của công nghệ: Công nghệ này có nhược điểm là mất nhiều thời gian xử lý, hàm lượng chất dinh dưỡng thấp nên vẫn phải bổ sung nhiều thành phần dinh dưỡng bằng việc sử dụng phân bón hóa học; Công nghệ này không phù hợp với các cơ sở chăn nuôi qui mô lớn, lượng chất thải chăn nuôi nhiều.

3.3. Qui trình công nghệ sản xuất phân hữu cơ khoáng bằng dây truyền thiết bị công nghiệp

Trên cơ sở phương thức sản xuất phân bón truyển thống, đã có rất nhiều nghiên cứu về chế biến các loại phân hữu cơ sinh học từ phụ phẩm nông nghiệp và chất thải chăn nuôi nhằm giải quyết vấn đề ô nhiễm môi trường và tận dụng nguồn dinh dưỡng hữu cơ giàu có từ các nguyên liệu đó. Đây là loại phân hữu cơ được sản xuất theo một quy trình công nghệ nhất định, được bổ sung thêm các nguồn nguyên liệu khác ngoài chất thải chăn nuôi nhằm tăng hàm lượng chất dinh dưỡng trong sản phẩm, và đặc biệt được bổ sung thêm các chế phẩm vi sinh vật hữu hiệu giúp đẩy nhanh quá trình phân giải các hợp chất hữu cơ rút ngắn thời gian sản xuất phân bón.

3.3.1.Công nghệ sản xuất phân hữu cơ sinh học, hữu cơ khoáng từ chất thải chăn nuôi

Theo Bùi Huy Hiền và Phạm Văn Toàn (2017), Quy trình ủ phân từ phế thải chăn nuôi gồm nhiều công đoạn khác nhau như xử lý thô, ủ phân, bổ sung dinh dưỡng cho sản phẩm. Trong quy trình này, dung dịch dinh dưỡng cho vi sinh vật bao gồm 0.5 kg ri đường, 0.3 kg Ure, 50 lít nước sạch và 0,5kg chế phẩm vi sinh vật xử lý phế thải chăn nuôi được hòa đều và sử dụng để xử lý 1 tấn phế thải chăn nuôi. Sản phẩm cuối cùng tạo ra là phân hữu cơ hữu cơ sinh học có kích thước hạt phân ≤ 5,0mm và được đóng bao sản phẩm với khối lượng 25 hoặc 50kg trên thiết bị đóng bao chuyên dụng.

---

19

该技术的缺点是：这种技术处理时间长，营养成分含量低，因此仍需通过使用化肥来补充多种营养成分；此外，该技术不适用于大型养殖场，因为其畜禽废弃物量大。

3.3. 采用工业设备生产线生产有机无机复混肥的工艺流程

在传统肥料生产方法的基础上，已经有很多关于利用农业副产品和畜禽废弃物加工各种生物有机肥的研究，旨在解决环境污染问题并利用这些原料中丰富的有机营养来源。这是一种按照特定工艺流程生产的有机肥料，除畜禽废弃物外，还添加了其他原料来源，以增加产品中的营养成分含量，特别是添加了有效的微生物制剂，有助于加快有机化合物的分解过程，缩短肥料的生产时间。

3.3.1. 利用畜禽废弃物生产生物有机肥、有机无机复混肥的技术

根据裴辉贤和范文全(2017)的研究，利用畜禽废弃物堆肥的流程包括多个不同阶段，如初步处理、堆肥、为产品补充营养。在此流程中，微生物营养液包括0.5 kg糖蜜，0.3 kg尿素，50升洁净水和0.5kg畜禽废弃物处理微生物制剂，这些成分被均匀混合后用于处理1吨畜禽废弃物。最终产品为生物有机肥，肥料颗粒尺寸 ≤ 5,0mm，并在专用包装设备上以25或50kg的重量进行包装。

---

19

Of the technology: This technology has the disadvantages of a long processing time and low nutrient content, thus still requiring the supplementation of many nutrients through the use of chemical fertilizers; furthermore, this technology is not suitable for large-scale livestock farms with large amounts of animal waste.

3.3. Mineral Organic Fertilizer Production Technology Process Using Industrial Equipment Lines

Based on traditional fertilizer production methods, there have been many studies on processing various types of bio-organic fertilizers from agricultural by-products and livestock waste to address environmental pollution and utilize the rich source of organic nutrients from these raw materials. This is a type of organic fertilizer produced according to a specific technological process, supplemented with other raw material sources besides livestock waste to increase the nutrient content in the product, and especially supplemented with effective microbial preparations to accelerate the decomposition of organic compounds, shortening fertilizer production time.

3.3.1. Production Technology of Bio-Organic Fertilizer and Mineral Organic Fertilizer from Livestock Waste

According to Bùi Huy Hiền and Phạm Văn Toàn (2017), the composting process for livestock waste involves several different stages such as coarse processing, composting, and nutrient supplementation for the product. In this process, the nutrient solution for microorganisms includes 0.5 kg of nutrient substrate, 0.3 kg of Urea, 50 liters of clean water, and 0.5 kg of microbial preparation for livestock waste treatment, which are thoroughly mixed and used to treat 1 ton of livestock waste. The final product created is bio-organic fertilizer with a particle size ≤ 5.0mm and is packaged in 25 or 50kg bags using specialized packaging equipment.

---

19


今週のタイニュース

9月第3週

本周泰国新闻

9月第3周

This Week's Thai News

3rd Week of September


TUNA SALAD

سلطة التونة
صحيــــــة ولذيــــذة

Fresh

Delicious

Healthy

FORNO

金枪鱼沙拉

金枪鱼沙拉
健康又美味

新鲜

美味

健康

福尔诺

TUNA SALAD

Tuna Salad
Healthy and Delicious

Fresh

Delicious

Healthy

FORNO


23

---

thuộc vào đặc điểm tình hình, yêu cầu quản lý cụ thể của từng đơn vị để xây dựng những chứng từ nội bộ, phục vụ tốt cho yêu cầu quản lý của đơn vị;

- Hệ thống chứng từ kế toán Ngành BHXH đang áp dụng theo Thông tư 178/2012/TT-BTC ngày 23/10/2012 của Bộ trưởng Bộ Tài chính về việc hướng dẫn kế toán áp dụng cho BHXH Việt Nam; Nhà nước hướng dẫn các chỉ tiêu đặc trưng để các ngành, các thành phần kinh tế trên cơ sở đó vận dụng vào từng trường hợp cụ thể thích hợp. Các ngành, các lĩnh vực có thể thêm bớt một số chỉ tiêu cụ thể, thích hợp với yêu cầu và nội dung phản ánh nhưng phải bảo đảm những yếu tố cơ bản của chứng từ và có sự thỏa thuận bằng văn bản của Bộ Tài chính. Dù là chứng từ bắt buộc hay chứng từ hướng dẫn, nội dung của chứng từ kế toán phải có đầy đủ các yếu tố sau đây:

+ Tên chứng từ (hóa đơn, phiếu thu, phiếu chi...);

+ Số hiệu của chứng từ;

+ Ngày, tháng, năm lập chứng từ;

+ Tên, địa chỉ của đơn vị hoặc cá nhân lập chứng từ;

+ Nội dung nghiệp vụ kinh tế, tài chính phát sinh;

+ Số lượng, đơn giá và số tiền của nghiệp vụ kinh tế, tài chính ghi bằng số, tổng số tiền của chứng từ kế toán dùng để thu, chi tiền ghi bằng số và bằng chữ;

+ Chữ ký, họ tên của người lập, người duyệt và những người có liên quan đến chứng từ kế toán.

- Trình tự xử lý và luân chuyển chứng từ kế toán do kế toán trưởng, trưởng phòng tài chính kế toán, phụ trách kế toán quy định. Để đáp ứng yêu cầu quản lý kế toán, tài chính của đơn vị thì quá trình xử lý và luân chuyển chứng từ phải thực hiện qua các bước công việc cơ bản sau:

Quy trình luân chuyển chứng từ kế toán tại đơn vị BHXH gồm 4 bước cơ bản sau:

23

---

根据情况特点和每个单位的具体管理要求，制定内部文件，以满足单位的管理要求；

- 社会保险行业的会计凭证系统正在按照财政部部长于2012年10月23日发布的关于指导越南社会保险会计应用的第178/2012/TT-BTC号通知执行；国家指导特征性指标，以便各行业、各经济成分在此基础上灵活运用于各种具体适宜的情况。各行业、各领域可以增减一些具体指标，以适应反映的要求和内容，但必须保证凭证的基本要素，并需获得财政部的书面同意。无论是强制性凭证还是指导性凭证，会计凭证的内容都必须包含以下所有要素：

+ 凭证名称（发票、收款单、付款单等）；

+ 凭证编号；

+ 凭证开具日期、月份、年份；

+ 开具凭证的单位或个人名称、地址；

+ 所涉及的经济、财务事项的内容

+ 经济、金融业务的数量、单价和金额以数字表示，用于收付款的会计凭证总金额以数字和文字填写；

+ 开票人、审批人以及与会计凭证相关的其他人员的签名、姓名。

- 会计凭证的处理和流转程序由总会计师、财务会计部部长或主管会计规定。为满足单位会计、财务管理的要求，凭证的处理和流转过程必须经过以下基本工作步骤：

社会保险单位会计凭证流转流程包括以下4个基本步骤：

23

---

depending on the specific characteristics, situation, and management requirements of each unit to develop internal documents that effectively serve the unit's management needs;

- The accounting document system of the Social Security sector is currently applied according to Circular No. 178/2012/TT-BTC dated October 23, 2012, of the Minister of Finance, guiding accounting practices applicable to Vietnam Social Security; The State provides guidance on specific indicators for industries and economic sectors to apply them to particular appropriate cases based on these guidelines. Industries and fields may add or omit certain specific indicators suitable for their requirements and the content to be reflected, but must ensure the fundamental elements of the documents and obtain written agreement from the Ministry of Finance. Whether it is a mandatory document or a guiding document, the content of an accounting document must include all the following elements:

+ Name of the document (invoice, receipt voucher, payment voucher...);

+ Document number;

+ Date, month, year of document creation;

+ Name and address of the issuing unit or individual;

+ Content of the arising economic or financial transaction;

+ Quantity, unit price, and amount of the economic or financial transaction recorded in figures; the total amount of the accounting document used for cash receipts or disbursements recorded in figures and in words;

+ Signatures and names of the preparer, approver, and other relevant individuals related to the accounting document.

- The procedure for processing and circulating accounting documents is stipulated by the chief accountant, head of the finance and accounting department, or the accountant in charge.To meet the accounting and financial management requirements of the unit, the process of handling and circulating documents must be carried out through the following basic operational steps:

The accounting document circulation process at a Social Security unit consists of the following 4 basic steps:


الخلطة والجودة
يبيضون الوجه

..مصدر لحومنا

المدلل

TMT
THE MEAT TREAT

APPROVED

APPROVED

APPROVED

مروج
MOROUJ

لتجارة المواشي والأعلاف ش.م.ك.م

Livestock & Fodders Trading K.S.C.C

调味与品质
让人吃了都容光焕发

..我们的肉源

精挑细选

TMT
肉食盛宴

认证通过

认证通过

认证通过

牧场
MOROUJ

畜牧与饲料贸易公司

畜牧与饲料贸易公司

The Blend and The Quality
Makes You Proud

..Our Meat Source

The pampered

TMT
THE MEAT TREAT

APPROVED

APPROVED

APPROVED

Pastures
MOROUJ

Livestock & Fodders Trading K.S.C.C.

