethiopia


Isabel, Princess Imperial of Brazil  (right) with her nephew  Prince Pedro Augusto  sitting on her lap. At left, Isabel's sister  Princess Leopoldina  holding her son  Prince Augusto Leopoldo , c. 1868


Aunts by generation


The Himba of Namibia live under a tribal structure based on bilateral descent.


American band  Jackson 5  consisting of biological brothers who share many  genetic  facial features


Brothers from  Bangladesh


Grave stele of brothers Eukarpos and Philoxenos of  Miletus  2nd c. A.D. [ 3 ]


Three brothers


Brazilian princes  Pedro Augusto  (right) and  Augusto Leopoldo  in exile in  Cannes , c. 1890


The  Gracchi  brothers


The  Mannerheim  brothers; from left to right: Carl and  Gustaf


John ,  Robert  and  Ted Kennedy


Cain and Abel


International children in traditional clothing at  Liberty Weekend


Children playing ball games, Roman artwork, 2nd century AD


Children playing the  violin  in a group recital, Ithaca, New York, 2011


Children in  Madagascar , 2011


Child playing piano, 1984


An adolescent girl, photographed by  Paolo Monti


Playing Children , by  Song dynasty   Chinese artist  Su Hanchen, c. 1150 AD.


The Age of Innocence   c.  1785 /8. Reynolds emphasized the natural grace of children in his paintings.


Brazilian princesses  Leopoldina  (left) and  Isabel  (center) with an unidentified friend, c. 1860.


Armenian scouts in 1918


Children play in a fountain in a summer evening,  Davis, California .


An old man and his granddaughter in  Turkey .


Nepalese  children playing with  cats .


Harari  girls in Ethiopia.


Dancing at Mother of Peace AIDs orphanage,  Zimbabwe


Ralph Hedley ,  The Tournament,  1898. It depicts poorer boys playing outdoors in a rural part of the  Northeast of England .


Children in front of a movie theatre, Toronto, 1920s.


Children in an outdoor classroom in  Bié ,  Angola


Children seated in a Finnish classroom at the school of Torvinen in  Sodankylä ,  Finland , in the 1920s


Group of  breaker boys  in Pittston, Pennsylvania, 1911.  Child labor  was widespread until the early 20th century. In the 21st century, child labor rates are highest in Africa.


A child at a climate demonstration in Juneau, Alaska


World infant mortality rates in 2012. [ 107 ]


Cài family ancestral temple in  Shantou ,  Guangdong .


People forgather for a worship ceremony at an ancestral shrine in  Hong'an ,  Hubei .


Gé family ancestral shrine in  Shantou ,  Guangdong .


Gay couple in Croatia, which allows  civil partnerships  but not  same-sex marriage .


The notion of civil unions is rejected by some, such as this protester at a large demonstration in New York City against  California Proposition 8 . [ 1 ]


Civil unions for same-sex couples.      Civil unions in some counties.      Civil unions not performed.


Gender-neutral civil unions.      Civil unions for opposite-sex couples only.      Civil unions for same-sex couples only.      Former civil unions for same-sex couples, replaced by marriage.      Civil unions not performed.


Countries performing civil unions in South America      Gender-neutral civil unions.      Civil unions for opposite-sex couples only.      Civil unions never performed.


Jurisdictions performing civil unions in North America      Gender-neutral civil unions.      Former civil unions for same-sex couples, replaced by marriage.      Civil unions never performed.


Countries performing civil unions in Europe      Gender-neutral civil unions.      Civil unions for same-sex couples only.      Former civil unions for same-sex couples, replaced by marriage.      Civil unions never performed.


PACS (blue) and marriage (red) in France ( INSEE )


Countries performing civil unions in Central America and the Caribbean Islands      Gender-neutral civil unions.      Civil unions for opposite-sex couples only.      Civil unions never performed.


States performing civil unions in Mexico      Gender-neutral civil unions.      Former civil unions for same-sex couples, replaced by marriage.      Civil unions never performed.


Countries performing civil unions in Oceania      Gender-neutral civil unions.      Civil unions never performed.


Countries performing civil unions in Africa      Gender-neutral civil unions.      Civil unions never performed.


States performing civil unions      Civil union      Civil union with limited rights      Civil unions not performed      Civil unions forbidden


Two populations with individuals moving between the populations to demonstrate gene flow


Primary differentiation is demonstrated using the peppered moth as an example, with a change in an environmental variable such as sooty coverage of trees imposing a selective pressure on a previously uniformly coloured moth population. This causes the frequency of melanic morphs to increase the more soot there is on vegetation.


Secondary contact between two previously isolated populations. Two previously isolated populations establish contact and therefore gene flow, creating an intermediate zone in the phenotypic or genotypic character between the two populations.


Clinal characters change from one end of the geographic range to another. The extent of this change is reflected in the slope of the cline.


Categories and subcategories of clines, as defined by Huxley


Parapatric speciation


Bergmann's Rule demonstrated showing the difference in size between a larger northern fox, whose range spans colder regions, and a smaller desert fox, whose range is primarily in hot regions


Interbreeding populations represented by a gradient of coloured circles around a geographic barrier


The  Larus  gulls interbreed in a ring around the arctic. 1:  Larus argentatus argentatus , 2:  Larus fuscus  ( sensu stricto ), 3:  Larus fuscus heuglini , 4:  Larus argentatus birulai , 5:  Larus argentatus vegae , 6:  Larus argentatus smithsonianus , 7:  Larus argentatus argenteus


G is the progeny of C and F, and C is the biological uncle of F.


Diagram of common family relationships, where the area of each colored circle is scaled according to the coefficient of relatedness. All relatives of the same relatedness are included together in one of the gray ellipses. Legal  degrees of relationship  can be found by counting the number of solid-line connections between the self and a relative. [ b ]


One legal definition of degrees of consanguinity. [ 1 ]  The number next to each box in the table indicates the degree of relationship relative to the given person.


Consanguinity of the  kings of France  as shown in  Arbor genealogiae regum Francorum  ( Bernard Gui , early 14th century)


A simplistic depiction of genetic relatedness after  n  generations as a 2 −n  progression


Diagram of common family relationships, where the area of each colored circle is scaled according to the  coefficient of relatedness . All relatives of the same relatedness are included together in one of the gray ellipses. Legal degrees of relationship can be found by counting the number of solid-line connections between the self and a relative.


Queen Victoria  and her cousin  Princess Victoria, Duchess of Nemours , 1852


Graphic of the Crow kinship system


A father disowning his daughter in the 1913 film  The Jew's Christmas


Graphic of the Inuit kinship system


Softcover book catalogue of  The Family of Man , designed by  Leo Lionni ,  Piper  photo by Eugene Harris. First issued for $1.00 in 1955 by Ridge Press, 4 million have sold and it is still in print.


Poster for the Exhibition  The Family of Man  in three languages


Robert McDaniels , lynched April 13, 1937, in  Duck Hill, Mississippi


Migrant Mother  (1936),  Dorothea Lange


Catalogue of the 1965 Weltausstellung der Fotographie (World Exhibition of Photography)


Cover of Stern (Hamburg) (1968).  Die Frau: 2 Weltausstellung der Photographie


Cover of the exhibition catalogue 'family, nation, tribe, community, SHIFT' 1996


The 90s, A Family of Man?: Images of mankind in contemporary art


Installation view of The Family of Man permanent exhibition at Clervaux Castle, Luxembourg.


The family tree of  Louis III, Duke of Württemberg  (ruled 1568–1593)


The family tree of "the Landas", a 17th-century family [ 1 ]


Twelve generations patrilineage of a Hindu Lingayat male from central  Karnataka  spanning over 275 years, depicted in descending order


A Medieval genealogy traced from  Adam and Eve


30 years of image research [ 57 ]  arranged genealogically on a kitchen wall in Sweden 2019


Variations of  VNTR  allele lengths in six individuals


Gramps  is an example of genealogy software.


A family history page from an  antebellum era  family Bible


The Family History Library, operated by  the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints , is the world's largest library dedicated to genealogical research.


Lineage of a family,  c.  1809


Graphic of the Hawaiian kinship system


The  House of Lords  (sitting in its old chamber, burned down in 1834) as drawn by  Augustus Pugin  and  Thomas Rowlandson  for  Rudolph Ackermann 's  Microcosm of London  (1808–1811)


Letters patent granting the  Dukedom of Marlborough  to Sir  John Churchill  were later amended by Parliament.


In 1984 Harold Macmillan, a former prime minister, was the last non-royal recipient of a hereditary peerage, the  Earldom of Stockton .


Matt Ridley , science writer and conservative journalist, is the  Viscount Ridley .


Many hereditary peers are associated with famous estates such as  Hatfield House ; many notable estates are open to the public.


President  Barack Obama , who self-identifies as black, was born to a father of black descent and a mother of mostly white descent.


The passage of  homozygous  alleles through an inbred pedigree


Inbreeding coefficients of various populations in Europe and Asia


Heterozygous


Banded mongoose  females regularly mate with their fathers and brothers. [ 50 ]


White tiger  in Gunma Safari Park


Hereditary  polycystic kidney disease  is prevalent in the  Persian cat  breed, affecting almost half the population in some countries. [ 56 ] [ 57 ]


An intensive form of inbreeding where an individual  S  is mated to his daughter  D1 , granddaughter  D2  and so on, in order to maximise the percentage of  S' s genes in the offspring. 87.5% of  D3' s genes would come from  S , while  D4  would receive 93.75% of their genes from  S . [ 58 ]


Consanguineous marriages (second-degree cousins or closer) in the world, in percentage (%). [ 67 ]


Charles II of Spain , a member of the famously inbred  Habsburgs  with an  extremely pronounced lower jaw


Egocentric genealogical diagram of the Iroquois kinship system.


An example of a  Matrilineage  over 4 generations


An example of an  Ambilineal  lineage


Nathan  confronts King  David  for his adultery with  Bathsheba , an affair that produced a mamzer. Bronze bas-relief on the door of  La Madeleine, Paris .