Livestock & Fodders Trading K.S.C.C


B

BREMER

شيش طاووق
1.750 فقط
بطاطس بسمتي + طحينة يقدم مع أرز +

97313636

BREMER.KW

B

布雷默

烤鸡肉串
仅售1.750

+土豆香米+芝麻酱，搭配米饭

97313636

BREMER.KW

B

BREMER

Shish Tawook
Only 1.750
+Potato fragrant rice+sesame sauce, paired with rice

97313636

BREMER.KW


Başka yerde olmayan enfes lezzetlerin adresi
Mille Presse

MILLE PRESSE

millepresse.com

独一无二的美味佳肴的所在之地
Mille Presse

MILLE PRESSE

millepresse.com

The address for exquisite flavors you won't find anywhere else
Mille Presse

MILLE PRESSE

millepresse.com


SUSHI STREET FOOD NELLE MARCHE

ANCONA-OSIMO-SENIGALLIA-MACERATA

SUSHI
FOOD
PORN
MARCHE

马尔凯地区的寿司街头小吃

安科纳-奥西莫-塞尼加利亚-马切拉塔

寿司
美食
诱惑
马尔凯


كيكة رضا الوالدين


*Gezilecek yerler*
*Denize sıfır*
EspressoLab
*Boğaz manzaralı*

*@withzeyneplik*

*观光景点*
*海滨*
意式浓缩咖啡实验室
*博斯普鲁斯海峡景观*

*@withzeyneplik*

*Places to Visit*
*Seaside*
EspressoLab
*Bosphorus View*

*@withzeyneplik*


Bali Hai DRAFT BEER

KASIR

BAKSO TEBEEKAN AMBASADOR

BAKSO AMBASADOR
Jl. Urip Sumoharjo, Klitren, Kec. Gondokusuman, Kota Yogyakarta, Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta 55281

Bali Hai DRAFT BEER

巴厘海生啤酒

收银员

大使招牌印尼肉丸

大使肉丸
日惹特区日惹市贡多库苏曼区克利特伦村乌里普·苏莫哈乔路 55281

巴厘海生啤酒

Bali Hai DRAFT BEER

Cashier

Bakso Tebeekan Ambasador

Bakso Ambassador
Urip Sumoharjo Street, Klitren, Gondokusuman District, Yogyakarta City, Special Region of Yogyakarta 55281

Bali Hai DRAFT BEER


IW

Abhängigkeit von internationalen
Lieferketten

---

# 3 Handelspolitische Herausforderungen

Die Analyse in Abschnitt 2 unterstreicht die Bedeutung internationaler Lieferketten für die deut-sche Wirtschaft. Diese Abhängigkeit ist Teil eines allgemeinen Trends. Industrien sind zuneh-mend international und asymmetrisch miteinander vernetzt (Cerina et al., 2015). Der Ausbruch der Corona-Krise in China hat jedoch verdeutlicht, dass internationale Lieferketten fragil sind und ökonomisch wie auch medizinisch eine Ansteckungsgefahr besteht (Baldwin/Tomiura,2020). Folglich kann ein lokaler Schock, wie das Stilllegen der Produktion in der Region Hubei in China, zu makroökonomischen Effekten in den Wertschöpfungsketten weltweit führen. Neue nationale oder sogar regionale Strategien müssen somit beachten, dass sie nicht nur Auswirkun-gen auf die beabsichtigte Industrie im eigenen Land haben, sondern auch das internationale Netzwerk betreffen. In der derzeitigen Situation besteht die Gefahr, dauerhaften Schaden für das internationale Handelssystem zu verursachen. Abhängig davon, wie Entscheidungsträger und Firmen reagieren, könnte es zu tiefgehenden Veränderungen in der gegenwärtigen Archi-tektur der Wertschöpfungsketten kommen. Eine klare Unterscheidung der essenziellen Indust-rien von nicht essenziellen Branchen ist dabei zentral für die Effektivität getroffener wirtschafts-politischer Maßnahmen. Diese Unterscheidung ist allerdings alles andere als trivial und bedarf einer besonderen Prüfung, um politökonomisch motivierte Eingriffe zu vermeiden.

Lieferketten wurden internationalisiert, um durch Spezialisierung und daraus resultierenden Produktivitätssteigerungen Größenvorteile zu erreichen. Eine Erweiterung der Produktionsmög-lichkeiten über die nationalen Grenzen hinaus würde zu einem höheren weltweiten Output füh-ren. Tatsächlich haben die Teilnahme an regelbasierten Handelsabkommen wie GATT und WTo zu einer signifikanten Steigerung der globalen Exporte als auch zu Wachstumsförderung in den einzelnen Mitgliedstaaten geführt (Felbermayr et al., 2019). Die Integration aufstrebender Schwellenländer in die weltweiten Wertschöpfungsketten hat auch zu einer deutlichen Ver-schiebung der Wirtschaftsmacht geführt. So ist die wirtschaftliche Dominanz des „Westens" (ge-messen als Anteil des BIP der G7-Staaten am weltweiten Output) von 65 Prozent Anfang der 1990er Jahre auf 40 Prozent im Jahr 2019 gefallen (Felbermayr et al., 2019).

Die Krise hat die Risiken, die mit dem Outsourcing und Offshoring von Produktionsstufen und der Herstellung von Vorleistungsprodukten im Ausland verbunden sind, offenbart. Beim Out-sourcing wurde das Ziel verfolgt, die eigene Fertigungstiefe zu verringern, um Lohnkosten zu sparen und sich auf die Kernaktivitäten des Unternehmens zu konzentrieren. „Schlanke" Pro-duktion, verbunden mit geringen Lagerbeständen, hat die deutsche Wirtschaft anfällig für Un-terbrechungen in den Lieferketten und Versorgungsengpässen gemacht. Es handelt sich also um einen Trade-off zwischen niedrigeren Preisen der Vorprodukte und dem erhöhten Risiko, ab-hängig von den weltweiten Lieferketten zu sein. Ein eindrückliches Beispiel ist die deutsche Au-toindustrie, die historisch bedingt eine substanzielle Fertigungstiefe aufwies, welche aber im Zuge der Globalisierung stark gesunken ist. Die Autoindustrie leidet damit besonders dramatisch unter den Ausfällen der Corona-Krise. In dieser Branche sind die Wertschöpfungsketten stark auf das Produktionskonzept „just in time" ausgerichtet, um die Profitabilität zu erhöhen. So kam es in Norditalien im Zuge der Pandemie zu Produktionsaussetzern mit direkter Auswirkung auf die deutschen Automobilzulieferer. Die Minimierung von Lagerbeständen hat dazu geführt, dass Unternehmen ungenügende Reserven für diese unvorhersehbare Störung hatten. Besonders

---

15

IW

对国际供应链的依赖

---

# 3 贸易政策挑战

第2节的分析凸显了国际供应链对德国经济的重要性。这种依赖是一个普遍趋势的组成部分。各行业之间的国际化和不对称互联程度日益提高（Cerina等人，2015年）。然而，中国新冠危机的爆发表明，国际供应链十分脆弱，在经济和医疗层面都存在“传染风险”（Baldwin/Tomiura，2020年）。因此，局部冲击（如中国湖北省的生产停滞）可能在全球价值链中引发宏观经济效应。因此，新的国家甚至区域战略必须考虑到，它们不仅会对本国目标行业产生影响，还会涉及国际网络。在当前形势下，存在对国际贸易体系造成长期损害的风险。取决于决策者和企业如何应对，当前价值链架构可能发生深刻变化。对必要产业和非必要产业进行明确区分，是所采取经济政策措施能否有效的核心。然而，这种区分绝非易事，需要特别审查，以避免出于政治经济动机的干预。

供应链实现国际化，是为了通过专业化及由此带来的生产力提升来实现规模优势。超越国家边界拓展生产可能性，将带来更高的全球产出。事实上，加入《关税及贸易总协定》（GATT）和世界贸易组织（WTO）等基于规则的贸易协定，既大幅推动了全球出口增长，也促进了各成员国的经济增长（Felbermayr等人，2019年）。新兴经济体融入全球价值链，也导致了经济权力的显著转移。例如，“西方”的经济主导地位（以七国集团（G7）国家国内生产总值（BIP）占全球产出的比例衡量）从20世纪90年代初的65%降至2019年的40%（Felbermayr等人，2019年）。

此次危机暴露了生产环节外包、离岸以及在国外生产中间产品所伴随的风险。外包的目标是降低自身生产深度，以节省工资成本并聚焦企业核心活动。与低库存相结合的“精益”生产，使德国经济在供应链中断和供应瓶颈面前不堪一击。因此，这是中间产品低价与依赖全球供应链的高风险之间的权衡。一个令人印象深刻的例子是德国汽车产业：由于历史原因，该产业曾拥有深厚的生产积淀，但在全球化进程中大幅削弱。因此，汽车产业在新冠危机的停产冲击下遭受了极其严重的打击。在这个行业，价值链高度围绕“准时制”生产理念构建，以提高盈利能力。因此，在疫情蔓延过程中，意大利北部出现的生产中断直接影响到了德国汽车供应商。库存最小化导致企业对这种不可预见的干扰缺乏充足储备。尤其

---

15

IW

Dependence on International
Supply Chains

---

# 3 Trade Policy Challenges
The analysis in Section 2 underscores the importance of international supply chains for the German economy. This dependence is part of a general trend. Industries are increasingly internationally and asymmetrically interconnected (Cerina et al., 2015). However, the outbreak of the Corona crisis in China has highlighted that international supply chains are fragile and pose a risk of contagion, both economically and medically (Baldwin/Tomiura, 2020). Consequently, a local shock, such as the shutdown of production in the Hubei region in China, can lead to macroeconomic effects in value chains worldwide. New national or even regional strategies must therefore consider that they not only have an impact on the intended industry in their own country but also affect the international network. In the current situation, there is a danger of causing permanent damage to the international trading system. Depending on how policymakers and companies react, profound changes in the current architecture of value chains could occur. A clear distinction between essential and non-essential industries is crucial for the effectiveness of economic policy measures taken. However, this distinction is anything but trivial and requires special scrutiny to avoid politico-economically motivated interventions.

Supply chains were internationalized to achieve economies of scale through specialization and resulting productivity gains. Expanding production possibilities beyond national borders would lead to higher global output. Indeed, participation in rules-based trade agreements like GATT and WTO has led to a significant increase in global exports as well as promoting growth in individual member states (Felbermayr et al., 2019). The integration of emerging economies into global value chains has also led to a significant shift in economic power. For example, the economic dominance of the "West" (measured as the G7 countries' share of global GDP) fell from 65 percent in the early 1990s to 40 percent in 2019 (Felbermayr et al., 2019).

The crisis has revealed the risks associated with outsourcing and offshoring production stages and manufacturing intermediate products abroad. The goal of outsourcing was to reduce a company's own vertical integration in order to save labor costs and concentrate on its core business activities. "Lean" production, combined with low inventory levels, has made the German economy vulnerable to supply chain disruptions and supply shortages. It is therefore a trade-off between lower prices for intermediate products and the increased risk of being dependent on global supply chains. A striking example is the German automotive industry, which historically had substantial vertical integration, but this has significantly decreased in the course of globalization. The automotive industry is thus suffering particularly dramatically from the disruptions caused by the Corona crisis. In this sector, value chains are heavily geared towards the "just-in-time" production concept to increase profitability. For instance, production downtimes occurred in Northern Italy during the pandemic, directly impacting German automotive suppliers. The minimization of inventories has meant that companies had insufficient reserves for this unforeseeable disruption. Especially

---

15


ОТЕЛЬ-ЗАМОК НА ЧЕРНОМОРСКОМ ПОБЕРЕЖЬЕ


خَيْرُ النَّاسِ مَنْ طَالَ عُمُرُهُ وَحَسُنَ عَمَلُهُ

zuì yōu yuè zhě jiù shì shòu shù cháng shàn gōng yōu xiù de rén
最优越者就是寿数长，善功优秀的人。

Sebaik-baik manusia adalah yang panjang umurnya dan baik amal perbuatannya.

-Riyad as-Salihin 108-

TAMBAH TUA ITU PASTI *TAPI* Sudahkah Amal Bertambah?

RAFIZAH CIAN LIN

最优越者就是寿数长，善功优秀的人。

zuì yōu yuè zhě jiù shì shòu shù cháng shàn gōng yōu xiù de rén
最优越者就是寿数长，善功优秀的人。

最优越者就是寿数长，善功优秀的人。

-《利雅德圣训集》108-

变老是必然的，*但是*，善行增加了吗？

拉菲扎·茜安·林

The best of people are those whose age is long and whose deeds are good.

zuì yōu yuè zhě jiù shì shòu shù cháng shàn gōng yōu xiù de rén
The best of people are those whose age is long and whose deeds are good.

The best of people are those whose age is long and whose deeds are good.

-Riyad as-Salihin 108-

GETTING OLDER IS CERTAIN *BUT* Have Your Deeds Increased?

RAFIZAH CIAN LIN


Глава 9 Факторы и механизмы трансформации систем

---
Перед началом перехода к бифуркационному состоянию система пе-реживает точку бифуркации, в которой она обретает возможность развития по нескольким сценариям.

Указанные трансформационные механизмы диалектически взаимосвя-заны между собой. Адаптационные механизмы реализуют функцию адап-тации системы к изменениям среды через отбор состояний самой системы. Адаптация к условиям среды идёт на макроуровне, т. е. через отбор систем на надсистемном уровне. В этом случае включаются бифуркационные ме-ханизмы максимальной скорости тиражирования «нового» (новых видов в биологии, новых технологий в экономике) и реализуется принцип А. М. Хазена: максимум производства энтропии при минимуме энтропии системы (Хазен, 2000). Это служит началом к отбору на надсистемном (метасистемном) уровне.

9.2. Постигая мудрые мысли

В пределах прочитанного раздела учебного пособия прокомменти-руйте цитаты из книг известных людей с точки зрения экономики развития расширяя сущностное содержание понятий «цикл», «цикличность».

*Угнетенные всегда становятся угнетателями и цикл повторя-ется снова и снова.*

Эсхил «Орестея» (Цитаты из книг)

*Вы зациклились на какой-то удачной мысли, вернее, вообрази-ли, что она удачная.*

Рэй Брэдбери «Смерть – дело одинокое» (Цитаты из книг)

9.3. По страницам Интернета

Основным средством обеспечения устойчивости системы является поддержание ее динамического равновесного состояния, изменение кото-рого может возникнуть под воздействием трансформационных механиз-мов. Так, во Франции была придумана паростанция как альтернатива элек-тростанциям, которая в будущем станет источником возобновляемой энер-гии. Французское предприятие «Enertime», разработавшее новую электро-станцию, отметило, что одна установка способна создавать до 5 тыс. МВт (5 ГВт) в год. http://alternativenergy.ru/novosti-alternativnoy-energetiki/1023-

---
107

第9章 系统转型的因素和机制

---
在向分岔状态过渡开始之前，系统会经历一个分岔点，在该点它获得了沿多种情景发展的可能性。

上述转型机制之间存在辩证的相互联系。适应机制通过选择系统自身的状态来实现系统对环境变化的适应功能。对环境条件的适应发生在宏观层面，即通过在超系统层面上选择系统。在这种情况下，会启动“新事物”（生物学中的新物种，经济学中的新技术）最大复制速度的分岔机制，并实现A.M.哈津的原则：在系统熵最小的情况下实现熵产最大化（哈津，2000）。这标志着在超系统（元系统）层面选择的开始。

9.2. 领悟至理名言

在阅读本教科书的本节内容范围内，请从发展经济学的角度评论名人著作中的引言，扩展“周期”和“周期性”概念的本质内涵。

*被压迫者总是会变成压迫者，这个循环一次又一次地重复。*

埃斯库罗斯《奥瑞斯忒亚》(书摘)

*你执着于某个成功的想法，或者更确切地说，你想象它是成功的。*

雷·布拉德伯里《死亡是件孤独的事》(书摘)

9.3. 网络浏览

确保系统稳定性的主要手段是维持其动态平衡状态，这种状态的改变可能在转型机制的影响下发生。例如，在法国，人们发明了一种蒸汽发电站作为发电厂的替代方案，它未来将成为可再生能源的来源。开发这种新型发电站的法国企业«Enertime»指出，一台机组每年能够产生高达5000兆瓦（5吉瓦）的电力。http://alternativenergy.ru/novosti-alternativnoy-energetiki/1023-

---
107

Chapter 9 Factors and Mechanisms of System Transformation

---
Before transitioning to a bifurcation state, a system experiences a bifurcation point at which it gains the possibility of developing according to several scenarios.

These transformational mechanisms are dialectically interconnected. Adaptation mechanisms implement the function of adapting the system to environmental changes through the selection of the system's own states. Adaptation to environmental conditions occurs at the macro-level, i.e., through the selection of systems at the suprasystem level. In this case, bifurcation mechanisms for the maximum replication rate of the "new" (new species in biology, new technologies in economics) are activated, and A. M. Khazen's principle is realized: maximum entropy production with minimum system entropy (Khazen, 2000). This serves as the beginning of selection at the suprasystem (metasystem) level.

9.2. Comprehending Wise Thoughts

Within the scope of the read section of the textbook, comment on quotes from books by famous people from the perspective of development economics, expanding the essential content of the concepts "cycle" and "cyclicality."

*The oppressed always become oppressors, and the cycle repeats itself again and again.*

Aeschylus "Oresteia" (Quotes from books)

*You've become fixated on some successful idea, or rather, you've imagined it to be successful.*

Ray Bradbury "Death Is a Lonely Business" (Quotes from books)

9.3. Across the Pages of the Internet

The primary means of ensuring system stability is maintaining its dynamic equilibrium state, changes to which can occur under the influence of transformational mechanisms. For instance, in France, a steam power station was conceived as an alternative to electric power stations, which in the future will become a source of renewable energy. The French company "Enertime," which developed the new power station, noted that one unit is capable of generating up to 5 thousand MW (5 GW) per year. http://alternativenergy.ru/novosti-alternativnoy-energetiki/1023-

---
107


Ikan Bawal Masam Manis

MAMI DAPUR PANAS

Sweet and Sour Pomfret
MAMI'S HOT KITCHEN


*Глава 6. Организация производства*

---
Тип производства определяется главным образом степенью спе-циализации рабочих мест, формой связи различных операций по времени и в пространстве, сложностью и устойчивостью номенкла-туры продукции, размерами ее выпуска.

Существуют три типа организации производства: массовый, се-рийный и индивидуальный. В свою очередь, в зависимости от масшта-бов изготовления продукции серийное производство подразделяется на *крупносерийное, среднесерийное* (серийное) и *мелкосерийное*. По своим качественным параметрам крупносерийное приближается к массовому, мелкосерийное — к индивидуальному. Критерием отне-сения серийного производства к той или иной разновидности явля-ется количество операций, выполняемых на оборудовании.

По экономическим параметрам более предпочтительным явля-ется массовое производство. Однако ориентация в условиях рыноч-ной экономики на интересы потребителя, конкуренция, опасность банкротства вызывают необходимость расширения номенклатуры выпускаемых изделий и увеличения сферы использования серийно-го типа организации производства.

Таблица 6.2

Сравнительная характеристика типов производства

| Показатели | Тип организации производства |  |  |
|---|:---:|:---:|:---:|
| | массовое | серийное | индивидуаль-ное |
| 1. Номенклатура продукции | Узкая | Ограниченная | Широкая |
| 2. Специализация ра-бочих мест | За каждым ра-бочим местом закрепляется одна постоян-ная операция | За каждым рабо-чим местом закре-пляется периоди-чески повторяю-щаяся операция | Операции за рабочим местом не закрепляются |
| 3. Тип оборудования | Специализиро-ванное | Специализирован-ное и универсаль-ное | Универсаль-ное |
| 4. Характер производ-ственного процесса | Устойчивый, неизменный | Периодически изменяющийся | Постоянно из-меняющийся |
| 5. Вид движения пред-метов труда с опе-рации на операцию | Параллельный | Параллельно-по-следовательный | Последова-тельный |
| 6. Доля ручного труда | Низкая | Средняя | Высокая |
| 7. Производительность труда | Высокая | Средняя | Низкая |

---
155

*第6章. 生产组织*

---
生产类型主要取决于工作岗位的专业化程度、不同工序在时间和空间上的联系形式、产品种类的复杂性和稳定性及其产量规模。

存在三种生产组织类型：大规模生产、批量生产和单件生产。相应地，根据产品制造规模，批量生产又可分为*大批量生产、中批量生产（即典型的批量生产）*和*小批量生产*。从质量参数来看，大批量生产接近于大规模生产，小批量生产接近于单件生产。将批量生产归类于某种类型的标准是设备上执行的工序数量。

从经济参数来看，大规模生产更具优势。然而，在市场经济条件下，以消费者利益为导向、竞争以及破产风险，使得扩大生产品种和增加批量生产组织类型应用范围成为必要。

表6.2

生产类型对比特征

| 指标 | 生产组织类型 |  |  |
|---|:---:|:---:|:---:|
|  | 大规模 | 批量 | 单件 |
| 1. 产品种类 | 窄 | 有限 | 宽 |
| 2. 工作岗位专业化 | 每个工作岗位固定执行一项固定工序 | 每个工作岗位固定执行周期性重复的工序 | 工序不固定到工作岗位 |
| 3. 设备类型 | 专用 | 专用和通用 | 通用 |
| 4. 生产过程特点 | 稳定，不变 | 周期性变化 | 持续变化 |
| 5. 劳动对象在工序间的流转方式 | 平行式 | 平行顺序式 | 顺序式 |
| 6. 手工劳动比重 | 低 | 中 | 高 |
| 7. 劳动生产率 | 高 | 中 | 低 |

---
155

*Chapter 6. Organization of Production*

---
The type of production is determined primarily by the degree of specialization of workplaces, the form of connection between various operations in time and space, the complexity and stability of the product range, and the volume of its output.

There are three types of production organization: mass, serial, and individual. In turn, depending on the scale of product manufacturing, serial production is divided into *large - scale serial*, *medium - scale serial(serial)*, and *small - scale serial*. In terms of its qualitative parameters, large - scale serial production approaches mass production, while small - scale serial production approaches individual production. The criterion for classifying serial production into a particular variety is the number of operations performed on the equipment.

In terms of economic parameters, mass production is more preferable. However, in a market economy, focusing on consumer interests, competition, and the risk of bankruptcy necessitate expanding the range of products manufactured and increasing the scope of using the serial type of production organization.

Table 6.2

Comparative Characteristics of Production Types

| Indicators | Type of Production Organization |  |  |
|---|:---:|:---:|:---:|
|  | mass | serial | individual |
| 1. Product Range | Narrow | Limited | Wide |
| 2. Specialization of Workplaces | One permanent operation is assigned to each workplace | A periodically repeated operation is assigned to each workplace | Operations are not assigned to workplaces |
| 3. Type of Equipment | Specialized | Specialized and universal | Universal |
| 4. Nature of the Production Process | Stable, unchanging | Periodically changing | Constantly changing |
| 5. Type of Movement of Objects of Labor from Operation to Operation | Parallel | Parallel - sequential | Sequential |
| 6. Share of Manual Labor | Low | Medium | High |
| 7. Labor Productivity | High | Medium | Low |

---
155


ひつじ書房は、主に言語学と言語教育の大学生向け教科書を刊行しており、その他、日本文学に関するものなども刊行している。定評あるくここからはじまる〉シリーズの他、昨年より、〈学びのエクササイズ〉シリーズをスタートさせ、本年からくベーシック〉シリーズをスタート。く学びのエクササイズ〉シリーズは、半期制と教養課程解体後の大学のカリキュラムに対応し、学問の階段を登っていくというスタンスではなく、大学生が学部時代に学ぶひとつのテーマとしての学びを起こすこと（学びそのものを学ぼうという姿勢を持てるようにすること）を意図したもの。120ページを基準とし、半期の授業で充分終了できる分量に抑えるとともに、面白いテーマを選び、そのテーマに自然と興味を持てるように考慮。21世紀の学生に対応しようと試みているということとともに、そのジャンルの内容を概観するのには非常に便利なものでもある。〈ベーシック〉シリーズは、学問の階段を登っていく際の階段の最初の一歩をねらっている。簡便でありつつ、そのテーマであれば、この1冊で最低限の基礎、骨組みを理解できるように配慮。これだけ学べば、最低限の基礎的な知識が得られるようと工夫をこらした。新しい時代の概説書である。

# ここからはじまる日本語学

テキスト（日本語学）
伊坂淳一著
A5判·182頁·12刷·978-4-938669-73-7
定価1680円（本体1600円）
発行1997.1

現代人が間違え易い、あるいは移り変わりつつある現在の生きた言葉づかいを出発点に、日本語を考えるとはどういうことなのかということと日本語のしくみを考えていく。日本語のしくみを教養として学ぶことができるように十二分に配慮して執筆された新しいテキスト。半期制に対応。

# 日本語要説

テキスト（日本語学）
仁田義雄 他著
A5判·337頁·14刷·978-4-938669-18-8
定価1995円（本体1900円）
発行1993.5

日本語のしくみを広いフィールドから知る教科書。執筆者:仁田義雄(現代語の文法·文法論)、鈴木泰(古代語の文法·文法史)、村木新次郎(現代語の語彙·語彙論)、小林賢次(古代語の語彙・語彙史）、土岐哲（現代語の音声・音韻論）、林史典（古代語の音韻・音韻史/文字·表記)、真田信治(社会言語学·方言学)、畠弘巳(文章·談話)、山梨正明(認知言語学)、
田中穗積(言語情報処理)、工藤浩（日本語学史)

# 学びのエクササイズ日本語文法

近刊

テキスト（日本語学）
天野みどり著
A5判·978-4-89476-394-4
価格未定
近刊

普段、話をしたり、きいたりという中でふと?を感じることがあるようなことばのトピックを取り出して、日本語の仕組みに気付くことへ導く。英語は論理的で日本語は非論理的なのだろうか。身近な気付きから、少し深いところへ学生を招待する教科書。言語系の学生ばかりではなく、人文系にとどまらず、さまざまなジャンルの学生にも、ことばの面白さに興味を持ってもらい、日本語を考えるきっかけを与えることを意図する新しい教科書。

# ここからはじまる日本語文法

テキスト（日本語学）
森山卓郎著
A5判·264頁·7刷·978-4-89476-174-2
定価 1890円（本体 1800円）
発行2000.3

文法の新しい局面を迎えている時代に即した日本語の文法のテキスト。日常的なことばから、文法を考えていく。必須な文法事項が一通り触れられている。豊富で、最新の文献リストは、卒論の課題を見つけるときにも便利。

# 日本語の文法

テキスト(日本語学)
高橋太郎·金子尚一·金田章宏·齋美智子·鈴木泰·須田淳一·松本泰丈著
A5判·320頁·2刷·978-4-89476-244-2
定価2520円(本体2400円)
発行2005.4

包括的な日本語文法のテキスト。教材として高く評価されているのみならず、参加している著者の文法理論がコンパクトに凝縮されて、わかりやすく内容の濃いものとなっている。私家版の段階から書評にのるなど好評を博しており、中国や韓国などではすでに何種か翻訳が出版されている。ていねいな記述と、さまざまなジャンルから引用された魅力的な用例によって、日本語文法の全体像を学ぶことが出来る。

# 日本語の音テキスト版

テキスト（日本語学）
城田俊著
A5判·280頁·3刷·978-4-89476-158-2
定価2205円(本体2100円)
発行1995.10
本書は、日本語の共通語のオトを、単音、音節、音素、弁別要素の水準において、論理の飛躍なく、一歩一歩精密に記述したものである。