The symbol for marriage, often used in genealogy


Ancient  Sumerian  depiction of the marriage of  Inanna  and  Dumuzid [ 16 ]


Indian Hindu wedding  with the bride and groom in traditional dress.


Chinese immigrant with his three wives and fourteen children,  Cairns , 1904


A same-sex couple exchanging wedding vows in a  Unitarian Universalist  Fellowship


In an 1828 "Wife Wanted" advertisement, an Englishman claiming a "great taste for building" pledges to apply a prospective wife's  dowry -like £1000+ to build property that will be "settled on her for life". [ 57 ]


The wedding of  Rinchen Lhamo , a  Tibetan  woman, and  Louis King , an  Englishman


Family chart showing relatives who, in Islamic Sharia law, would be considered  mahrim  (or  maharem ): unmarriageable kin with whom  sexual intercourse  would be considered  incestuous


An arranged marriage between  Louis XIV of France  and  Maria Theresa of Spain


Indonesian wedding


Criticism about the  Azeri  society tradition from domestic violence to the social and political participation of women in the community


Traditional, formal presentation of the bridewealth (also known as "sin sot") at an engagement ceremony in  Thailand


U.S States, by the date of repeal of anti-miscegenation laws:     No laws passed      Repealed before 1887      Repealed between 1948 and 1967      Overturned on 12 June 1967


Marriage open to same-sex couples (rings: individual cases)      Legislation or binding domestic court ruling establishing same-sex marriage, but marriage is not yet provided for      Same-sex marriage recognized when performed in certain other jurisdictions, and accorded greater rights than local same-sex unions (if any)      Civil unions or domestic partnerships      Limited legal recognition (registered cohabitation)      Local certification without legal force      Limited recognition of marriage performed in certain other jurisdictions (residency rights for spouses)      Country subject to an international court ruling to recognize same-sex marriage      Same-sex unions not legally recognized


Polygamy is legal      Polygamy is legal only for Muslims      Polygamy is legal in some regions (Indonesia)      Polygamy is illegal, but practice is not criminalised      Polygamy is illegal and practice criminalised      Legal status unknown     In India, Malaysia, Philippines and Singapore polygamy is only legal for  Muslims . In Nigeria and South Africa, polygamous marriages under customary law and for Muslims are legally recognized. In Mauritius, polygamous unions have no legal recognition. Muslim men may, however, "marry" up to four women, but they do not have the legal status of wives.


Couple married in a  Shinto  ceremony in  Takayama, Gifu  prefecture


A newly married  Assyrian  couple


Various advocates of same-sex marriage, such as this protester at a demonstration in New York City against  California Proposition 8 , consider  civil unions  an inferior alternative to legal recognition of same-sex marriage. [ 131 ]


" Esposas de Matrimonio " ("Wedding Cuffs"), a  wedding ring  sculpture expressing the criticism of marriages' effects on individual liberty.  Esposas  is a play on Spanish, in which the singular form of the word  esposa  refers to a spouse, and the plural refers to  handcuffs .


Countries where married women are required by law to obey their husbands as of 2015 [ 137 ]


Christ and the woman taken in adultery  by  Jan Brueghel the Elder ,  Pinakothek


Magdalene laundries  were institutions that existed from the 18th to the late 20th centuries, throughout Europe and North America, where "fallen women", including  unmarried mothers , were detained. Photo: Magdalene laundry in  Ireland , ca. early 20th century. [ 150 ]


Anti-dowry poster in  Bangalore, India


The Outcast , by  Richard Redgrave , 1851. A patriarch casts his daughter and her illegitimate baby out of the family home.


Percentage of births to unmarried women, selected countries, 1980 and 2007 [ 208 ]


A man and woman exchange rings


Crowning during  Holy Matrimony  in the  Syro-Malabar Catholic Church , an  Eastern Catholic  Church and a part of the  Saint Thomas Christian  community in  India


Christian wedding in  Kyoto , Japan


Russian orthodox wedding ceremony


A couple following their marriage in the  Manti Utah Temple


Newlywed  couples visit  Timur 's statues to receive wedding blessings in  Uzbekistan .


A Muslim bride of  Pakistan  origin signing the  nikkah nama  or  marriage certificate


A Muslim couple being wed alongside the  Tungabhadra River  at  Hampi , India


A  Nigerian  Islamic wedding


A Jewish wedding, painting by  Jozef Israëls , 1903


A  Ketubah  in Hebrew, a Jewish marriage-contract outlining the duties of each partner


Nepali wedding


Seuso and his wife


Woodcut. How Reymont and Melusina were betrothed / And by the bishop were blessed in their bed on their wedlock. From the  Melusine , 15th century.


Swedish royal wedding clothes from 1766 at  Livrustkammaren  in Stockholm


A marriage in 1960 in Italy. Photo by  Paolo Monti .


Newlyweds after a civil ceremony in the tower of  Stockholm City Hall  in 2016


Cave of the Machpelah, believed to be the burial place of Abraham and Sarah, Isaac and Rebekah, Jacob and Leah.


The Tomb of Rachel in Bethlehem. photo  c.  1933


Portrait of  Louis XIV of France  as a child with his milk-sister  Henrietta of England  by circle of  Pierre Mignard ,  c.  1646 ,  National Museum  in  Warsaw


Graphic of the Omaha kinship system


Rice  and  Powell  (on the left) are considered black in the US.  Bush  and  Rumsfeld  (on the right) are considered white.


Lena Horne  was reportedly descended from the  John C. Calhoun  family, and both sides of her family were a mixture of  African-American ,  Native American , and  European American  descent.


The Brazilian footballer  Ronaldo  declares himself white, but 64% of Brazilians consider him pardo, according to  Datafolha  survey. [ 29 ]


The Brazilian actress  Camila Pitanga  declares herself black, but only 27% of Brazilians consider her as such, according to  Datafolha  survey. [ 29 ]


Coat of arms of Poland .


A leaf from the "Łaski's Statute" depicting the Polish Senate


Coat of arms  of  Stibor of Stiboricz


Proto-coat of arms of Ostoja


Coat of arms of the House of Ostrogski


Laws regarding first-cousin marriage in the United States      First-cousin marriage is legal      Allowed with requirements or exceptions      Banned with exceptions 1      Statute bans first-cousin marriage 1      Criminal offense 1     1 Some states recognize marriages performed elsewhere, especially when the spouses were not residents of the state when married.


The "three great races" according to  Meyers Konversations-Lexikon  of 1885–90. The subtypes are:  Mongoloid  race, shown in  yellow  and  orange  tones Caucasoid  race, in light and medium  grayish   spring green - cyan  tones Negroid  race, in  brown  tones Dravidians  and  Sinhalese , in  olive green  and their classification is described as uncertain  The Mongoloid race sees the widest geographic distribution, including all of the  Americas ,  North Asia ,  East Asia ,  Southeast Asia , and the entire inhabited  Arctic  as well as most of  Central Asia  and the  Pacific Islands .


"Races humaines" according to Pierre Foncins  La deuxième année de géographie  of 1888.  White race , shown in  rose , Yellow (Mongoloid) race, shown in yellow, Negroid race, shown in brown, "Secondary races" ( Indigenous peoples of the Americas ,  Australian aboriginals ,  Samoyedic peoples ,  Hungarians ,  Malayans  and others) are shown in orange


Portrait "Redenção de Cam" (1895), showing a Brazilian family becoming "whiter" each generation


Emperor  Charlemagne , by  Albrecht Dürer , 1511–1513,  Germanisches Nationalmuseum .


Frederick Joseph Benton, born 1954 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, is the great-great-grandson of former king Joseph Napoleon; although Bonaparte was already married in France; he lived in the United States for many years. The Revue LA MONDE


A  sister  (female sibling) carrying her  brother  (male sibling).


Two brothers from  Haiti .


The Benzon Daughters  by  Peder Severin Krøyer


Emperor  Pedro II of Brazil  with his sisters Princesses  Francisca  and  Januária , 1839


A  newborn  and his brothers


Four Sisters ( Frank Eugene , about 1900)


Portrait of Lady Cockburn and her Three Eldest Sons  (1773–1775) by  Joshua Reynolds


Sibling physical conflict


Siblings in  Bhutan


Sibling care at orphanage in  Zimbabwe


Amnon  and  Tamar , children of the  biblical   King David , were half-siblings yet Amnon raped Tamar [ 58 ]  (unknown  European artist ,  oil on canvas ,  c.   1650–1700 ,  High Museum of Art )


John V, Count of Armagnac  married his sister Isabelle  c.  1450 and fought hard to keep the marriage but failed in the end.


Stolpersteine  of two of the Leiss family in  Moers , punished due to the desertion of Wenzeslaus Leiss.


Himmler in 1945


Rommel in 1942


Two child sisters,  c.  1911 .


Three sisters from the Spencer family,  c.  1902 .


Isabel, Princess Imperial of Brazil  and her sister  Princess Leopoldina  riding horses,  c.  1868 .


Elders from the  Zumsoy  [ ru ]  teip,  c.  1906.


A  kinship diagram  of theoretical influences on Gayle Rubin's landmark article "The Traffic in Women"


United States Representative  Charles A. Eaton  (right) and his nephew Rep.  William R. Eaton  (left).


Uncles by Generation


The  Baptism of Kievans , a  fresco  by  Viktor Vasnetsov .


To the west of the Hajnal line, shown in red, the Western European marriage pattern arose. The blue lines mark areas of Western Europe that did not conform to Western Europe's marriage pattern


Intended parents attend the birth of their child by a gestational surrogate.


Harinegameshin Transfers Mahavira's Embryo, from a  Kalpasutra manuscript, c. 1300–1350, Philadelphia Museum of Art


Legal regulation of surrogacy in the world:     Both commercial and altruistic forms are legal      No legal regulation      Only altruistic is legal      Allowed between relatives up to second degree of consanguinity      Banned      Uncertain


Surrogacy Arrangements Act 1985


Status of elective abortion in the United States            Illegal, limited exceptions [ a ] v t e      Legal, but no providers      Legal before  cardiac-cell activity [ b ]      Legal through 12th week LMP*     Legal through 15th week LMP* (1st trimester)     Legal through 18th week LMP*     Legal through 22nd week LMP* (5 months)     Legal before  fetal viability [ c ]      Legal through 24th week LMP* (5½ months)     Legal through second trimester [ d ]      Legal at any stage    *LMP is the time since the last menstrual period began.     This color-coded map illustrates the current legal status of elective-specific abortion procedures in each of the individual states, U.S. territories, and federal district. [ a ]  A colored border indicates a more stringent restriction or ban that is blocked by legal injunction.