---

39

テキスト（教科書）

绵羊书房主要出版面向语言学和语言教育专业大学生的教科书，此外也出版日本文学相关书籍等。除了口碑良好的《从这里开始》系列外，从去年开始推出《学习练习》系列，从今年开始推出《基础》系列。《学习练习》系列对应学期制和教养课程解体后的大学课程体系，并非以攀登学术阶梯的姿态，而是旨在唤起大学生在本科阶段将学习作为一个主题来开展（让学生具备学习“学习本身”的态度）。以120页为基准，控制在能在半学期课程内充分学完的篇幅，同时选择有趣的主题，考量让学生自然对该主题产生兴趣。在尝试适配21世纪学生需求的同时，也是能非常方便概览该领域内容的读物。《基础》系列瞄准的是攀登学术阶梯时的第一步。在力求简洁的同时，围绕主题考量让读者通过这一本书就能理解最基础的框架。为了让读者学完这些内容后能获得最基础的知识而费尽心思。是新时代的概论书。

# 从这里开始的日语学

文本（日语学）
伊坂淳一 著
A5开本·182页·第12刷·978-4-938669-73-7
定价1680日元（本体1600日元）
发行1997.1

以现代人容易出错、或是正在变化的当下鲜活的措辞为出发点，探讨“思考日语意味着什么”以及日语的机制。是充分考量让读者能将日语机制作为教养来学习而撰写的新文本。对应学期制。

# 日语要论

文本（日语学）
仁田义雄 等 著
A5开本·337页·第14刷·978-4-938669-18-8
定价1995日元（本体1900日元）
发行1993.5

从广泛领域了解日语机制的教科书。撰稿人：仁田义雄（现代语语法·语法论）、铃木泰（古代语语法·语法史）、村木新次郎（现代语词汇·词汇论）、小林贤次（古代语词汇·词汇史）、土岐哲（现代语音声·音韵论）、林史典（古代语音韵·音韵史/文字·表记）、真田信治（社会语言学·方言学）、畠弘巳（文章·谈话）、山梨正明（认知语言学）、田中穗积（语言信息处理）、工藤浩（日语学史）

# 学习练习 日语文法

即将出版

文本（日语学）
天野绿 著
A5开本·978-4-89476-394-4
价格未定
即将出版

选取平时说话、听话时偶尔会让人产生“？”之感的语言主题，引导读者注意到日语的结构。英语是逻辑性的而日语是非逻辑性的吗？这是一本从身边的发现出发，邀请学生探索更深层次内容的教科书。不仅面向语言专业学生，也不止于人文系，旨在让各种专业的学生都对语言的趣味性产生兴趣，为思考日语提供契机的新教科书。

# 从这里开始的日语文法

文本（日语学）
森山卓郎 著
A5开本·264页·第7刷·978-4-89476-174-2
定价 1890日元（本体 1800日元）
发行2000.3

契合文法迎来新局面的时代的日语文法文本。从日常语言出发思考文法。必要的文法事项都有所涉及。丰富且最新的文献列表，在寻找毕业论文课题时也很方便。

# 日语的文法

文本（日语学）
高桥太郎·金子尚一·金田章宏·斋美智子·铃木泰·须田淳一·松本泰丈 著
A5开本·320页·第2刷·978-4-89476-244-2
定价2520日元（本体2400日元）
发行2005.4

综合性的日语文法文本。不仅作为教材获得高度评价，参与撰写的作者的文法理论也被紧凑地浓缩，内容通俗易懂且扎实。从私家版阶段就登上书评等收获好评，在中国、韩国等国家已经出版了若干种翻译版本。通过细致的记述和从各种领域引用的有趣用例，能够学习日语文法的整体面貌。

# 日语的音 文本版

文本（日语学）
城田俊 著
A5开本·280页·第3刷·978-4-89476-158-2
定价2205日元（本体2100日元）
发行1995.10
本书对日语共通语的“音”，在单音、音节、音素、辨别要素的层面，毫无逻辑跳跃地一步步精密记述。

---

39

文本（教科书）

Hitsuji Shobo primarily publishes textbooks for university students in linguistics and language education, and also publishes materials related to Japanese literature, among others. In addition to the well-established <Koko Kara Hajimaru> series, they launched the <Manabi no Exercise> series last year, and this year, they are starting the <Basic> series. The <Manabi no Exercise> series is designed to accommodate the semester system and university curricula after the dismantling of general education courses. Rather than taking the stance of climbing the academic ladder, it intends to foster learning as a theme for university students to engage with during their undergraduate studies (to enable them to adopt an attitude of learning about learning itself). Based on a standard of 120 pages, the volume is kept to an amount that can be adequately covered in a semester's classes, while also selecting interesting themes and considering how to naturally pique interest in those themes. Along with attempting to cater to 21st-century students, it is also very convenient for an overview of the content of that genre. The <Basic>series aims for the first step on the academic ladder. While being concise, it is designed so that for a given theme, this one book allows understanding of the minimum basics and framework. It has been devised so that by studying just this, one can acquire the minimum foundational knowledge. It is an introductory text for a new era.

# Starting from Here: Japanese Linguistics

Textbook (Japanese Linguistics)
By Junichi Isaka
A5 size, 182 pages, 12th impression, 978-4-938669-73-7
List price: 1680 yen (Base price: 1600 yen)
Published: 1997.1

Starting from contemporary language usage that modern people often get wrong or that is currently changing, this book explores what it means to think about the Japanese language and its structure. A new textbook written with ample consideration so that the structure of Japanese can be learned as part of general knowledge. Compatible with the semester system.

# Essentials of the Japanese Language

Textbook (Japanese Linguistics)
By Yoshio Nita et al.
A5 size, 337 pages, 14th impression, 978-4-938669-18-8
List price: 1995 yen (Base price: 1900 yen)
Published: 1993.5

A textbook for understanding the structure of the Japanese language from a broad field. Contributors: Yoshio Nita (Modern Grammar & Grammatical Theory), Yasushi Suzuki (Classical Grammar & History of Grammar), Shinjiro Muraki (Modern Vocabulary & Lexicology), Kenji Kobayashi (Classical Vocabulary & History of Vocabulary), Satoshi Toki (Modern Phonetics & Phonology), Shiten Hayashi (Classical Phonology & History of Phonology / Characters & Orthography), Shinji Sanada (Sociolinguistics & Dialectology), Hiromi Hata (Discourse & Conversation), Masaaki Yamanashi (Cognitive Linguistics), Hozumi Tanaka (Language Information Processing), Hiroshi Kudo (History of Japanese Linguistics)

# Learning Exercises: Japanese Grammar

Forthcoming

Textbook (Japanese Linguistics)
By Midori Amano
A5 size, 978-4-89476-394-4
Price undecided
Forthcoming

This book takes up linguistic topics about which one might suddenly feel a "?" (question/doubt) in the midst of everyday speaking or listening, guiding readers to notice the mechanisms of the Japanese language. Is English logical and Japanese illogical? A textbook that invites students from familiar realizations to slightly deeper insights. A new textbook intended not only for linguistics students but also for students from various fields, not limited to the humanities, to become interested in the fun of language and to provide an opportunity to think about Japanese.

# Starting from Here: Japanese Grammar

Textbook (Japanese Linguistics)
By Takuro Moriyama
A5 size, 264 pages, 7th impression, 978-4-89476-174-2
List price: 1890 yen (Base price: 1800 yen)
Published: 2000.3

A Japanese grammar textbook suited to an era facing new aspects of grammar. It explores grammar starting from everyday language. Essential grammatical points are all covered. The extensive and up-to-date bibliography is also useful when looking for a graduation thesis topic.

# Japanese Grammar

Textbook (Japanese Linguistics)
By Taro Takahashi, Shoichi Kaneko, Akihiro Kinda, Michiko Sai, Yasushi Suzuki, Junichi Suda, and Yasutake Matsumoto
A5 size, 320 pages, 2nd impression, 978-4-89476-244-2
List price: 2520 yen (Base price: 2400 yen)
Published: 2005.4

A comprehensive Japanese grammar textbook. Not only is it highly acclaimed as teaching material, but the grammatical theories of the contributing authors are compactly condensed, making it easy to understand and rich in content. It has received favorable reviews since its privately published stage, appearing in book reviews, and several translations have already been published in countries like China and South Korea. Through careful descriptions and engaging example sentences quoted from various genres, one can learn the overall picture of Japanese grammar.

# The Sounds of Japanese: Textbook Edition

Textbook (Japanese Linguistics)
By Suguru Shirota
A5 size, 280 pages, 3rd impression, 978-4-89476-158-2
List price: 2205 yen (Base price: 2100 yen)
Published: 1995.10
This book meticulously describes the sounds of common Japanese at the levels of individual sounds, syllables, phonemes, and distinctive features, step by step, without leaps in logic.

---

39

Textbooks


Контрольные вопросы и задания

129

---
5. Чем отличаются региональные детерминанты конкурентных пре-имуществ от национальных детерминант?

6. Каковы конкурентные позиции России по международным рейтин-гам?

7. Каковы конкурентные позиции машиностроительной и нефтехими-ческой отраслей национальной экономики?

8. Какова структура экспорта национальной экономики по данным на 2001 г.? Какой вывод о конкурентоспособности национальной эко-номики России из анализа этого показателя может быть сделан?

9. Каковы, по вашему мнению, предпосылки повышения конкурен-тоспособности национальной экономики Российской Федерации?
Какие отрасли обладают наибольшим потенциалом конкурентоспо-собности?

复习题和作业

129

---
5. 区域竞争优势决定因素与国家竞争优势决定因素有何不同？

6. 根据国际排名，俄罗斯的竞争地位如何？

7. 国民经济中机械制造和石油化工行业的竞争地位如何？

8. 根据2001年的数据，国民经济的出口结构是怎样的？通过分析该指标，可以得出关于俄罗斯国民经济竞争力的何种结论？

9. 在您看来，提高俄罗斯联邦国民经济竞争力的前提条件是什么？哪些行业最具竞争力潜力？

Review Questions and Assignments

129

---
5. How do regional determinants of competitive advantages differ from national determinants?

6. What are Russia's competitive positions according to international ratings?

7. What are the competitive positions of the machine-building and petrochemical industries of the national economy?

8. What is the export structure of the national economy according to data for 2001? What conclusion about the competitiveness of Russia's national economy can be drawn from the analysis of this indicator?

9. What, in your opinion, are the prerequisites for increasing the competitiveness of the national economy of the Russian Federation? Which industries have the greatest potential for competitiveness?


10 COSE DA ASSAGGIARE A
COPENAGHEN

*The Best Cheesecake in Town*

Cheese cakes Bertels Salon

哥本哈根必尝的10种美食
哥本哈根

*全城最好吃的芝士蛋糕*

芝士蛋糕店 Bertels Salon

10 THINGS TO TASTE IN
COPENHAGEN

*The Best Cheesecake in Town*

Cheese cakes Bertels Salon


BỔ NÃO

KRACIE

✓ Thúc đẩy tuần hoàn máu

✓ Cải thiện trí nhớ

✓ Hạn chế hay quên

Nguyen Tran Giang Ly

クラシエの漢方

アレデル

顆粒 [$ ^{オンジ} $遠志エキス]

物忘れを

改善する

なかなか思い出せない

忘れやすくなったと感じる

中年期以降の物忘れの改善に

第3類医薬品

42包[14日分]

認知症の治療・予防の医薬品ではありません。

补脑

肌美精

✓ 促进血液循环

✓ 改善记忆力

✓ 减少健忘

阮陈江璃

肌美精汉方

阿雷德尔

颗粒 [$ ^{远志} $远志提取物]

针对健忘

进行改善

难以回忆起来

感觉变得容易忘记

改善中年期以后的健忘问题

第3类医药品

42包[14天量]

本品非用于治疗或预防认知障碍症的医药品。

Brain Nourishment

KRACIE

- ✓ Promote blood circulation

- ✓ Improve memory

- ✓ Reduce forgetfulness

Nguyen Tran Giang Ly

Kracie Kampo

Aredel

Granules [$ ^{Onji} $Sokushi Extract]

Improve forgetfulness

Hard to recall

Feel like becoming prone to forgetting

For improving forgetfulness after middle age

Class 3 Pharmaceutical Product

42 packs [14 days' supply]

It is not a pharmaceutical product for the treatment or prevention of dementia.