The  United States Supreme Court  membership in 1973 F.l.t.r. seated  Potter Stewart ,  William O. Douglas ,  Warren E. Burger  (chief justice),  William Brennan , and  Byron White . Standing  Lewis F. Powell ,  Thurgood Marshall ,  Harry Blackmun , and  William Rehnquist .


Abortion laws in the U.S. before  Roe : [ 106 ]      Fully illegal (1 state).      Legal in cases of risk to woman's life (29 states).      Legal in cases of rape (1 state).      Legal in cases of risk to woman's health (2 states).      Legal in cases of risk to woman's health, rape or incest, or likely damaged fetus (12 states).      Legal on request (5 states).


The composition of the Supreme Court at the time of  Dobbs Front row, l.t.r.:  Samuel Alito ,  Clarence Thomas ,  John G. Roberts, Jr. ,  Justice Stephen G. Breyer ,  Sonia Sotomayor . Back row, l.t.r.:  Brett M. Kavanaugh ,  Elena Kagan ,  Neil M. Gorsuch ,  Amy Coney Barrett .


States in which the right to an abortion is protected, either through state law, a state supreme court ruling, or both. [ 218 ] [ 31 ]      Abortion access protected by state law      Abortion access protected by state Constitution      Abortion access protected via both state law and state Constitution      No state level protections      Abortion access restricted by state Constitution


Mandatory waiting period laws in the US      No mandatory waiting period.      Waiting period law currently enjoined.      Waiting period of 18 hours.      Waiting period of 24 hours.      Waiting period of 48 hours.      Waiting period of 72 hours.      No elective abortion.


State Medicaid coverage of medically necessary abortion services ( text-based list ):     Medicaid covers medically necessary abortion for low-income women through legislation.      Medicaid covers medically necessary abortions for low-income women under court order.      Medicaid denies abortion coverage for low-income women except for cases of rape, incest, life or health endangerment, or severe fetal abnormality.      Medicaid denies abortion coverage for low-income women except for cases of rape, incest, life endangerment, or severe fetal abnormality.      Medicaid denies abortion coverage for low-income women except for cases of rape, incest, or life or health endangerment.      Medicaid denies abortion coverage for low-income women except for cases of rape, incest, or life endangerment.      Medicaid denies abortion coverage for low-income women except for cases of life endangerment.


caption= Chart source : CDC, 2005. [ 295 ]


caption=Graph of U.S. abortion rates, 1973–2017, showing data collected by the Guttmacher Institute. [ 293 ] [ 294 ]


Abortion in the U.S. by gestational age, 2016 [ 319 ]


Trend percent of Americans self-identifying as either "pro-life" or "pro-choice"


Results of Gallup opinion poll in the U.S. since 1975, legal restriction of abortion [ 343 ]


The 2013 winter issue of  Ms.  was about abortion rights.


Availability of abortion in Mexican states.     Illegal but providers are not prosecuted      Legal during first 15 weeks LMP (first 12 weeks of pregnancy)      Legal for economic reasons if mother already has 3 children


English  transfer-printed   Staffordshire pottery  jug with US population by state, c. 1790.


Population change 1960 to 2000 by state


United States birth rate (births per 1000 population). [ 26 ]  The  United States Census Bureau  defines the demographic birth boom as between 1946 and 1964 [ 27 ]  (red).


Population pyramid by race of the United States over time from 1900 to 2020


States in the US shown with population change 2010 to  2020 census [ 51 ]      -2.00% or less      -0.01% to -1.99%      0% to 0.99%      1% to 2.49%      2.5% to 4.99%      5% to 8.99%      9% to 11.99%      12% or more


Proportion of Americans under the age of 18 in each county of the  fifty states , the  District of Columbia , and  Puerto Rico  as of the  2020 United States Census


Proportion of Americans under the age of 5 in each county of the  fifty states , the  District of Columbia , and  Puerto Rico  as of the  2020 United States Census


Bi-variate choropleth map comparing the estimated percent of the population 65 and older and 17 and younger in the Contiguous United States by county, 2020


One person households in the US over time


Median Age by County 2022      46 or more      43 to 45.9      39 to 42.9      35 to 39.9      34.9 or less


Marriages, Families & Intimate Relationships in the US, 1970–2000


Median age at first marriage in the US


TFR of the United States overtime from 1820 to 2016


Percentage of women childless by age cohort in the US over time


Life expectancy in the United States since 1880


Life expectancy in the United States since 1960 by gender


U.S. race by Hispanic origin demographics from 1940 to 2020


Ethnic origins in the United States


Ethno-racial makeup of the United States by single year ages from 1990 to 2020


Ethno-racial makeup of the United States by single year ages in 2020


Population pyramid by race/ethnicity in 2020


CensusViewer US 2010 Census Latino Population as a heatmap by census tract


Most common ancestry group in the United States by county


In recent decades, the U.S. has grown from having 9% (1990) to 15% (2020) of the population being born abroad. [ 236 ]  The slopes of the tops of the differently-colored columns show the rate of percent increase in foreign-born people living in the respective countries.


Foreign born population percentage in the US over time from 1850 to 2020


U.S. unemployment by state in December 2015 (official, or U3 rate) [ 260 ]    <3.0%    <3.5%    <4.0%    <4.5%    <5.0%    <5.5%    <6.0%    <6.5%    ≥6.5%


The main sign reads: "Eugenic and Health Exhibit"; charts concern the heritability of illiteracy and the relatively higher birth rate of immigrants


Eugenics supporters hold signs criticizing various "genetically inferior" groups.  Wall Street , New York,  c.  1915 .


U.S. eugenics poster advocating for the removal of genetic "defectives" such as the insane, "feeble-minded" and criminals, and supporting the selective breeding of "high-grade" individuals,  c.  1926


Contestants preparing for the Better Baby Contest at the 1931  Indiana State Fair .


Winning family of a Fitter Family contest stand outside of the Eugenics Building [ 80 ]  (where contestants register) at the Kansas Free Fair, in  Topeka, Kansas .


A depiction of "defectives" from the 1915 book  Mental defectives in Virginia .


Du Bois in 1918


Paid parental leave laws enacted    No laws enacted


US - women's earnings as a percentage of men's in 2008 by age group


Enslaved people dancing on a South Carolina plantation.  The Old Plantation ,  c.  1790 .


Sterilization States


The IHS logo


This was a pamphlet created by the  Department of Health, Education, and Welfare  (HEW) to urge Native American women to have fewer children. The left shows how the parents would be before adopting  promoted family planning practices (tired and with little resources) and afterwards (happy and wealthy).


An oral contraceptive pack.


A plastic  speculum .


A drawing of a radical mastectomy, during which muscle, lymph nodes, and the entire breast is removed.


A drawing of a simple mastectomy, during which only breast tissue is removed.


Baby tower in  Fuzhou ,  Fujian  Province


Daniel Defoe


This illustrates the process for accessing oocyte quality before in vitro fertilization


Stigma of the human ovary: the follicle is about to burst


Reference ranges for blood tests , showing adrenocorticotropic hormone (green at left) among the hormones with smallest concentration in the blood


Reference ranges for the blood content  of follicle-stimulating hormone levels during the  menstrual cycle . [ 12 ]   - The ranges denoted  By biological stage  may be used in closely monitored menstrual cycles in regard to other markers of its biological progression, with the time scale being compressed or stretched to how much faster or slower, respectively, the cycle progresses compared to an average cycle.  - The ranges denoted  Inter-cycle variability  are more appropriate to use in non-monitored cycles with only the beginning of menstruation known, but where the woman accurately knows her average cycle lengths and time of ovulation, and that they are somewhat averagely regular, with the time scale being compressed or stretched to how much a woman's average cycle length is shorter or longer, respectively, than the average of the population.  - The ranges denoted  Inter-woman variability  are more appropriate to use when the average cycle lengths and time of ovulation are unknown, but only the beginning of menstruation is given.


Flowchart showing hormonal regulation of growth


Main pathways in endocrine regulation of growth


Effects of LH on the body


Reference ranges for the blood content  of luteinizing hormone (LH) during the  menstrual cycle . [ 27 ]   The ranges denoted  By biological stage  may be used in closely monitored menstrual cycles in regard to other markers of its biological progression, with the time scale being compressed or stretched to how much faster or slower, respectively, the cycle progresses compared to an average cycle. The ranges denoted  Inter-cycle variability  are more appropriate to use in non-monitored cycles with only the beginning of menstruation known, but where the woman accurately knows her average cycle lengths and time of ovulation, and that they are somewhat averagely regular, with the time scale being compressed or stretched to how much a woman's average cycle length is shorter or longer, respectively, than the average of the population. The ranges denoted  Inter-woman variability  are more appropriate to use when the average cycle lengths and time of ovulation are unknown, but only the beginning of menstruation is given.


Lateral flow test  strip for urine LH, used to predict ovulation


Chance of  fertilization  by menstrual cycle day relative to ovulation [ 31 ]


The system of the  thyroid hormones   T 3  and  T 4 . [ 4 ]


A  triple-line endometrium  is associated with better IVF outcomes. [ 27 ]


A graphic explaining the details of IVF


Demonstration of ICSI


Normal vaginal canal vs menopause


Peter Brinsden in 2007


Bourn Hall Clinic


Bovine embryos  in vitro.


The San Diego Zoo established the first "frozen zoo" program in 1972.


A  Przewalski's horse


Diagram of trans-species cloning of the Pyrenean ibex


The  Zangersheide  stud farm (shown here with their  branding ) has been a driving force behind the development of horse cloning.


Genopole  d'Évry supported the creation of Cryozootech, France's first commercial horse cloning company.


Allegory of the triumph of  capitalism  over communism at  Texas A&M University , the first research institution on the American continent to successfully clone a horse.


One of the fears introduced by cloning is that it will jeopardize traditional horse breeding and reproduction techniques.


Follicular Development


A flow chart summarizing the stages in morphology of the embryo.


Figure 3: This diagram shows three techniques used in in-vitro culture of ovarian tissue; culture of ovarian fragments in a floating organ culture system, individual follicle culture of enzymatically digested/ minced ovarian follicles, and perfusion whole ovary in a flow-through system. [ 2 ]


1♂ —Sperm is collected from a male.   1♀ —Eggs are collected from a female by a thin needle passed either through vagina or through abdomen under ultrasound guidance [transvaginal or transabdominal ultrasound aspiration].   2a —The sperm and eggs are fertilized.   2b —The resulting embryos are kept safe and watched to see which will thrive.   3a —The embryos are allowed to develop; those that thrive are given identifiers.   3b —A genetic test is run on each embryo for a given trait and the results are matched with the embryos.   4 —The embryos without the desired trait are identified and discarded.   5 —The remaining embryos are allowed to grow to the point that they can be implanted.   6a —The embryos with the desired trait are implanted.   6b —The embryos result in a healthy pregnancy.   6c —Fraternal twins with the desired trait, not expressed in their mother, are born.


Bourn Hall Clinic in 2005


Uterine Fibroid


Figure 1: The exchange of chromosomal segments between chromosomes 4 to 20. Since no segments are lost, this is a balanced translocation.


Figure 2: The zona pellucida surrounds the blastocyst cavity that contains the inner cell mass.


Bourn Hall Clinic


Shown here is the typical regimen for early medical abortions (200 mg  mifepristone  and 800 μg  misoprostol ).


A vacuum aspiration abortion at eight weeks gestational age (six weeks after fertilization). 1:   Amniotic sac 2:   Embryo 3:   Uterine lining 4:   Speculum 5:  Vacurette 6:  Attached to a  suction pump


A likely illegal abortion flyer in South Africa


Soviet poster  c.  1925  (after Russia legalized abortion in 1920) warning against abortions performed by folk practitioners


A bar chart depicting selected data from a 1998  AGI   meta-study  on the reasons women stated for having an abortion


Bas-relief  at  Angkor Wat ,  Cambodia , c. 1150, depicting a  demon  inducing an abortion by pounding the abdomen of a pregnant woman with a  pestle [ 91 ] [ 181 ]


"French Periodical Pills" was an example of a clandestine advertisement published in a January 1845 edition of the  Boston Daily Times . [ 210 ]


Legality of abortion by country or territory       Legal on request:          No  gestational limit           Gestational limit after the first 17 weeks          Gestational limit in the first 17 weeks          Unclear gestational limit      Legally restricted to cases of:          Risk to woman's life ,  to her health *,  rape *,  fetal impairment *, or  socioeconomic factors           Risk to woman's life, to her health*, rape, or fetal impairment          Risk to woman's life, to her health*, or fetal impairment          Risk to woman's life*, to her health*, or rape          Risk to woman's life or to her health          Risk to woman's life          Illegal with no exceptions          No information      * Does not apply to some countries or territories in that category    Note : In some countries or territories, abortion laws are modified by other laws,  regulations ,  legal principles  or  judicial decisions . This map shows their combined effect as implemented by the authorities.


Abortion rights activists in  São Paulo , Brazil


Stella Browne  was a feminist who campaigned for the liberalization of abortion law.


Aleck Bourne  was acquitted for performing an abortion on a rape survivor in 1938, a landmark case in the movement for abortion rights.


The  United States Supreme Court  membership in 1973 at the time of  Roe v. Wade


An advocate for the right to safe and legal abortion demonstrates with a sign.


Abortion legislation in EU countries


In October 2020,  protests break out  following changes to abortion laws in Poland.


Abortion rights campaigning in the Dominican Republic


'Legalize abortion now!' Abortion rights banner at the Argentine Parliament, December 10, 2020


An anti-abortion demonstration in  Rome  in 2019


"Each Life Matters" demonstration in  Madrid  in October 2009


An anti-abortion protest outside an abortion clinic in the  San Francisco Bay Area  in 1986


An anti-abortion advertisement on a truck in  Vancouver  in 2012


Human embryo  at 8-cell stage


An abortion clinic in  Zwolle , Netherlands (2019)


Vice President Harris and Governor Tim Walz visit an abortion clinic in Saint Paul, Minnesota on 14 March 2024


Operation Save America  members protest in front of an abortion clinic in  Jackson, Mississippi , during their 2006 National Event in that city.


TRAP syndrome . On the left, an acardiac twin which lacks both a heart and head. On the right, the "pump twin" which supplies the acardiac twin with blood. A selective termination of the acardiac twin reduces the risk of death of the pump twin.


Soviet  poster circa 1925. Title translation: "Abortions induced by either self-taught  midwives  or obstetricians not only maim the woman, they also often lead to death"


This woman's death was associated with an overdose of " oil of tanzy ," a traditional herbal abortifacient [ 24 ]  ( The Baltimore Sun , 7 December 1847)


A symbolic coat hanger on a  protest against abortion restriction  in  Kraków , Poland


World map of birth sex ratios, 2012


The  human sex ratio  at birth can vary for natural reasons as well as from sex-selective abortion. In many nations abortion is legal (see above map, dark blue).


Sign in an Indian hospital stating that prenatal sex determination is not done there and is illegal


Ultrasonography image showing the fetus is a boy


A roadside slogan calls motorists to crack down on medically unnecessary antenatal sex identification and sex-selective pregnancy termination practices. ( Daye, Hubei , 2008)


Roadside sign in Danshan Township, which reads "It is forbidden to discriminate against, abuse or abandon baby girls"


Birth sex ratios have dramatically changed in China since the implementation of the  One-Child Policy .


A map of India's child sex ratio, 2011.


The male to female sex ratio for India, based on its official census data from 1941 through to 2011. The data suggests the existence of high sex ratios before and after the arrival of ultrasound-based prenatal care and sex screening technologies in India.


Richard Bourke, 6th Earl of Mayo , who was  Governor-General of India  at the time of the  Female Infanticide Prevention Act, 1870 .


Pakistan  has a tradition of sex selection. Similarly with India, the tradition of  dowry  plays role.


Topography of the  Caucasus ,  a region at the border of  Europe  and  Asia , situated between the  Black  and the  Caspian  seas


Number of 'Missing Women' in the world, Our World in Data. [ 125 ]


Burying Babies in China (p.40, March 1865, XXII). There is a long tradition of  female infanticide in China . [ 133 ]


Infanticide committed by throwing an infant into the  Ganges river


A social awareness campaign in India against dowries


Wedding gifts for the son of the Imam of Delhi, India, with soldiers and 2000 guests. Large dowries are expected among several populations in South Asia, especially in India and Pakistan.


The  one child policy  in  China  has contributed to the imbalanced sex ratios. Image shows a community bulletin board in Nonguang Village,  Sichuan province , China, keeping track of the town's female population, listing recent births by name and noting that several thousand yuan of fines for unauthorized births remain unpaid from the previous year.


Sign in an Indian clinic reading "Prenatal disclosure of sex of foetus is prohibited under law" in English and Hindi


Socialists at a pro-abortion rights protest in Chicago, Illinois


Five National Abortion Campaign badges, United Kingdom, 1970


Soviet  poster  c.  1925 . Title translation: "Abortion induced by either self-taught  midwife  or obstetrician not only maims the woman, but also often leads to death."


Down syndrome karyotype


The result of an ultrasonography: a black and white image that shows a clear view of the interior abdomen


A dating  scan  at 12 weeks


Two  midwives  assisting a woman in labour on a  birthing chair  in the 16th century, from a work by  Eucharius Rößlin


Changing the composition of hemoglobin before and after birth. Also identifies the types of cells and organs in which the gene expression (data on  Wood W.G. , (1976).  Br. Med. Bull. 32, 282. )


Tubes filled with amniotic fluid for  amniocentesis


Amniotic cavity in human embryo 1.3 mm. long


Bilaminar embryonic disc  and amniotic cavity at  implantation site


Figure from a 2017  Nature Communications  paper describing an extra-uterine life support system, or "biobag", used to grow lamb fetuses. [ 1 ]


Electronically controlled ex utero roller culture system (technical steps during sEmbryo culture protocol) [ 33 ]


BRC Introduced the use of zebrafish as an animal model in biomedical research at Qatar University


Biosafety level 3 (BSL3) lab at BRC, Qatar University


Baby weighed as appropriate for gestational age


Relation of weight and  gestational age


1930 poster from the  Soviet Union  encouraging mothers to weigh their babies weekly


Disability-adjusted life years out of 100,000 lost due to any cause in 2004: [ 47 ]      no data      less than 9,250      9,250–16,000      16,000–22,750      22,750–29,500      29,500–36,250      36,250–43,000      43,000–49,750      49,750–56,500      56,500–63,250      63,250–70,000      70,000–80,000      more than 80,000


The amniotic sac from an  en caul  birth.


Right occipito-anterior


Straight occipito-anterior


Left occipito-anterior


Right occipito-transverse


Left occipito-transverse


Right occipito-posterior


Straight occipito-posterior


Left occipito-posterior


A mento-posterior face presentation,  William Smellie , 1792


The cervix is located in the lower part of the uterus and connects the uterine cavity to the vagina. The cervix consists of two parts; the upper part lies in the pelvic/abdominal cavity and the lower part is intravaginal.  [ 1 ]


Diagram showing an outline of the changes occurring during cervical ripening


Digital pelvic exam is used to measure the width of the opening of the cervix. [ 9 ]


Cervical mucus plug in women at high risk Vs low risk of preterm birth.


Cervix with a bluish-violet discolouration.


CPAM on chest radiograph in a newborn. Large cystic changes in the left lung, leading to a mediastinal shift to the right due to their mass effect.


Congenital pulmonary airway malformation in a fetus, ultrasound at 19 weeks -sagittal. Stomach top right of image, heart displaced to bottom left of image (anatomically on the right side of fetus.)