HẸN HÒ ĐI ĂN

安楽亭

Buffet thịt nướng chuẩn Nhật

约会吃饭

安楽亭

正宗日式烤肉自助餐

EATING OUT ON A DATE

Anrakutei

Authentic Japanese BBQ Buffet


L'ATTRAVERSASPECCHI
LIBRO 2

Christelle Dabos

GLI SCOMPARSI DI CHIARDILUNA

*edizioni e/o*

镜行者
第2册

克里斯黛尔·达博斯

月光都的失踪者

*e/o出版社*

The Mirror Visitor
Book 2

Christelle Dabos

The Missing of Clairdelune

*Edizioni E/O*


10 พิกัด
ที่เที่ยวรอบกรุง ฉบับวัยเก๋า

กิน เที่ยว ฟิน ไปกับ Grab Travel Guidebook ฉบับพิเศษ
SRT

1121

Grab

10 个打卡点
曼谷周边旅游胜地 资深版

与 Grab 旅行指南特别版一起吃喝玩乐，尽享乐趣
SRT

1121

Grab

10 Locations
Attractions Around Bangkok: Seniors' Edition

Eat, Travel, Enjoy with the Grab Travel Guidebook Special Edition
SRT

1121

Grab


Tạp chí Kinh tế - Kỹ thuật

---

| Stt | Huyện, TX, TP | Số HTX | Bơm tưới | Giống nông nghiệp | Vật tư nông nghiệp | Khoa học kỹ thuật | Tiêu thụ sản phẩm | Làm đất, sau thu hoạch | Tín dụng nội bộ | Ngành nghề nông thôn |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 10 | An Minh | 1 | - | 1 | - | 1 | 1 | - | - | - |
| 11 | U Minh Thượng | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | - | - | 1 | - |
| 12 | Phú Quốc | 3 | 1 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 1 | - | - |
| 13 | Kiên Hải | 1 | - | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | - | 1 | - |
|  | Toàn tỉnh | 190 | 165 | 125 | 141 | 136 | 29 | 85 | 77 | 7 |

Nguồn: *Điều tra và tính toán tổng hợp.*

Toàn tỉnh có 165 HTX thực hiện hợp tác bơm tưới, 125 HTX hợp tác kinh doanh giống nông nghiệp, 141 HTX hợp tác làm dịch vụ vật tư nông nghiệp, 136 HTX hợp tác ứng dụng khoa học kỹ thuật trong sản xuất nông nghiệp, 29 HTX hợp tác tiêu thụ sản phẩm trong nông nghiệp, 85 HTX tham gia hợp tác làm đất và sau thu hoạch, 77 HTX góp vốn làm tín dụng nội bộ, 7 HTX thực hiện hợp tác ngành nghề nông thôn.

**Bảng 3.3. ***Tình hình vốn sản xuất kinh, doanh của HTX trong nông nghiệp*

Đơn vị tính: HTX

| Stt | Huyện, TX, TP | Số HTX | Tổng vốn (tr. đồng) | Vốn bq/HTX (tr. đồng) | Tổng vốn góp của thành viên (tr. đồng) | Vốn góp bq/thành viên (tr. đồng) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | Rạch Giá | 8 | 294,20 | 36,78 | 283,20 | 0,41 |
| 2 | Giang Thành | 3 | 115,50 | 38,50 | 115,50 | 2,22 |
| 3 | Kiên Lương | 8 | 7.202,41 | 900,30 | 6.266,00 | 18,82 |
| 4 | Hòn Đất | 5 | 1.224,46 | 244,83 | 1.224,46 | 6,62 |
| 5 | Tân Hiệp | 59 | 4.298,22 | 72,85 | 2.567,88 | 0,16 |
| 6 | Châu Thành | 11 | 810,90 | 73,72 | 810,90 | 0,56 |
| 7 | Giồng Riềng | 66 | 4.521,48 | 68,51 | 4.521,48 | 1,29 |
| 8 | Gò Quao | 16 | 1.035,97 | 64,75 | 1.035,97 | 1,93 |
| 9 | An Biên | 7 | 147,70 | 21,10 | 147,70 | 0,33 |
| 10 | An Minh | 1 | 1.722,00 | 1.722,00 | 1.722,00 | 90,63 |
| 11 | U Minh Thượng | 2 | 49,53 | 24,77 | 49,53 | 0,64 |
| 12 | Phú Quốc | 3 | 50.905,00 | 16.968,33 | 50.905,00 | 737,75 |
| 13 | Kiên Hải | 1 | 500,00 | 500,00 | 500,00 | 26,32 |
|  | Toàn tỉnh | 190 | 72.827,37 | 383,30 | 70.149,62 | 3,02 |

Nguồn: *Điều tra và tính toán tổng hợp.*

Tổng vốn sản xuất, doanh của các HTX trong toàn tỉnh là 72.827,37 triệu đồng, bình

---

4

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3691740

Journal of Technical Economics

---

| Stt | District, Town, City | No. of Cooperatives | Irrigation Pumping | Agricultural Seeds | Agricultural Supplies | Science and Technology | Product Sales | Land Preparation, Post-harvest | Internal Credit | Rural Trades |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 10 | An Minh | 1 | - | 1 | - | 1 | 1 | - | - | - |
| 11 | U Minh Thượng | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | - | - | 1 | - |
| 12 | Phú Quốc | 3 | 1 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 1 | - | - |
| 13 | Kiên Hải | 1 | - | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | - | 1 | - |
|  | Entire Province | 190 | 165 | 125 | 141 | 136 | 29 | 85 | 77 | 7 |

Source: *Survey and synthetic calculation.*

The entire province has 165 cooperatives implementing irrigation pumping cooperation, 125 cooperatives cooperating in agricultural seed business, 141 cooperatives cooperating in agricultural supply services, 136 cooperatives cooperating in applying science and technology in agricultural production, 29 cooperatives cooperating in agricultural product sales, 85 cooperatives participating in land preparation and post-harvest cooperation, 77 cooperatives contributing capital for internal credit, and 7 cooperatives implementing rural trade cooperation.

**Table 3.3.** *Situation of production and business capital of cooperatives in agriculture*

Unit: Cooperative

| Stt | District, Town, City | No. of Cooperatives | Total Capital (million VND) | Avg. Capital/Cooperative (million VND) | Total Member Contributed Capital (million VND) | Avg. Contributed Capital/Member (million VND) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | Rạch Giá | 8 | 294,20 | 36,78 | 283,20 | 0,41 |
| 2 | Giang Thành | 3 | 115,50 | 38,50 | 115,50 | 2,22 |
| 3 | Kiên Lương | 8 | 7.202,41 | 900,30 | 6.266,00 | 18,82 |
| 4 | Hòn Đất | 5 | 1.224,46 | 244,83 | 1.224,46 | 6,62 |
| 5 | Tân Hiệp | 59 | 4.298,22 | 72,85 | 2.567,88 | 0,16 |
| 6 | Châu Thành | 11 | 810,90 | 73,72 | 810,90 | 0,56 |
| 7 | Giồng Riềng | 66 | 4.521,48 | 68,51 | 4.521,48 | 1,29 |
| 8 | Gò Quao | 16 | 1.035,97 | 64,75 | 1.035,97 | 1,93 |
| 9 | An Biên | 7 | 147,70 | 21,10 | 147,70 | 0,33 |
| 10 | An Minh | 1 | 1.722,00 | 1.722,00 | 1.722,00 | 90,63 |
| 11 | U Minh Thượng | 2 | 49,53 | 24,77 | 49,53 | 0,64 |
| 12 | Phú Quốc | 3 | 50.905,00 | 16.968,33 | 50.905,00 | 737,75 |
| 13 | Kiên Hải | 1 | 500,00 | 500,00 | 500,00 | 26,32 |
|  | Entire Province | 190 | 72.827,37 | 383,30 | 70.149,62 | 3,02 |

Source: *Survey and synthetic calculation.*

The total production and business capital of cooperatives in the entire province is 72,827.37 million VND, averag

---

4

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3691740


함안
고려동 유적지 배롱나무
고즈넉한 배롱나무 인생샷 명소

咸安
高丽洞遗址紫薇树
幽静的紫薇树人生美照胜地

Haman
Goryeodong Historic Site Crape Myrtle Trees
A serene Crape Myrtle spot, famous for 'photos of a lifetime'


FORA DE CASA
Autarquia de Almada vai construir um muro  para impedir acesso ao Cais do Ginjal
NiT

出门在外
阿尔马达市政厅将修建围墙，以阻止进入金雅尔码头
NiT

Away from Home
Almada Municipality will build a wall to prevent access to Ginjal Quay
NiT


24
Manfred Linz

---

# Ⅵ. Wie kann neue Erwerbsarbeit entstehen?

21.Wenn wenig Hoffnung besteht, Wirtschaftswachstum könne in nennenswertem Umfang zu neuen Arbeitsplätzen führen, wenn auch die oben genannten Felder suffizienten Wirtschaftens zwar Arbeit schaffen aber die Massenarbeitslosigkeit nicht beseitigen können, wie kann dann neue Erwerbsarbeit entstehen? Aus den geführten Gesprächen und aus der öffentlichen Diskussion haben sich mir vor allem vier Möglichkeiten als aussichtsreich und bedenkenswert ergeben. Sie werden im Folgenden kurz dargestellt, brauchen aber – darauf sei ausdrücklich hingewiesen – im Für und Wider eine intensivere Erörterung als sie hier geschehen kann.

* Die am nächsten liegende Möglichkeit ist das, was sich in der Arbeitsmarkt-politik anderer Ländern bewährt hat, auf seine Übertragbarkeit hin zu prüfen. Die staatliche Unterstützung für Arbeitslose wird in manchen Ländern intensiver als in Deutschland mit der Förderung der Arbeitssuche, freilich auch mit der Nötigung dazu verbunden. Die Lockerung des Kündigungsschutzes verbindet sich dort mit besseren Chancen für neue Tätigkeiten. Vor allem: Das Bildungs-potential der Bevölkerung wird in anderen Gesellschaften besser ausgeschöpft und gestützt. Auch in Deutschland gäbe es weniger Schulabbrecher, weniger Jugendliche ohne Schulabschluss, weniger Antriebslose, würde eine Förderung früh einsetzen und intensiv fortgeführt. Hierein investiertes Geld erspart später hohe soziale und finanzielle Kosten.

* Eine zweite Möglichkeit ist die oben besprochene Kommerzialisierung bisher marktfreier Dienstleistungen und Austausche, zum Beispiel der Ausbau und die steuerliche Ermöglichung Familien orientierter Leistungen und Dienste, etwa um Frauen einen beruflichen (Wieder-) Einstieg zu ermöglichen. (Horn 2005,S.188 f.) Bei dieser Transformation von marktfreien Tätigkeiten und Tausch-beziehungen in marktgängige Produkte und Dienstleistungen, also der Verwand-lung von menschlichen Beziehungen in Waren (Scherhorn 2005), ist freilich ein Doppeltes zu bedenken: einmal, wie weit menschliche Beziehungen es ertragen, wenn sie in bezahlte Aufträge verwandelt werden, und auch, ob dann nicht über-haupt nur noch wenig ohne Geld getan wird.

* Die Rückgewinnung angelernter Arbeit. Gelegentlich wird die These vertreten, in durchrationalisierten Gesellschaften gebe es, anders als in früheren Jahrhun-derten, nicht mehr genug einfache körperliche Arbeit, die den weniger Begabten und Motivierten einen Arbeitsplatz sichert, wenn auch zu geringerem Entgelt. Diese Einschätzung erweist sich als unzutreffend. Für angelernte Arbeit besteht ein großer Bedarf in der Betreuung von Alten und Pflegebedürftigen, in Sicher-heitsdiensten, in der Landschaftspflege, im Schutz der Umwelt. Auf all diesen Feldern sind die unentbehrlichen Fachkräfte mit der Fülle der Arbeiten über-fordert und benötigen dringend Hilfsdienste, die keine spezifische Ausbildung erfordern. Dieser Bedarf wird gegenwärtig nicht befriedigt, weil solche Arbeiten

---

Wuppertal Institut für Klima, Umwelt, Energie GmbH

24
曼弗雷德・林茨

---

# 六、新的有偿工作如何产生？

21. 如果经济增长有望在相当程度上创造新工作岗位的希望渺茫，而且上述领域虽然能充分开展经济活动以创造就业，但却无法消除大规模失业，那么新的有偿工作该如何产生呢？从进行的讨论和公开辩论中，我觉得主要有四种可能性既充满前景又值得深思。以下将对其进行简要阐述，但需明确指出的是，它们的利弊需要比此处更深入的探讨。

* 最切近的可能性是，审视其他国家劳动力市场政策中被证明有效的做法，探讨其可移植性。在一些国家，对失业者的国家支持比对德国的支持更注重促进求职，当然也附带要求这么做。那里，解除解雇保护与从事新工作的更好机会相关联。尤其是：在其他社会中，民众的教育潜力得到了更好的挖掘和支持。如果在德国早早开始并持续大力推动这种支持，辍学学生、无学历青年、缺乏动力者也会更少。投入于此的资金日后能节省高额的社会和财政成本。

* 第二种可能性是上文讨论过的、将迄今非市场化的服务和交换商业化，例如拓展并通过税收政策使面向家庭的服务和劳务成为可能，以便让女性能（重新）进入职场。（霍恩，2005年，第188页及以下）当然，在将非市场化活动和交换关系转化为市场化产品和服务，也就是将人际关系转化为商品的过程中（舍霍恩，2005年），要考虑两方面：一是人际关系在转化为有偿委托时能承受多大程度，二是之后是否几乎所有事都得靠钱来做了。

* 恢复需经培训的工作。偶尔有人主张，在充分理性化的社会中，与前几个世纪不同，不再有足够多简单的体力工作来为天赋较低和动力不足者提供工作岗位（即便报酬较低）。这种判断被证明是不恰当的。在照料老人和需要护理者、安保服务、景观养护、环境保护等领域，对需经培训的工作存在大量需求。在所有这些领域，不可或缺的专业人员被大量工作压得喘不过气，迫切需要无需特定培训的辅助性服务。目前这种需求未得到满足，因为这类工作

---

伍珀塔尔气候、环境、能源研究所股份有限公司

24
Manfred Linz

---

# Ⅵ. How can new gainful employment arise?

21.If there is little hope that economic growth can lead to a significant number of new jobs, and if even the aforementioned fields of a sufficiency-oriented economy, while creating work, cannot eliminate mass unemployment, how then can new gainful employment arise? From the discussions held and from public debate, four possibilities, in particular, have emerged as promising and worthy of consideration. They will be briefly presented below, but require – and this must be explicitly pointed out – a more intensive discussion of their pros and cons than can be provided here.