Congenital pulmonary airway malformation in a fetus, ultrasound at 19 weeks - transverse. Stomach on left image; heart on right image: displaced to right by cystic mass


An ultrasound showing an embryo measured to have a crown-rump length of 1.67 cm and estimated to have a gestational age of 8 weeks and 1 day


Diagram showing crown-rump length by gestational age. The blue line is the  mean  and the green area delimits the 3rd versus the 97th  percentile . [ 1 ]


Ultrasound image of the foetus at 12 weeks of pregnancy in a sagittal scan. Measurements of fetal Crown Rump Length (CRL).


Micrograph  of decidualized  endometrium  due to  exogenous   progesterone .  H&E stain .


Micrograph  of decidua in a lymph node.  H&E stain .


Photo of a genuine Sonicaid®, the original Doppler fetal monitor


Fetal Heart Rate and Activity Monitor - Baby Doppler


Example of a neural tube defect: Spina Bifida


Photograph of the Boston Lying-In Hospital in the United States [ 19 ]


Distribution of gestational age at childbirth among singleton live births, given both when  gestational age  is estimated by first trimester ultrasound and directly by last menstrual period. About 80% of childbirths occur between 37 and 41 weeks of gestational age, with a somewhat more narrow span when based on first trimester ultrasound. [ 11 ]


Facial characteristics of a child with FAS


A  label on alcoholic drinks  promoting zero alcohol during  pregnancy


Smooth philtrum seen on a six-month-old baby with FAS


Beer Street  and  Gin Lane , William Hogarth (1751)


Artist's depiction of a foetus at 38 weeks' gestation


An example of the use of  Doppler ultrasound  to examine the waveform within an artery; this technique is applied to the  middle cerebral artery  to diagnose  cerebral redistribution


Illustration of fundal height at various points during pregnancy


Timeline of pregnancy by gestational age


Distribution of gestational age at childbirth among singleton live births, given both when gestational age is estimated by first trimester ultrasound and directly by last menstrual period [ 11 ]


Stages in  prenatal development , showing  viability  and point of 50% chance of survival ( limit of viability ) at bottom. Weeks and months numbered by gestation.


Diagram of stages of developing  blastocyst  in the human until implantation


Illustration of an implanting embryo


Early formation of placenta


Fetal-maternal interface showing uterine milk


Map of countries by fertility rate (2020), according to the  Population Reference Bureau


Maternal Mortality Rate  worldwide, as defined by the number of maternal deaths per 100,000 live births from any cause related to or aggravated by pregnancy or its management, excluding accidental or incidental causes. [ 116 ]


Some fathers fully participate in the birth of their children


Father learns how to care for "practice baby"


Military father in the "empathy belly" during a Baby Boot Camp  workshop on the basics of newborn care.


Diagram of the meiotic phases, showing how the chromosomes look in metaphase II


The process of fertilization in the ovum of a mouse, showing pronuclei.


Diagram showing the creation of polar bodies.


Integrated neonatal life support system


The United Kingdom's first neonatal transport ambulance shown outside Charing Cross Hospital in London (1968).  The ambulance was possible thanks to the generosity of the Variety Club charity.


Herbert Barrie taking delivery of the neonatal ambulance, pictured with his senior nurse (Hazel Maycock) and Dr Stanley Balfour-Lynn of the Variety Club.


A newborn stabilised and ready for transport


Forceps


The diagram compares the size and shape of the pelvis as the infant's skull must move through it for the Chimpanzee,  Australopithecus afarensis  and  Homo sapiens sapiens . This comparison is one of the pieces of evidence physical anthropologists use to support the Obstetrical Dilemma hypothesis


A male pelvis (left) compared to a female pelvis (right) from a posterolateral view. Differences in the sciatic notch and overall shape of the ilium can be observed.


Osmotic dilators prior to expansion. Dilapan-S (left). Laminaria (right)


Osmotic dilators after soaking in water for 24 hours. Dilapan-S (left). Laminaria (right). This does not represent the amount of expansion that will be occur when used in humans.


Partograph


The traditional method of aiding birth by gradual painless stretching over time (skin tissue expansion)


Perineal massage with oil


Perineal protection during the birth of the head [ 15 ]


The muscles of the female  perineum . Pelvic floor muscles may be damaged in childbirth, the severity of which may be assessed using a  perineometer


Human placenta after expulsion


Mother with newborn baby


Infant placed directly on the chest following childbirth


Postpartum uterine massage helps the uterus to contract after the placenta has been expelled in the acute phase.


Infant nursing shortly after birth


Woman nurses twins six days after birth. The  linea nigra  is still visible.


Adult diapers may be worn in the subacute postpartum period for lochia, as well as urinary and fecal incontinence.


A mother in  Florence   lying-in , from a painted  desco da parto  or birth tray of c. 1410. As women tend to the child, expensively dressed female guests are already arriving.


William Hunter ,  Anatomia uteri humani gravidi tabulis illustrata , 1774


Melasma : pigment changes to the face due to pregnancy


In the later part of pregnancy the uterus takes up much of the abdomen.


Timeline of pregnancy, including (from top to bottom): Trimesters, embryo/fetus development,  gestational age  in weeks and months, viability and maturity stages


Distribution of  gestational age  at childbirth among singleton live births, given both when gestational age is estimated by first trimester ultrasound and directly by last menstrual period. [ 37 ]  Roughly 80% of births occur between 37 and 41 weeks of gestational age.


Fertilization and implantation in humans.


The initial stages of  human embryogenesis


The  uterus  expands making up a larger and larger portion of the abdomen.  During the final stages of gestation the uterus may drop to a lower position.


Breast changes as seen during pregnancy. The areolae are larger and darker.


End of second trimester + 2 weeks (26 weeks of pregnancy)


Linea nigra  in a woman at 22 weeks pregnant


Flowchart showing the recommended weight limits for lifting at work during pregnancy as a function of lifting frequency, weeks of gestation, and the position of the lifted object relative to the lifter's body. [ 85 ] [ 86 ]


Measurement of the belly and weight are both performed by pregnant women during her pregnancy


A pregnant woman and her colleague returning from fishing, Gurara River bridge,  Kachia , Nigeria.


CT scanning  ( volume rendered  in this case) confers a  radiation dose  to the developing fetus.


A pregnant woman undergoing an  ultrasound . Ultrasound is used to check on the growth and development of the fetus.


The Visitation :  Mary , pregnant with  Jesus , visiting pregnant  Elizabeth , depicted as a statue at the  Church of the Visitation  in  Ein Karem , Israel.


A modern hormone pregnancy test, showing a positive result


A series of pregnancy test strips, taken one per day at the beginning of a pregnancy


This image depicts how the hormone hCG, produced by pregnant women's placentas, is detected in urine pregnancy tests to indicate a positive result.


Single intrauterine pregnancy, first trimester. The gestational sac is pictured (black-appearing on ultrasound) containing a fetal pole and yolk sac (circular structure beneath fetal pole.)


The control line of this pregnancy test is blank, making the test invalid.


The control line on the left of this pregnancy test is visible, suggesting that the test result is valid. A pale purple line has also appeared on the right hand side (the test line) which clearly signifies that the subject is pregnant.


Jan Steen 's  The Doctor's Visit .  Included in this 17th-century painting is a depiction of a dubious pregnancy test: a ribbon dipped in the patient's urine and then burned. [ 34 ]


The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis responds to stress with the release of glucocorticoids from the adrenal gland.


Presentation of twins in  Der Rosengarten  ("The Rose Garden"), a German standard medical text for  midwives  published in 1513


Newborn infant with severe Rhesus disease, suffering from  hydrops fetalis . The infant did not survive. [ 3 ]


Ultrasound images and electrocardiogram of an infant with  hydrops fetalis  as the result of severe Rh disease. A) Ultrasound image of the fetal head showing scalp edema (arrow); (B) ultrasound image showing high abundance ascites (arrow) on a sagittal section of the abdomen; (C) Sinusoidal type fetal heart rate recording [ 3 ]


Image of a positive  Kleihauer–Betke test ; the pink smudges are foetal-haemoglobin-containing red blood cells that have entered maternal circulation.


A rose on Roses Revolution Day 2023 in front of  Vienna General Hospital


Photo of a genuine Sonicaid®


β-hemolytic colonies of  Streptococcus agalactiae , blood agar 18h at 36°C


Streptococcus agalactiae  on granada agar, anaerobic incubation


Granadaene


Positive CAMP test indicated by the formation of an arrowhead where  Streptococcus agalactiae  meets the  Staphylococcus aureus  (white middle streak)


Gram stain of  Streptococcus agalactiae .


Red colonies of  S.agalactiae  in granada agar. Vagino-rectal culture 18h incubation 36°C anaerobiosis


Streptococcus agalactiae  colonies in chromogenic medium (ChromID CPS chromogenic agar)


Striae gravidarum in a pregnant woman at 38 weeks


Ovarian teratoma with hair inside


Mature teratoma of the mediastinum: A horizontal slice of the resected tumor reveals fibrofatty tissue, calcified areas, and a few cystic spaces lined with smooth membrane and containing a hair. In the left lower corner, the involved B5 bronchus is evident.


CT showing a teratoma of the ovary: fatty formation with a smooth boundary, with a dense part, possibly a tooth.


Micrograph  of a teratoma showing tissue from all three  germ layers :  mesoderm  (immature  cartilage  - left-upper),  endoderm  (gastrointestinal glands - center-bottom) and  ectoderm  (epidermis - right)


Ovarian tumors  by  incidence  and risk of  ovarian cancer , with mature cystic teratoma at bottom and  immature teratoma  at right. [ 55 ]


"A Peasant Mother and her Twilight Sleep Boy" from  Painless childbirth in twilight sleep : a complete history of twilight sleep from its beginning in 1903 to its present development in 1915, including its successful use in Great Britain to-day  by Hanna Rion


Knitted Bellyband with conductive thread and RFID chip to monitor contractions


Visual depiction of placental abruption


CMV placentitis


Micrograph  of a  pap test  showing changes (upper right of image) associated with  herpes simplex virus , a vertically transmitted infection


A mother participating in a water birth.


A birth pool at the  Royal Women's Hospital , Australia


Symptoms of menopause


Size of the  vaginal canal  before and after menopause, demonstrating vaginal  atrophy


Bone mineral density, especially of the vertebrae, decreases with menopause.


Bone loss  due to menopause occurs due to changes in a  woman's hormone levels .


Sandoz Estradiol Transdermal System with oral progestin


Atrophy of vaginal mucosa that occurs with menopause


The risks of  coronary heart disease  with HRT vary depending on age and time since menopause.


Clot in the greater  saphenous vein ; oral estrogen is associated with increased risk of venous blood clots due to increased liver formation of  vitamin K -dependent  clotting factors .


Endometrial cancer can be associated with HRT, particularly in those not taking a  progestogen .


An intrauterine device can be used to receive HRT.


Hand fans, which are useful for combating menopausal hot flushes


Lesions in the brain as indicated by arrows.


An illustration depicting the differences between a  Western diet  and a Mediterranean diet.


Female reproductive system


The vulva


Male reproductive system


Penile shrinkage due to low temperatures. The scrotum is in a tense state to regulate testicular temperatures.


Anatomy of the testis


Rate of  sexually transmitted diseases in the U.S


Tail end of human embryo, from eight and a half to nine weeks old.


1 - 7: Homologous male and female pelvic organs.


Diagrams that show the development of male and female organs from a common precursor. Sperm ducts and fallopian tubes are not homologous, as the sperm ducts originate from the Wolffian ducts, whereas the fallopian tubes originate from the Müllerian ducts.


Homologous structures in the external genitalia


Stages in the development of the external sexual organs in the male and female:  A: Undifferentiated B: Female C: Male D: Female E: Male F: Female


Development of external genitalia


Orchis militaris , a member of the  Orchidaceae  family. The genus name originates in the Ancient Greek ὄρχις (órkhis), or "testicle", due to the shape of the twin tubers.


Flower of  Clitoria ternatea


Amorphophallus titanum


Phallus impudicus


The human male urethra laid open on its anterior (upper) surface


Micrograph  of  urethral cancer  ( urothelial cell carcinoma ), a rare problem of the urethra.


Diagram of a human spermatozoa showing the acrosome


Scrotal ultrasonography  of an 85-year-old man with  hydrocele , making the appendix of the testicle clearly distinctive as a 4 mm outpouching at upper right in image.  Doppler  shows some blood flow.


Ectopic crossed fused kidney in a fetus approx. 34 weeks


The anatomy of the male urethra


Micrograph  of the  rete testis .  H&E stain .


Umbilical urachal sinus


Vaginal vault


Copper T-shaped IUD with removal strings


A  CycleBeads  tool, used for estimating fertility based on days since last menstruation


A split dose of two  emergency contraceptive  pills


Maternal mortality rate as of 2010. [ 132 ]


Birth control use and  total fertility rate  by region.


Map of countries by fertility rate (2020)


World map colored according to modern birth control use. Each shading level represents a range of six percentage points, with usage less than or equal to:             6%      12%      18%      24%          30%      36%      48%      60%          66%      78%      86%      No data


Demand for family planning satisfied by modern methods as of 2017. [ 140 ]


Ancient silver coin from  Cyrene  depicting a stalk of  silphium


"And the villain still pursues her", a satirical  Victorian era  postcard


The viewpoint that pregnancy, or at least  morally significant human life , begins at the exact moment that sperm and egg interact is highly controversial, although it is commonly held by groups such as the  Roman Catholic Church  and many traditionally  religious  individuals, and other alternate viewpoints are put forth. [ 1 ]


A young Rhinelander who was classified as a  bastard  and  hereditarily unfit  under the Nazi regime


A map from a 1929 Swedish royal commission report displays the U.S. states that had implemented sterilization legislation by then


Bilingual poster in English and Spanish for a rally against forced sterilization


A political map of  Puerto Rico


The Implanon is a 4–5 cm long arm implant.


This page from Sanger's  Family Limitation , 1917 edition, describes a   cervical cap .


Cover of Marie Stopes's bestseller,  Married Love .


Map of countries by fertility rate (2024), according to the  Population Reference Bureau


World population growth rate 1950–2050


World population 1950–2010


World population 1800-2000


China's population distribution in 2012, 2015 and 2020


Diagram of an open vasectomy


A rolled-up condom


A diagram of the mechanism of action of vas-occlusive contraceptive methods.


A chart summarizes the CDC recommendations regarding contraceptive use with medical conditions. (Full link under External links)


The 28-day menstrual cycle is depicted; the cycle starts at the onset of the age at menarche.


This picture portrays the different stages a woman will experience between first becoming fertile at menarche through menopause. The different colors on the graph represent different things as well. The red stands for areas relating to a woman's menstrual cycle, the green represents marriage, blue means birth, and black regards menopause and conception at different areas of the diagram. The purple arrows show the period of gestation following conception, and the orange arrows show lactational infecundability.


Some tribes of the San people are considered to practice natural fertility because they do not use any forms of birth control


The three main reasons for practicing natural fertility include financial status, accessibility to family planning, and religious influences.  [1] [2] [3]


Percentage of women using modern contraception as of 2010


The  Red Triangle  is used to indicate family planning products and services in many developing countries.


Male (or "external")  condoms  can be used to cover the  penis  for safer sex during  vaginal  or  anal  insertion or  fellatio .


Dental dams  can be used to cover the  vulva  or  anus  when engaging in  cunnilingus  or  anilingus , respectively, for safer sex.


Female condoms  ("internal" condoms) can be used by receptive partners for safer sex.


A poster promotes condom use.


A poster aimed at lesbians says "Low risk isn't no risk". It uses the expression "safer sex".


Watercolor  of  manual stimulation  of the penis,  Johann Nepomuk Geiger , 1840


How to put a male condom on a penis


Two  sex toys intended for anal use  (note the flared bases)


Two women protesting about victim-blaming and slut-shaming at New York City's  SlutWalk  in October 2011


A  label on alcoholic drinks  promoting zero alcohol during  pregnancy


Pewter vaginal syringe in case, 19th century.


Li Shiu Tong  (also known as Tao Li) and Magnus Hirschfeld at the 1932 WLSR conference in Brno


Approximate  pregnancy rate  ( r s ) varies with amount of sperm used in a cycle ( n r ). Values are for intrauterine insemination, with sperm number in  total sperm count , which may be approximately twice the  total motile sperm count . (Old data, rates are likely higher today.)


Intracytoplasmic sperm injection , the most common method of fertilisation using posthumously extracted sperm.


Electron microscopy  image depicting sperm and egg in the process of  fertilization


Semen and urine samples being donated at a sperm bank.


Martin van Maële 's print  Francion 15


Two gulls that appear to be exhibiting affection


A  stallion  with an erect penis


Some human erogenous zones


Elephant copulation.


Sonograms of female copulatory vocalizations of a human female (top), female baboon (middle), and female gibbon (bottom), [ 19 ]  with time being plotted on the x-axis and the  pitch  being represented on the y-axis.


Different studies estimating timing of preputial separation in children and teens


Once the foreskin has naturally separated from the  glans , the foreskin's two layers of outer skin and inner mucosa can be retracted to reveal the glans and inner foreskin.


The foreskin typically covers the glans when the penis is not erect (top image), but generally retracts upon erection (bottom image). Coverage of the glans in a flaccid and erect state varies depending on foreskin length.


Preputioplasty: Fig 1. Penis with tight  phimotic ring  making it difficult to retract the foreskin. Fig 2. Foreskin retracted under anaesthetic with the phimotic ring or  stenosis  constricting the shaft of the penis and creating a "waist". Fig 3. Incision closed laterally. Fig 4. Penis with the loosened foreskin replaced over the glans.


Human neonatal dermal  fibroblasts  isolated from foreskin stained with  calcein-AM . Such cells are commonly used in  bioreactor  and  tissue engineering  applications.


Touching G-spot in natural ways [ 14 ]


Internal anatomy of the clitoris, vestibular bulbs indicated


During the  sexual arousal  phase, there is increased  blood pressure  in the genitals; this leads to  swelling  of the  penis  (top row), or  clitoris  and  labia  (bottom row).


Dilation and constriction of the pupil


A human adult exhibiting voluntary control over his iris muscles, where he can cause his pupil to dilate and constrict on command


Constricted (left) and dilated (right) pupil of the same eye


Scheme showing sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation of the pupil and sites of lesion in a Horner's syndrome


Sympathetic connections of the ciliary and superior cervical ganglia


Feather tickling can intensify a sexual feeling. [ 1 ]


Neck licking is a form of light sensual play.


A woman tickled sensually (1869)


Nipple biting (1799)


Basic processes involved:  1.  maturity ; 2.  spermatogenesis  and  oogenesis ; 3.  vaginal intercourse  with  internal fertilization ;  4.  zygote ; 5.  embryonic development ;  6.  childbirth ; 7.  adolescence .


"Coition of a Hemisected Man and Woman" ( c.  1492 ) by  Leonardo da Vinci


Chance of  fertilization  by  menstrual cycle  day relative to ovulation [ 15 ]


Newborn infant and mother


Steps of IVF Treatment


Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI)


Number of assisted reproductive technology cycles in Europe between 1997 and 2014 [ 35 ] [ 36 ]


Conditions of assisted reproductive technology in different European countries: [ 35 ] [ 38 ]      ART authorized for lesbian couples      ART authorized for single women      ART authorized for single women and lesbian couples      ART prohibited for single women and lesbian couples


Childlessness at the age of 30


Process of pre-implantation genetic diagnosis.  In vitro  fertilisation involves either incubation of sperm and oocyte together, or injection of sperm directly into the oocyte. PCR - polymerase chain reaction, FISH - fluorescent  in situ  hybridisation.


CRISPR-Cas9. PAM (Protospacer Adjacent Motif) is required for target binding.


DNA repair after double-strand break


He Jiankui speaking at the Second International Summit on Human Genome Editing, November 2018


Diagram showing steps involved in  intracytoplasmic sperm injection . Insemination fraud could occur in the third step.