* The most obvious possibility is to examine what has proven successful in the labor market policies of other countries for its transferability. In some countries, state support for the unemployed is more intensively linked than in Germany with the promotion of job searching, admittedly also with the compulsion to do so. The easing of dismissal protection in those countries is associated with better opportunities for new employment. Above all: The educational potential of the population is better utilized and supported in other societies. In Germany, too, there would be fewer school dropouts, fewer young people without school-leaving qualifications, and fewer unmotivated individuals if support were to start early and be intensively continued. Money invested in this area saves high social and financial costs later on.

* A second possibility is the previously discussed commercialization of hitherto non-market services and exchanges, for example, the expansion and fiscal facilitation of family-oriented services, perhaps to enable women to (re-)enter the workforce. (Horn 2005, p.188 f.) In this transformation of non-market activities and exchange relationships into marketable products and services, i.e., the conversion of human relationships into commodities (Scherhorn 2005), two things must, of course, be considered: first, the extent to which human relationships can endure being transformed into paid assignments, and second, whether then very little will be done at all without money.

* The reclaiming of semi-skilled labor. Occasionally, the thesis is put forward that in thoroughly rationalized societies, unlike in previous centuries, there is no longer enough simple manual labor to secure employment for the less talented and motivated, albeit at lower pay. This assessment proves to be incorrect. There is a great demand for semi-skilled labor in the care of the elderly and those in need of care, in security services, in landscape maintenance, and in environmental protection. In all these fields, indispensable skilled professionals are overwhelmed by the sheer volume of work and urgently need support services that do not require specific training. This demand is currently not being met because such work

---

Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment and Energy GmbH


Licht an für ein paar richtig beeindruckende  Höhlen  in Deutschland

Dechenhöhle

点亮灯光，领略德国几处真正令人惊叹的洞穴

德肯洞穴

Lights on for a few truly impressive caves in Germany

Dechen Cave


คาเฟ่ที่วิวปังสุดในอยุธยา
จิบกาแฟชมพระปรางค์วัดไชยฯ

大城景色最棒的咖啡馆
品尝咖啡，欣赏柴瓦塔那兰寺佛塔

The cafe with the most stunning view in Ayutthaya
Sip coffee and admire the prang of Wat Chaiwatthanaram


Figure 2. – EC2 Une claire hiérarchie des notions de base :  la domination des jugements de valeur

---

58

DÉBAT GÉNÉRAL ENTRE PROGRAMMES INSTITUTIONNALISTES

图 2. – EC2 基本概念的清晰层级结构：价值判断的主导地位

---

58

制度主义纲领间的一般性辩论

Figure 2. – EC2 A clear hierarchy of basic concepts: the dominance of value judgments

---

58

GENERAL DEBATE AMONG INSTITUTIONALIST PROGRAMS


TRAVEL ETC.id

Dihiasi taman hidroponik, Expat. Roasters kenalkan gerai terbarunya di Surabaya

TRAVEL ETC.id

饰以水培花园，Expat. Roasters 在泗水推出其最新门店

TRAVEL ETC.id

Adorned with a hydroponic garden, Expat. Roasters introduces its newest outlet in Surabaya


VANS FLANNEL

DÀI: 68
RỘNG: 54
300K

UD.2HAND

万斯 法兰绒

长度：68
宽度：54
300越南盾

UD.二手店

VANS FLANNEL

LENGTH: 68
WIDTH: 54
300K

UD.2HAND


SUSANNA ISERN

MAGiC ANiMALS

UNA TRAMPA CARNÍVORA

DESTINO

Ilustraciones de Carles Dalmau

苏珊娜·伊瑟恩

魔法动物

一个食肉陷阱

德斯蒂诺出版社

卡尔斯·达尔毛 插画

SUSANNA ISERN

MAGiC ANiMALS

A CARNIVOROUS TRAP

DESTINO
Illustrations by Carles Dalmau


Hướng dẫn bảo tồn đa dạng sinh học nông nghiệp tại Việt Nam

---

Hình bên tổng hợp những đặc trưng chung của các dạng cảnh đồng lúa [Halwart & Gupta, 2004].

Bên cạnh cây lúa, đất trồng lúa còn trợ giúp cho một số (ít) các loại cây khác, cả loai mọc dưới nước và trên cạn. Môi trường nước mang trong nó cả một quần thể lớn và sống động các loài côn trùng, sâu bọ, tôm, cá, lưỡng cư, đến lượt chúng lại trợ giúp cho một loạt sinh vật khác như côn trùng, nhện, chim, bò sát, loài có vú v.v. Ngay cả những con đê, mương bao quanh cảnh đồng lúa cũng tạo môi trường sống cho nhiều loài vật có mối quan hệ chặt chẽ với các loài sống trong các ruộng lúa. Các hệ sinh thái đồng lúa đó có tính đa dạng phức tạp nên có bản chất là rất bền vững. Tính bền vững này đã được ghi chép kỹ càng trong nhiều năm và thường bị phá hủy bởi việc sử dụng các loại hóa chất dùng trong nông nghiệp.

| Đất cao | Đất thấp có mưa | Được tưới | Ngập lụt |
|---------|-----------------|------------|-----------|
| Đất bằng cho tới độ đốc vừa phải, hiếm khi bị ngập, đất thoáng khí, gieo lúa trực tiếp trên đất cày khô, đất không có bùn | Đất bằng cho tới hơi dốc, ruộng có bờ, có khi bị ngập nhưng không lâu – khoảng quá 50 cm và dưới 10 ngày liên tục, lúa cấy hay xạ trực tiếp trên bùn, có thể cày để khô đất trước | Ruộng bằng phẳng, có bờ để giữ nước, lúa cấy hay gieo xạ trực tiếp trên bùn - ruộng ngập nông, đất yếm khí trong khi gieo trồng. | Đất bằng cho tới hơi dốc hay ruộng trũng. Ngập trên 10 ngày liên tục với mức  từ trung bình tới sâu (50 – 300 cm) trong quá trình trồng lúa. Đất có thể bị nhiễm mặn, phèn... |

## Sự khác biệt giữa các vùng
Có sự khác biệt về trồng lúa giữa các vùng tại Việt Nam. Vùng trung du miền núi phía Bắc, Tây Nguyên với địa hình núi non, trồng lúa trong các thung lũng hay các khu đất thấp, bằng phẳng, thường nằm dọc theo các con sông và thung lũng. Các ruộng lúa có độ dốc thấp, thường được làm thành các ruộng bậc thang nhằm giảm xói mòn đất, thuận lợi cho tưới tiêu và trồng cây. Một số nơi có hệ thống tưới nước để trồng được 2 vụ/năm và để bổ sung cho nguồn nước mưa tự nhiên.

Tại 2 vùng đồng bằng châu thổ sông Hồng và sông Cửu Long khá bằng phẳng, các cánh đồng lúa nằm trong các dải đất rộng. Năng suất cao hơn các vùng khác nhờ trồng lúa thâm canh cao.

Đồng bằng vùng Trung Bộ có các cánh đồng lúa hẹp chạy dọc ven biển thường bị khô hạn nên thường chỉ trồng được 1 hoặc nhiều nhất là 2 vụ/năm.

---

34

越南农业生物多样性保护指南
---

下图总结了稻田景观各种类型的一般特征 [Halwart & Gupta, 2004]。

除了水稻，稻田还支持着一些（少数）其他植物，包括水生和陆生植物。水环境承载着一个巨大而活跃的昆虫、其他小型虫类、虾、鱼、两栖动物等物种的种群，它们反过来又支持着一系列其他生物，如昆虫、蜘蛛、鸟类、爬行动物、哺乳动物等。即使是稻田周围的堤坝和沟渠，也为许多与稻田中的物种有着密切联系的动物物种创造了栖息地。这些稻田生态系统具有复杂的多样性，因此本质上非常可持续。这种可持续性多年来已被详细记录，并且常常因使用农用化学品而被破坏。

| 高地  | 雨养低地  | 灌溉地  | 洪泛区  |
|---------|-----------------|------------|-----------|
| 平坦至中坡地，很少淹水，土壤通气良好，在旱耕地上直播水稻，土壤无淤泥。 | 平坦至缓坡地，田块有田埂，有时短期淹水（水深约超过50厘米，连续不超过10天），水稻移栽或在泥浆中直播，可先进行旱耕。 | 田块平坦，有田埂保水，水稻移栽或在泥浆中直播，田间浅水淹没，种植期间土壤厌氧。 | 平坦至缓坡地或洼地。在水稻种植期间，连续淹水10天以上，水深中等至深（50-300厘米）。土壤可能盐碱化、酸化… |

## 各地区间的差异

越南各地区的水稻种植存在差异。北部中山和山区、西原地区地形多山，在山谷或低洼平坦地区种植水稻，通常沿河流和山谷分布。稻田坡度较小，通常修建成梯田，以减少水土流失，便利灌溉和种植。一些地方有灌溉系统，每年可种植两季，并补充自然降雨。

在红河三角洲和湄公河三角洲这两个平原地区，地势相当平坦，稻田景观分布在广阔的土地上。得益于高强度的精耕细作，产量高于其他地区。

中部沿海平原的稻田景观狭长，沿海岸分布，常常干旱，因此通常每年只能种植一季或最多两季。

---

34

A Guide to Agricultural Biodiversity Conservation in Vietnam

---

The figure beside summarizes the general characteristics of rice paddy landscape types [Halwart & Gupta, 2004].

Besides the rice plant, rice-growing soil also supports a few other plant species, both aquatic and terrestrial. The aquatic environment harbors a large and vibrant population of insects, other invertebrates, shrimp, fish, and amphibians, which in turn support a range of other organisms such as insects, spiders, birds, reptiles, mammals, etc. Even the dikes and canals surrounding the rice paddy landscape provide habitat for many animal species that have close relationships with the species living in the rice fields. These rice paddy ecosystems possess complex diversity and are therefore inherently very sustainable. This sustainability has been well-documented for many years and is often destroyed by the use of agricultural chemicals.

| Upland | Rainfed lowland | Irrigated | Flood-prone |
|---------|-----------------|------------|-----------|
| Flat to moderately sloping land, rarely flooded, aerated soil, direct seeding of rice on dry tilled soil, non-puddled soil | Flat to slightly sloping land, bunded fields, sometimes flooded but not for long (water depth approximately over 50 cm for less than 10 consecutive days)”), rice transplanted or direct-seeded on puddled soil, soil may be dry-plowed beforehand | Flat fields, bunded to retain water, rice transplanted or direct-seeded on puddled soil, shallow flooded fields, anaerobic soil during cultivation. | Flat to slightly sloping land or depressions. Flooded for more than 10 consecutive days with medium to deep water levels (50-300 cm) during rice cultivation. Soil may be affected by salinity, acidity, etc. |

## Regional Differences

There are differences in rice cultivation between regions in Vietnam. In the Northern Midlands and Mountainous Region and the Central Highlands, with their mountainous terrain, rice is grown in valleys or flat, low-lying areas, usually located along rivers and valleys. Rice fields have low slopes and are often terraced to reduce soil erosion, facilitating irrigation and cultivation. Some areas have irrigation systems to allow for two crops per year and to supplement natural rainwater.

In the two quite flat delta regions, the Red River Delta and the Mekong River Delta, rice paddy landscapes are situated in large expanses of land. Yields are higher than in other regions due to intensive rice cultivation.

The coastal plains of the Central Region have narrow rice paddy landscapes running along the coast, which often suffer from drought, so typically only one, or at most two, crops can be grown per year.

---

34


Kalangan ulama syafiiyah menolak fatwa sahabat dikarenakan sahabat nabi bukanlah orang yang *ma’shum*,$ ^{38} $ mereka bisa saja lupa hal demikianlah yang menjadi tidak layaknya fatwa sahabat dijadikan sumber hukum. Mereka yang menerima fatwa sahabat alasannya dikarenakan adanya kemungkinan bahwa para sahabat mendengar apa yang disampaikan nabi secara langsung, golongan yang menerima ini yaitu ulama hanafiyyah dan malikiyyah. Sekiranya sahabat mengeluarkan fatwa, maka fatwa tersebut tentunya hasil dari pemahaman mereka terhadap *nash syara’*$ ^{39} $ dan tidak ada keraguan bahwa pendapat sahabat tentu lebih dekat kepada kebenaran.