Diagram of  injection  of a  spermatozoon  into a human  egg cell


State penalizes some form of fertility fraud      An active bill is pending


Igor Lord Judge , who gave a landmark ruling in relation to forced fatherhood.


Indirect  advertisements  for abortion services, like these in  The Sun  in 1842, were common during the  Victorian era . At the time, abortion was illegal in New York. [ 1 ]


Bas relief  at  Angkor Wat ,  c.  1150 , depicting a  demon  performing an abortion upon a woman who has been sent to the underworld


Cyrenian   coin  with an image of  silphium , a contraceptive plant, but could also have been an  abortifacient


Art from a 13th-century  illuminated manuscript  features a  herbalist  preparing a concoction containing  pennyroyal  for a woman.


"Admonition against abortion". Late 19th-century Japanese  Ukiyo-e   woodblock print.


An 1845 ad for "French Periodical Pills" warns against use by women who might be "en ciente [ sic ]" (" enceinte " is French for "pregnant").


Suggestive advertisement for the use of  Beecham's Pills  as an abortifacient. The text at the bottom notes that the pills "assist nature in her wondrous functions".


"The Female Abortionist".  Madame Restell  is portrayed as a  villainess  in an 1847 copy of the  National Police Gazette .


"Dr. Miller's Female Monthly Powders" ad copy reprinted in an 1858 article condemning such advertising


The feminist  Stella Browne  was a major figure in the campaign for the liberalization of abortion law.


Aleck Bourne  was acquitted for performing an abortion on a rape victim in 1938, a landmark case in the movement for abortion rights.


The  Soviet Union  first legalized abortion in 1920. The  poster   c.  1925  warns against  unsafe abortion . Title translation: "Abortions performed by either self-taught midwives or obstetricians not only maim the woman, they also often lead to death."


The  United States Supreme Court  membership in 1973 at the time of  Roe v. Wade


Stained human sperm


Diagram of human sperm cell


Diagram of human penis


Interactive heat map  of ratios of births on each day of the year to the average, in USA (top) and England and Wales (bottom) [Legend and sources]


A ranking based on how many babies were born in the United States on that date between 1973 and 1999


Histogram  of abortions by  gestational age  in  England and Wales  during 2019.


Abortion in the United States by gestational age, 2016. (Data source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)


Inconsolable grief by  Ivan Kramskoi


Ovulation occurs about midway through the  menstrual cycle , after the  follicular phase , and is followed by the  luteal phase . Note that ovulation is characterized by a sharp spike in levels of  luteinizing hormone  (LH) and  follicle-stimulating hormone  (FSH), resulting from the peak of  estrogen  levels during the follicular phase.


Chance of  fertilization  by day relative to ovulation [ 29 ]


The human Y chromosome showing the SRY gene which codes for a protein regulating sexual differentiation.


Figure One: The mesonephric System Pathway  [ 7 ]


Development of external genitalia


Sexual intercourse in the  missionary position  depicted by  Édouard-Henri Avril  (1892)


Modern artwork of a couple engaged in  vaginal intercourse


19th-century  erotic  interpretation of Roman emperor  Hadrian  and  Antinous  engaged in anal intercourse, by  Édouard-Henri Avril


Édouard-Henri Avril  depiction of a  woman on top position , a position that is more likely to stimulate the clitoris [ 58 ]


Édouard-Henri Avril  depiction of  cunnilingus  in the life of  Sappho


Chance of  fertilization  by  menstrual cycle  day relative to ovulation [ 70 ]


"Coition of a Hemisected Man and Woman" (c. 1492), an interpretation of what happens inside the body during coitus, by  Leonardo da Vinci


Painting of a couple (an Indian prince and lady) prolonging sexual intercourse


Erotic painting on ancient Greek  kylix


Max Slevogt  depiction of rape


Lawrence Alma-Tadema  depiction of  courtship  and a  marriage proposal


A pair of  lions copulating  in the  Maasai Mara ,  Kenya


Mating  houseflies


Post-traumatic leakage of sperm provoking a granulomatous reaction.


Diagram of the proposed method of lesbian egg fusion. However, this would also require correction of  genomic imprinting .


Diagram of the IUI procedure


Intracytoplasmic sperm injection


IVF drugs


Surrogate parents attending birth


Tampons and menstrual cup


A  menstrual pad  with wings


The elements of a tampon with applicator. Left: the bigger tube ("penetrator"). Center: cotton tampon with attached string. Right: the narrower tube.


Reusable cloth menstrual pad with  Kokopelli  motif.


A  menstrual cup


Menstrual panty


Menstrual hygiene product dispenser


An early commercial menstrual product in the form of a menstrual belt. Illustration from 1911.


Instructions on how to fold a piece of fabric to be used as a menstrual pad. At the bottom, how to fasten the pad with cord to the waistband is demonstrated. From the German book  The woman as a family doctor , 1911.


Homemade knitted menstrual pad


Camelia Populär brand  sanitary napkin  from military stocks for nurses, circa 1942


Basket of various cloth menstrual pads


Cloth menstrual pads ranging from liners to overnight pads.


Two women dancing and menstruating. Rock art by  Indigenous Australians  from the Upper Yule River,  Pilbara , Western Australia. [ 1 ]


Angolan ( Yombe )  fetish  to regulate menstruation


" Laban is looking for the idols. " by  Giovanni Battista Tiepolo


In spite of being born to  Bhudevi  and  Varaha ,  Narakasura  (shown here being killed by  Krishna ) turned out to be evil because he was conceived when his mother was undergoing menstruation.


Keddaso - Menstruation of Mother Earth celebration in Tulunadu, Karnataka


Women between 10 and 50 years of age were legally banned from entering Sabarimala between 1991 and 2018.


Kamakhya   Puja festival


Sign reading: "It's prohibited to enter without decent dress and for woman having menstruation", Bali, 1979


A car in Paris with menstrual pads stuck to the windows.


Menstrual pads


A  CAT scan  of a uterine fibroid


Vaginal douche apparatus with five quart tank from 1905 nursing text


The "fountain syringe" is used for douching, by replacing the attached  enema  nozzle with the vaginal nozzle (shown bottom left). The vaginal nozzle is longer and thicker and has lateral holes


Woman using a female urination device, to adapt to standard men's room urinals


A woman urinating into a male urinal in a standing position, without using a device.


Candida albicans


Gram stain of lactobacilli and squamous epithelial cells in vaginal swab


Bacteroides


Fusobacterium


Staphylococcus epidermidis 01


Enterococcus faecalis


Escherichia coli (257 06) Gramnegative rods


Candida albicans  ( Gram stain )


Row of madamePee cabins at an outdoor event.


madamePee cabin (side view with a partition removed)


Left:  blue bell-shaped thick-walled menstrual cup (also called a menstrual bell);  right:  pink bowl-shaped thin-walled cup (also called a menstrual disc or ring). Note crumpling of the ring-shaped cup.


Cross-sectional diagram showing the  uterus , cervix, fornix on either side of the cervix, vagina, and  pubic bone . Ring-shaped cups lie in the upper portion of the vagina, with the inner edge in the posterior fornix and outer one held in behind the pubic bone, within the  pelvic floor .


Menstrual cups can be emptied into a  cathole


Pulling against a vacuum  does not work ; the seal must be broken before removing a bell-shaped cup.


Almost all manufacturers recommend boiling new cups before the first use. [ 46 ]


Rubbery, elastomer interdental brush


Two menstrual cups with breathable cotton storage bags, one undyed.


A bell-shaped cup made from  latex .


A disposable ring-shaped cup, made of  Kraton , [ 134 ] [ 135 ]  "a proprietary blend of soft biocompatible polymer compounds in conformance with the United States Pharmacopoeia XIX Class VI criteria for plastics." [ 24 ]


Many cups are uncoloured, but others contain colourants, usually unspecified, and either food- or medical-grade.


Menstrual cups reduce the frequency with which bins near a toilet need to be emptied.


A large menstrual cup (center) can hold about three times as much liquid as a large tampon.


Women in Meru, Kenya, examining a menstrual cup.


Reading in the book "Growth and change" about menstruation and puberty (Tanzania)


Celebration of  Menstrual Hygiene Day  in Amra Padatik, India


School toilets for girls in  Tanzania , if they exist, often have no facilities to dispose of pads.


A period product dispenser in a bathroom in a public school in Victoria


Recyclable sanitary care box in Montevideo


Menstrual pads


Different sized maxipads


Different brands on a shelf


Platinum maxipad


Reusable cloth menstrual pad with  Kokopelli  motif


Modern reusable cloth pads in differing sizes


An advertisement poster for Hartmann's pads, dated circa 1900. "Accouchement" means childbirth, and "puerperal fever" is a  postpartum infection .


Bag for pads


Sanitary napkin belt advertisement 1920


A merkin (with flashlight) worn by a woman to cover her pubic area.


Pantyliner


Red box with free products


A tampon pictured with an application device


Red and black period panties


Black period panties


Gender-based price difference between Byly deodorants for women (50 mL) vs men (75 mL). Both are sold for $5.99 CAD at Uniprix in Quebec, Canada.


Placenta and its tissue layers


A tampon in its dry, unused state


A tampon (magenta) inserted into the vagina (blue) to collect blood from the uterus (green)


A tampon with applicator


The elements of a tampon with applicator. Left: the bigger tube ("penetrator"). Center: cotton tampon with attached string. Right: the narrower tube.


Applicator tampon


The main elements of a tampon depicted, labeling the tampon, plunger, barrel, finger grip, and string


Two water drop marks mean that the absorbency is between 6 and 9 g.


Unused (left) and used (right) tampon


Lactobacilli and a vaginal  squamous  cell


Glycogen is the complex form of sugar present in the  vaginal epithelium  that is metabolized into lactic acid


Gram stain of lactobacilli and squamous epithelial cells in vaginal swab


Gram stain of a vaginal swab showing gonococci (in pairs - arrow) inside polymorphonuclear granulocytes


Vaginal squamous cell with normal vaginal flora versus  bacterial vaginosis  on  Pap stain . Normal vaginal flora (left) is predominantly rod-shaped  Lactobacilli , whereas in bacterial vaginosis (right) there is an overgrowth of bacteria, which can be of various species.