Argumentasi penerimaan fatwa sahabat sebagai salah satu dalil dalam hukum Islam dikuatkan dengan beberapa analisis bahwa para sahabat adalah saksi sejarah bagi pembinaan hukum Islam yang dilakukan Rasulullah, mereka pula yang memahami dengan akurat *asbabun nuzul*$ ^{40} $, *asbabun wurud*$ ^{41} $ dan merekalah yang mengenal dengan utuh konteks putusan hukum yang ditetapkan nabi. Dengan demikian, jelaslah bahwa fatwa sahabat mempunyai keunggulan sebagai sumber hukum Islam.

h. *Urf'*/Adat

*Urf*/adat adalah kebiasaan yang dilakukan secara terus-menerus oleh masyarakat yang bersangkutan yang mana kebiasaan itu sejalan dengan syariat.$ ^{42} $ Dalam kehidupan bermasyarakat banyak bisa kita jumpai *urf*/adat-istiadat yang berkaitan dengan soal muamalat. Contohnya adalah dalam dunia perdagangan tak jarang ditemukan sistem perdagangan inden pada masyarakat tertentu. Misalnya, pembeli melakukan transaksi jual-beli buah-buahan yang dipetik sendiri, kebiasaan yang dilestarikan di masyarakat kita yaitu memberikan tanda pengikat (seperti cincin, kalung, gelang, dan

---

$ ^{38} $ Mashum adalah orang yang terpelihara dari dosa.
$ ^{39} $ Nash syara adalah Al-Qur’an dan as-sunnah.
$ ^{40} $ Asbabun nuzul adalah sebab-sebab suatu atau beberapa ayat Al-Qur’an diturunkan.
$ ^{41} $ Asbabul wurud adalah sebab-sebab datangnya dan terjadinya suatu hadis. Mengetahui Asbabul wurud hadis sangat membantu dalam memahami maksud Rasulullah dalam suatu hadis.
$ ^{42} $ Fitra Rizal, “Penerapan ‘Urf sebagai Metode dan Sumber Hukum”, *Al-Manhaj: Jurnal Hukum dan Pranata Sosial Islam*, Vol. 1, No. 2, 2019, hlm. 158.

20 Pengantar Ekonomi Islam

沙斐仪派的宗教学者们拒绝将圣门弟子的教令作为依据，原因是先知的圣门弟子并非*受护免罪者*，$ ^{38} $ 他们也有可能遗忘这类事务，因此圣门弟子的教令并不适合被用作教法渊源。接受圣门弟子判例的人认为，其理由是圣门弟子有可能直接聆听了先知传达的教导，持这种观点的是哈乃斐派与马立克派的宗教学者。倘若圣门弟子发布教令，那么该教令必然是他们对*沙里亚明文*$ ^{39} $ 理解的成果，且毋庸置疑的是，圣门弟子的观点必定更贴近真理。

将接受圣门弟子的教令作为伊斯兰教法中的一项论据这一主张，通过若干分析得到了强化：圣门弟子是先知穆罕默德构建伊斯兰教法的历史见证者，他们也精准理解*《古兰经》降示缘由*$ ^{40} $ 、*圣训产生缘由*$ ^{41} $ ，并且他们完整知晓先知确立的法律判决的背景。由此可见，圣门弟子的教令作为伊斯兰教法渊源具备优势。

h. *习俗*/习惯法

*习俗*/习惯法是相关社群持续践行的惯例，且该惯例与沙里亚精神相符。$ ^{42} $ 在社会生活中，我们能频繁见到与交易事务相关的*习俗*/礼仪习俗。例如，在商贸领域，在特定社群中时常出现预售贸易制度。比如，买主进行自行采摘水果的买卖交易，在我们的社群中延续下来的惯例是交易时给出信物（如戒指、项链、手镯等，以及

---

$ ^{38} $ 受护免罪者是指免于犯罪的人。
$ ^{39} $ 沙里亚明文是指《古兰经》与圣行。
$ ^{40} $ 《古兰经》降示缘由是某一段或若干段《古兰经》经文降示的原因。
$ ^{41} $ 圣训产生缘由是某段圣训出现和发生的原因。了解圣训的产生缘由对理解先知在某段圣训中的意图极有帮助。
$ ^{42} $ Fitra Rizal，“‘习俗作为方法与教法渊源的应用”，*《正道：伊斯兰法律与社会制度期刊》*，第1卷第2期，2019年，第158页。

20 伊斯兰经济学导论

The Syafi’i school of ulama rejects the fatwas of the Companions because the Companions of the Prophet are not *ma’shum*;$ ^{38} $ they might forget such matters, so it is not appropriate for the fatwas of the Companions to be used as a source of law. Those who accept the fatwas of the Companions do so because there is a possibility that the Companions heard directly what the Prophet conveyed. The groups that accept this are the Hanafi and Maliki ulama. If a Companion issues a fatwa, then that fatwa is certainly the result of their understanding of *nash syara'*$ ^{39} $ and there is no doubt that the opinion of a Companion is certainly closer to the truth.

The argument for accepting the fatwas of the Companions as one of the evidences in Islamic law is strengthened by several analyses: the Companions are historical witnesses to the establishment of Islamic law carried out by the Prophet Muhammad; they are also the ones who accurately understand *asbabun nuzul*$ ^{40} $ and *asbabun wurud*$ ^{41} $; and they are the ones who fully know the context of the legal rulings established by the Prophet. Thus, it is clear that the fatwas of the Companions have superiority as a source of Islamic law.

h. *Urf'*/Custom

*Urf*/custom is a habit that is continuously carried out by the relevant community, and that habit is in line with the Shari’ah.$ ^{42} $ In social life, we can often find *urf*/customs related to muamalat matters. For example, in the business world, a system of pre - order trade is often found among certain communities. For instance, a buyer conducts a buying and selling transaction for fruits that are picked by themselves. A habit preserved in our society is giving a token of binding (such as a ring, necklace, bracelet, and

---

$ ^{38} $ Mashum is a person who is protected from sin.
$ ^{39} $ Nash syara is the Qur’an and the Sunnah.
$ ^{40} $ Asbabun nuzul is the reasons why one or several verses of the Qur’an were revealed.
$ ^{41} $ Asbabul wurud is the reasons for the occurrence and emergence of a hadith. Knowing the asbabul wurud of a hadith is very helpful in understanding the intention of the Prophet in a hadith.
$ ^{42} $ Fitra Rizal, “Penerapan ‘Urf sebagai Metode dan Sumber Hukum”, *Al - Manhaj: Jurnal Hukum dan Pranata Sosial Islam*, Vol. 1, No. 2, 2019, p. 158.

20 Pengantar Ekonomi Islam


포천

허브아일랜드 핑크뮬리축제

눈앞에 핑크빛 세상이 펼쳐지는 서울 근교 핑크 월드

TRAVEL

抱川

香草岛乐园 粉黛乱子草节

眼前展开粉色世界的首尔近郊“粉色世界”

旅行

Pocheon

Herb Island Pink Muhly Festival

A pink world unfolding before your eyes, a Pink World near Seoul

TRAVEL


ฟาร์มเมล่อน นนทบุรี
Ganicco Farm

暖武里蜜瓜农场
甘尼可农场


お薬なび
OKUSURINAVI
お肌のくすみコウジ酸で解決
TX$ ^{®} $

Cream

15g

药导航
药导航
用曲酸解决肌肤暗沉
TX$ ^{®} $

乳霜

15g

OKUSURINAVI
OKUSURINAVI
Solve Skin Dullness with Kojic Acid
TX$ ^{®} $

Cream

15g


บานสะพรั่ง 100%
ทุ่งดอกบัวตอง เต็มเขา

盛开 100%
墨西哥向日葵花田 满山

In Full Bloom 100%
Mexican Sunflower Field Covering the Hill


100

---

stellen, indem für jeden Kapitalgüterjahrgang (Vintage) und die mit ihm arbeitenden Erwerbstätigen getrennt eine eigene Produktionsfunktion unterstellt wird, wobei die Effizienz der jeweiligen Kapitalgüterjahrgänge mit zunehmendem Alter abnimmt. Die gesamtwirtschaftliche Produktions-funktion ergibt sich in einem derartigen Vintage-Ansatz als Summe aller jahrgangsspezifischen Funktionen. Der Cobb-Douglas-Ansatz lautet (1):

$$ \begin{array}{rcl}\mathrm{Y_{t}} &=& \mathop{\Sigma}\limits_{v} \ \mathrm{A_{v}} \ \mathrm{K_{v,t}}^{\alpha_{v}} \ \mathrm{L_{v,t}}^{1-\alpha_{v}}\end{array} $$

mit Y als Bruttowertschöpfung, t als Zeitindex, A als Effizienzfaktor, $ K_{v} $ als im Jahre v gebildetes Kapital, $ α_{v} $ als Produktionselastizität von $ K_{v} $ und $ L_{v} $ als Arbeitseinsatz, der mit $ K_{v} $ kombiniert wird.

195. Zur Schätzung eines Vintage-Modells in seiner allgemeinen Form werden also Angaben über die jahrgangsspezifische Verteilung sowohl des Nettoanlagevermögens als auch des Arbeitsvolumens und der Produktion benötigt. Auf die beiden letzteren kann dann verzichtet werden, wenn ein Ausgleich der Grenzproduktivitäten der Arbeit zwischen den jewei-ligen Kapitalgüterjahrgängen unterstellt wird (2). Nicht nur die Jahr-gangsverteilung des Arbeitseinsatzes und der Produktion sind statistisch kaum zu ermitteln, auch die Altersstruktur des Anlagevermögens ist nur unzureichend dokumentiert. Daher wurde auch hier nach vereinfachenden Konzepten gesucht:

\- Nelson [1964] hat beispielsweise nachgewiesen, daß das Durchschnitts-alter des gesamten Kapitalstocks, in eine herkömmliche Produktions-funktion eingefügt, eine recht zuverlässige Approximation (3) eines expliziten Vintage-Ansatzes erlaubt [siehe auch You, 1976]. Dieses Durchschnittsalter verdichtet alle in einem nach Jahrgängen geglieder-ten Anlagevermögen enthaltenen Informationen in einer einzigen Zahl; allerdings nur unter der Annahme, daß die Effizienz der jeweils neue-sten Kapitalgüter im Zeitverlauf exponentiell steigt.

\- Horn [1976, S. 117 ff.] zieht kumulierte Investitionsraten (die Anlage-investitionen der letzten Jahre in Relation zum Anlagevermögen) als Indikator für den kapitalgebundenen Fortschritt heran. Sie bilden ein Maß dafür, wie schnell der Kapitalstock umgeschlagen wird. Je höher diese Umschlagsgeschwindigkeit, desto leichter dürfte es sein, die Pro-duktionsanlagen auf dem neuesten technischen Stand zu halten.

\- Görzig [1976; 1980] benutzt den Quotienten aus Netto- und Bruttoan-lagevermögen als Kennziffer für den "Modernitätsgrad" des Kapital-stocks. Gehen die Investitionen zurück, sinkt dieser Quotient, d.h. diejenigen Kapitalgüter, von denen bereits ein großer Teil abgeschrie-ben ist, gewinnen sowohl im Brutto- als auch im Nettoanlagevermögen

---

(1) Zur formalen Darstellung siehe z.B. Wan [1971, S. 147 ff.]. Zur Konstruktion von Vintage-Ansätzen in CES-Funktionen vgl. McCarthy [1967].

(2) Das impliziert eine Substitutionalität zwischen Kapital und Arbeit sowohl vor als auch nach Installation der Kapitalgüter (putty-putty).

(3) Diese Näherung ist zulässig, wenn sich die Effizienz der Produk-tionsanlagen im Zeitverlauf nicht zu stark ändert.

100

---

可以通过为每个资本品年份（古董）以及与其对应的劳动者分别设定独立的生产函数来阐述，其中，各资本品年份的效率随着其使用年限的增加而降低。在这种代际模型中，宏观经济生产函数是所有特定年份函数的总和。柯布—道格拉斯方法表述如下（1）：

$$ \begin{array}{rcl}\mathrm{Y_{t}} &=& \mathop{\Sigma}\limits_{v} \ \mathrm{A_{v}} \ \mathrm{K_{v,t}}^{\alpha_{v}} \ \mathrm{L_{v,t}}^{1-\alpha_{v}}\end{array} $$

其中 Y 代表总增加值，t 代表时间指数，A 代表效率因子，$ K_{v} $ 代表第 v 年形成的资本，$ α_{v} $ 代表 $ K_{v} $ 的生产弹性，$ L_{v} $ 代表与 $ K_{v} $ 相结合的劳动投入。

195. 因此，为了估算一般形式的年份模型，需要关于各年份特定的净固定资产、劳动总量以及产出的分布数据。如果假定各资本品年份之间的劳动边际生产率达到均衡，那么后两项数据就可以省略（2）。不仅劳动投入和产出的年份分布在统计上难以确定，固定资产的年龄结构也缺乏充分的记录。因此，这里也寻求了简化的概念：

\- 例如，纳尔逊[1964] 证明了，将整个资本存量的平均年限纳入传统生产函数中，可以对显式年份模型进行相当可靠的近似（3）[另见You, 1976]。这个平均年限将按年份划分的固定资产中包含的所有信息浓缩为一个单一的数字；但这只有在假定最新资本品的效率随时间呈指数增长的情况下才成立。

\- 霍恩[1976, 第117页及后续页面] 将累积投资率（过去几年的固定资产投资与固定资产存量之比）作为资本体现型技术进步的指标。它可以衡量资本存量周转的速度。这种周转速度越快，就越容易使生产设备保持在最新的技术水平。

\- 格尔齐希[1976; 1980] 使用固定资产净值与固定资产原值的比率作为资本存量“现代化程度”的指标。如果投资减少，这个比率就会下降，也就是说，那些大部分已经计提折旧的资本品，在固定资产原值和净值中所占的比重都会上升

---

（1）关于形式化表述，请参见WAN[1971, 第147页及后续页面]。关于在CES函数中构建年份模型，请参见麦卡锡[1967]。

（2）这意味着在资本品安装前后，资本和劳动之间都具有可替代性（粘土-粘土）。

（3）如果生产设备的效率随时间变化不大，则这种近似是允许的。

100

---

by assuming a separate production function for each capital goods vintage and the labor working with it, whereby the efficiency of the respective capital goods vintages decreases with increasing age. In such a vintage approach, the aggregate production function is derived as the sum of all vintage-specific functions. The Cobb-Douglas approach is (1):

$$ \begin{array}{rcl}\mathrm{Y_{t}} &=& \mathop{\Sigma}\limits_{v} \ \mathrm{A_{v}} \ \mathrm{K_{v,t}}^{\alpha_{v}} \ \mathrm{L_{v,t}}^{1-\alpha_{v}}\end{array} $$

where Y is gross value added, t is the time index, A is the efficiency factor, $ K_{v} $ is the capital formed in year v, $ α_{v} $ is the production elasticity of $ K_{v} $, and $ L_{v} $ is the labor input combined with $ K_{v} $.