Acrosome reaction on a sea urchin cell


Acrosomal Reaction


Baculum of a  dog's penis ; the arrow shows the urethral sulcus, which is the groove in which the urethra lies.


A raccoon baculum


Walrus baculum, around 22 inches (56 cm) long


The prevalence of enlarged prostate, and symptoms of an enlarged prostate, in men of different ages. [ 9 ] [ 10 ]   Graphic from NHS England. [ 11 ]


Benign prostate hyperplasia


Things that you can try if you have symptoms of an enlarged prostate, according to the NHS in England [ 11 ] .


Things to avoid if you have symptoms of an enlarged prostate, according to the NHS in England [ 11 ] .


The effectiveness of alpha-blockers and 5-ARIs, and a combination of the two, versus placebo pills, in improving symptoms of an enlarged prostate. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ]   Graphic from NHS England. [ 11 ]


The frequency of side effects from alpha-blockers and 5-ARIs. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ] [ 87 ] [ 88 ] [ 89 ]   Graphic from NHS England. [ 11 ]


Transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP)


The effectiveness of different surgeries and minimally-invasive procedures for enlarged prostate. [ 106 ] [ 107 ] [ 108 ] [ 109 ] [ 110 ] [ 111 ] [ 112 ] [ 113 ] [ 114 ] [ 115 ] [ 116 ] [ 117 ] [ 118 ] [ 119 ] [ 120 ] [ 121 ] [ 122 ] [ 108 ] [ 123 ] [ 124 ] [ 125 ] [ 126 ] [ 127 ] [ 128 ] [ 129 ] [ 111 ] [ 130 ] [ 112 ] [ 131 ] [ 132 ] [ 133 ] [ 134 ] [ 117 ] [ 135 ] [ 136 ]  Graphic from NHS England. [ 11 ]


The outcomes from different surgeries and minimally-invasive procedures for enlarged prostate.Graphic from NHS England. [ 11 ]


Frequencies of side-effects from different surgeries and minimally-invasive procedures for enlarged prostate. [ 137 ] [ 138 ] [ 139 ] [ 140 ] [ 141 ] [ 108 ] [ 124 ] [ 142 ] [ 112 ] [ 143 ] [ 144 ] [ 145 ] [ 121 ] [ 146 ] [ 147 ] [ 148 ] [ 149 ] [ 150 ] [ 130 ] [ 151 ] [ 152 ] [ 116 ] [ 153 ] [ 113 ] [ 154 ] [ 136 ] [ 155 ] [ 135 ] [ 156 ] [ 117 ] [ 157 ] [ 158 ] [ 159 ] [ 160 ] [ 120 ] [ 161 ] [ 162 ]   Graphic from NHS England. [ 163 ]


Disability-adjusted life year  for benign prostatic hyperplasia per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004 [ 168 ]      no data      less than 20      20–28      28–36      36–44      44–52      52–60      60–68      68–76      76–84      84–92      92–100      more than 100


A 15th century  Ottoman  medical illustration by  Sabuncuoğlu Şerafeddin  depicting an operation for castration


The Castration of  Uranus : fresco by  Vasari  and  Cristofano Gherardi  ( c.  1560 , Sala di Cosimo I,  Palazzo Vecchio ,  Florence )


Chief Eunuch of  Abdul Hamid II  (1912)


The procedure of castration as punishment during the 16th century


An Italian soldier who was castrated and emasculated during the  Second Italo-Ethiopian War .


A mule being castrated


Rubber rings and pliers used in  elastration


Area A (in orange) represents the area of sensory fibers controlled by the genitofemoral nerve; area B (in green) represents that controlled by the ilioinguinal nerve; arrow C (in red with blue outline) shows the location where the skin must be stroked to elicit this reflex.


During the emission phase of ejaculation, sperm travels from the  epididymis  through the  vas deferens  mixing with fluids from the  male accessory glands  as it enters the urethra. During the expulsion phase, rhythmic contractions of the  pelvic floor  and  bulbospongiosus muscles  expel the semen from the penis through the  urinary meatus  in several spurts.


Diagram of the male pelvic and reproductive organs


Ovarian tumours  by  incidence  and risk of  ovarian cancer , with adult granulosa cell tumour at right [ 7 ]


Histopathology of adult granulosa cell tumor, from a testis. It forms nest and cord composed of small cells with scant cytoplasm and typical grooved, coffee bean-like nuclei, resembling its ovarian counterpart. (H&E stain). [ 11 ]


Gynecomastia of boys going through  puberty


An exceptional case of extreme gynecomastia in a 63-year-old man, treated with the  nonsteroidal antiandrogen   flutamide  for prostate cancer. (a) With flutamide; (b) after discontinuation of flutamide. [ 34 ]  More than 90% of cases of gynecomastia with nonsteroidal antiandrogens including flutamide are mild to moderate. [ 35 ] [ 36 ]


Pathology: A large glandular mass of male breast tissue, surgically removed


Microscopic image  showing gynecomastoid hyperplasia, the cellular changes seen in gynecomastia  H&E stain


Gynecomastoid hyperplasia - Low magnification


Male with asymmetrical gynecomastia, before and after excision of the gland and liposuction of the waist


Pearly penile papules closeup image


Before and after treatment to remove pearly penile papules


Diagram showing how to measure the length and circumference of an erect human penis


A large,  uncircumcised  human penis, flaccid and erect. Flaccid length is a poor predictor for erect length.


Distribution of penis sizes by length. 45% of erect penises are between 12 and 14 cm long. [ 2 ]


Distribution of penis sizes by circumference. 81% of erect penises (green) are between 10 and 13 cm in circumference. [ 2 ]


Percentile of penile length [ 2 ]


Percentile of penile circumference [ 2 ]


Mean erect length with measurements


Two possible causes of pain for the female during  penile-vaginal intercourse  shown with diagrams of the female anatomy


Various size erect penises. There are large individual differences in penis size and shape.


Measuring erect micropenis


David  (1504) by Michelangelo


Portrait of Lodovico Caponi  (painted  c.  1550–1555) by  Angelo Bronzino  shows a  codpiece  peeking from underneath the young man's jacket. [ 67 ]  Larger codpieces were regarded as more fashionable. [ 67 ]


Sign in  South Africa  advertising  penis enlargement


Sigurður Hjartarson, founder of the Icelandic Phallological Museum (2009)


A bull's penis similar to this one, intended for use as a  bullwhip , was given to the museum's founder when he was a boy and sparked a lasting interest in penises.


The former exhibition room in Húsavík, 2008


The new exhibition space at the Icelandic Phallological Museum


Penises of  reindeers  on display at the museum


Penis and scrotum of a 95-year old Icelandic man


A plaster  lifecast  of  Jimi Hendrix 's penis, donated to the museum by  Cynthia Plaster Caster .


A plaster lifecast of Matt Barr,  cited by the museum as the world's largest penis [ 3 ]


Pregnant male seahorse


A symbol of men's health. The  caduceus  (blue) overlaying the male  gender symbol  (black).


Global comparison of life expectancy of men vs women in different countries


World Health Organization: Global Male-Female age standardized suicide rates (2015)


Comparison of penile implants (inflated cylinder diameter and length)


Penile implant pump design comparison


A diagram of an inflatable penile implant inserted into corpus cavernosum of the penis


Evoking an erection with an implanted penile implant


Risk of prostate cancer in two age groups based on  Free PSA  as % of Total PSA [ 65 ]


Biopsy specimen  of  yolk sac tumor  with Schiller-Duval body,  H&E stain


San Francisco City Clinic , an STI testing center in  San Francisco


Diagram of spermatic veins


Wound after microsurgical varicocelectomy


Sequence of images showing the stages of ordinary childbirth


The hormones initiating labour


Engagement of the fetal head


Newborn rests as caregiver checks breath sounds.


Kangaroo care  by father in  Cameroon


Share of births attended by skilled health staff [ 89 ]


Oxytocin facilitates labour and will follow a  positive feedback  loop.


Share of women that are expected to die from pregnancy-related causes


Mechanical fetal injury may be caused by improper rotation of the fetus.


Disability-adjusted life year  for neonatal infections and other (perinatal) conditions per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004. Excludes  prematurity  and low birth weight,  birth asphyxia  and  birth trauma  which have their own maps/data. [ 155 ]      no data      less than 150      150–300      300–450      450–600      600–750      750–900      900–1050      1050–1200      1200–1350      1350–1500      1500–1850      more than 1850


810 women die every day from preventable causes related to pregnancy and childbirth. 94% occur in low and lower middle-income countries.


Medieval woman, having given birth, enjoying her  lying-in  ( postpartum confinement ). France, 14th century.


A  Luristan bronze   fibula  showing a woman giving birth between two  antelopes , ornamented with  flowers . From Iran, 1000 to 650 BC, at the  Louvre museum .


Cost of childbirth in several countries in 2012 [ 176 ]


Model of pelvis used in the beginning of the 19th century to teach technical procedures for a successful childbirth. Museum of the History of Medicine,  Porto Alegre , Brazil


Normal Stages of Labor


Frank Breech Presentation (buttocks first) is the most common type of breech presentation


Umbilical cord prolapse


Moche – female figure in birthing position


An anesthetic medication is injected into the spine.


Babies on a cart at Manhattan Maternity and Dispensary in 1912


Normal fetal position (occiput anterior); back labour may occur if the fetus faces the opposite direction (occiput posterior).


Back labor can be painful. Relief may be sought by trying to find a comfortable position or using a birth ball.


Contraceptives, such as the birth control pill, can help increase inter-pregnancy interval, if desired.


Breastfeeding can increase time between births.


Countries by  birthright citizenship      Unconditional birthright citizenship for persons born in the country      Birthright citizenship with restrictions      Birthright citizenship abolished      No birthright citizenship


Systems of taxation on personal income     No income tax on individuals      Territorial      Residential      Citizenship-based


Legal regulation of surrogacy in the world:     Both gainful and altruistic forms are legal      No legal regulation      Legal only altruistically      Allowed between relatives up to second degree of consanguinity      Banned      Unregulated or uncertain situation