195\. Thus, to estimate a vintage model in its general form, data on the vintage-specific distribution of net fixed assets, as well as labor volume and production, are required. The latter two can be dispensed with if an equalization of the marginal productivities of labor between the respective capital goods vintages is assumed (2). Not only are the vintage distribution of labor input and production statistically difficult to determine, but the age structure of fixed assets is also insufficiently documented. Therefore, simplified concepts were also sought here:

For example, Nelson [1964] has shown that the average age of the entire capital stock, when incorporated into a conventional production function, allows for a fairly reliable approximation (3) of an explicit vintage approach [see also You, 1976]. This average age condenses all information contained in fixed assets broken down by vintage into a single number; however, this is only under the assumption that the efficiency of the newest capital goods increases exponentially over time.

Horn [1976, p. 117 ff.] uses cumulative investment rates (fixed asset investments of recent years in relation to fixed assets) as an indicator for embodied technological progress. They provide a measure of how quickly the capital stock is turned over. The higher this turnover speed, the easier it should be to keep production facilities at the latest technological level.

Görzig [1976; 1980] uses the ratio of net to gross fixed assets as an indicator for the "degree of modernity" of the capital stock. If investments decline, this ratio falls, meaning that those capital goods of which a large part has already been depreciated gain weight in both gross as well as net fixed assets

---

(1) For a formal representation, see e.g., Wan [1971, p. 147 ff.]. For the construction of vintage approaches in CES functions, cf. McCarthy [1967].

(2) This implies substitutability between capital and labor both before and after the installation of capital goods (putty-putty).

(3) This approximation is permissible if the efficiency of the production facilities does not change too much over time.


إذا حبيتي الوصفة غير كملي شوفي كامل الصور

*Le bonheur sucré*

如果你喜欢这个食谱，就继续看完所有图片吧

*甜蜜的幸福*

If you liked the recipe, just continue and see all the pictures

*Sweet Happiness*


AQUÍ VIVIÓ
MANUEL
GARCÍA GARCÍA
NACIDO 1915
EXILIADO 1939
FRANCIA
STALAG TRIER
DEPORTADO 1941
MAUTHAUSEN-GUSEN
ASESINADO 3.7.1942

此处曾居住
曼努埃尔·加西亚·加西亚
生于1915年
1939年流亡
法国
特里尔战俘营
1941年被驱逐
毛特豪森-古森集中营
1942年7月3日遇害

HERE LIVED
MANUEL
GARCÍA GARCÍA
BORN 1915
EXILED 1939
FRANCE
STALAG TRIER
DEPORTED 1941
MAUTHAUSEN-GUSEN
MURDERED 3.7.1942


それぞれに似合うデザインが 私達らしい！

マリッジリング ばらばらデザイン集

适合各自的设计，才是我们的风格！

婚戒 各异设计集

Designs that suit each of us – that's so us!

Marriage Rings: A Collection of Individual Designs


HOTEL RESTORAN KRIVA ČUPRIJA

HOTEL-RESTORAN KRIVA ČUPRIJA

4 günlük bayram tatilinde vizesiz nereye gidebilirim?

克里瓦丘普里亚餐厅酒店

克里瓦丘普里亚餐厅酒店

在4天的节日假期里，我可以免签去哪里？

Hotel & Restaurant Kriva Ćuprija

Hotel & Restaurant Kriva Ćuprija

Where can I go visa-free for the 4-day Bayram holiday?


(وَهُزِّي إِِلَيْكِ بِجِذْعِ النَّخْلَةِ)

،يعلمُ الله سبحانه أنّ رجلاً شديداً لا يقوى على هزّ نخلة
!فما بًالكَ بامرأة قد وضعتُ مولوداً للتوّ
،ولكنّه، حين قال لها: هُزي
،فقد أراد منّا أن نأخذَ بالأسباب
،وليعلّمنا أن السَّعي مطلوب

!فالله سبحانه يخلقُ الدّودة أو حبّةٍ القمح للعصفور، ولكنّه لا يلقيها له في عشه

،الذي رزقَ مريم ولداً دون زوج
،كان قادراً أن يُسقط عليها الرُّطب دون هزّ الجذع
،ولكن أراد منّا أن نبذل الجهد والطاقة ونسعى
!قناًأنّها مجرّد أسباب، لا تنفع ولا تضر

你向着你的方向摇撼椰枣树

崇高的真主深知，一个强壮的男人也无法摇动一棵椰枣树，
更何况一个刚刚分娩完的女人呢！
但是当祂对她说：摇吧，
祂是希望我们要遵循事物的规律（凡事尽力而为）。
也是为了教导我们努力是必要的。

真主为麻雀创造了虫子或麦粒，但祂并不会把它们直接扔进鸟巢！

那位使麦尔彦无需丈夫便育有一子的真主，
也完全能够让她不摇晃树干就能得到鲜枣，
但祂希望我们付出努力、投入精力、积极行动，
坚信这些仅仅是媒介，它们本身并不能带来益处或害处。

And shake toward you the trunk of the palm tree

God Almighty knows that even a strong man cannot shake a palm tree,
so what then of a woman who has just given birth to a newborn!
But when He told her: "Shake it,"
He intended for us to adopt the means.
And to teach us that striving is required.

For God Almighty creates the worm or the grain of wheat for the ages, yet He does not cast it for it into its nest!

He Who provided Mary with a son without a husband,
was able to make the ripe dates fall upon her without shaking the trunk,
but He intended for us to exert effort and energy, and to strive,
convinced that they are merely means, which neither benefit nor harm.


Seminar Penyelidikan Pendidikan 2017
Mac 20-22 di IPBL, Kuching, Sarawak

---

maklumat-maklumat tambahan daripada rujukan dokumentasi daripada perpustakaan, laman web dan pusat sumber.

Populasi kajian ialah guru-guru yang bertugas di 10 buah Sekolah Rendah Jenis Kebangsaan Cina SKM di daerah Meradong. Bilangan guru yang berkhidmat di Sekolah Rendah Jenis Kebangsaan Cina Gred B, Daerah Meradong tidak melibatkan bilangan yang banyak. Oleh itu, kajian ini akan melibatkan kesemua guru yang sedia ada iaitu 100 orang guru sekolah rendah. Teknik persampelan tidak diperlukan dalam kajian ini.

Borang soal selidik yang digunakan adalah terbahagi kepada tiga bahagian iaitu Bahagian A, Bahagian B dan Bahagian C. Bahagian A menghendaki responden mengisi maklumat diri seperti jantina, taraf pendidikan dan pengalaman mengajar. Bahagian B mengukur gaya kepimpinan guru besar yang mempunyai 40 item dengan menggunakan *Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire* (MLQ) yang diperkenalkan oleh Avolio & Bass (2004) dan telah diadaptasi oleh beberapa kajian sebelum ini, seperti Mohamad Zabidi (2009) dan diubah suai oleh penyelidik. Bahagian C pula, iaitu mengukur tahap kepuasan kerja guru penyelidik menggunakan instrumen *Job Description Index (JDI)* Smith, Kendall dan Hulin (1969) dan diterbitkan oleh bolwing Green University. Soal selidik ini diubahsuai oleh Ahmat Daud (2011).

Penyelidikan telah menjalankan kajian rintis untuk melihat kesahan dan kebolehpercayaan. Bagi menguji kesahan dan kebolehpercayaan borang soal selidik, seorang guru pakar dalam Bahasa Malaysia telah dipilih untuk memeriksa borang soal selidik yang digunakan dalam kajian. Selain itu, penyelia juga dijadikan rujukan oleh pengkaji dalam memastikan kesahan dan kebolehpercayaan borang soal selidik. Kajian rintis telah dijalankan kepada 30 orang responden di sebuah sekolah rendah yang bukan menjadi tempat kajian dengan memilih responden secara kaedah persampelan rawak. Berdasarkan kajian rintis tersebut, nilai alpha cronbach (α) bagi soal selidik Bahagian B ialah$ \alpha = 0.927 $manakala nilai cronbach alpha (α) bagi soal selidik Bahagian C ialah$ \alpha = 0.944 $.

Menurut Sekaran (1992) bahawa semakin hampir nilai Alpha kepada 1, maka semakin tinggi nilai kebolehpercayaan item-item yang dibina. Kesimpulannya, berdasarkan dapatan analisis kebolehpercayaan yang telah dibuat adalah didapati bahawa semua item dalam setiap dimensi amalan kepimpinan transformasional dan konstruk kepuasan kerja guru boleh diguna dalam kajian ini kerana indeks Alpha Cronbach menunjukkan melebihi nilai 0.9.

Dalam kajian ini, statistik deskriptif diaplikasikan bagi mengenal pasti tahap amalan kepimpinan transformasional guru besar dan tahap kepuasan kerja guru. Analisis deskriptif dengan berasaskan pengukuran frekuensi, skor min, sisihan piawai dan peratusan telah diaplikasikan untuk memperoleh data dalam kajian ini. Dengan berdasarkan statistik deskriptif tersebut pengkaji dapat menerangkan frekuensi min dan peratusan bagi semua data yang terdapat dalam instrumen.

Bagi mengenal pasti hubungan antara amalan kepimpinan transformasi dan kepuasan kerja diri dalam kalangan pentadbir sekolah, Ujian Korelasi Pearson digunakan untuk mendapatkan nilai kolerasi (r). Bagi mengenal pasti dimensi amalan kepimpinan transformasi pentadbir yang paling dominan mempengaruhi kepuasan kerja diri, ujian regresi berganda dijalankan.

DAPATAN KAJIAN DAN PERBINCANGAN

Berdasarkan Jadual 1, majoriti responden dalam kajian ini adalah perempuan iaitu 82.0 peratus daripada bilangan keseluruhan 100 responden. Manakala hanya 18 orang responden

---

469

教育研究研讨会 2017
三月20至22日于砂拉越古晋师范学院 (IPBL)

---

来自图书馆、网站和资源中心的文献参考补充信息。

研究对象为在马拉端县10所国民型华文小学任职的教师。在马拉端县B级国民型华文小学的教师人数不多。因此，本研究将涉及所有现有的100名小学教师。本研究不需要抽样技术。

所使用的调查问卷分为三个部分，即A部分、B部分和C部分。A部分要求受访者填写个人信息，如性别、教育水平和教学经验。B部分使用由Avolio & Bass (2004) 引入并经先前一些研究（如Mohamad Zabidi (2009)）提出的《多因素领导问卷》(MLQ) 来测量校长的领导风格，共包含40个项目。该问卷此前已被多项研究适配（如 Mohamad Zabidi, 2009），并由研究者进行了修改。C部分则使用由 Smith、Kendall 和 Hulin (1969) 编制、鲍灵格林州立大学出版的《工作描述指数》(JDI) 来衡量教师的工作满意度。该问卷由 Ahmat Daud (2011) 进行了修改。

研究进行了一项预调查（Pilot Study），以检查信度和效度。为了测试问卷的效度和信度，研究特选一名马来语专家教师对问卷进行校对。此外，研究者还咨询了导师，以确保问卷的效度和信度。预调查在非研究地点的另一所小学进行，通过随机抽样方式选取了30名受访者。根据预调查结果，问卷B部分的克朗巴赫系数为0.927，而C部分的克朗巴赫系数为0.944。

根据 Sekaran (1992) 的说法，Alpha值越接近 1，所构建项目的信度就越高。总之，根据信度分析结果发现，变革型领导实践的各个维度和教师工作满意度构思的所有项目均可用于本研究，因为克朗巴赫Alpha指数显示均超过了0.9。

在本研究中，应用描述性统计来确定校长的变革型领导实践水平和教师的工作满意度水平。研究应用了基于频率、平均分、标准差和百分比的描述性分析来获取数据。通过这些描述性统计，研究者能够解释工具中所有数据的频率、均值和百分比。

为确定学校管理者变革型领导实践与自身工作满意度之间的关系，使用皮尔逊相关检验获得相关系数值 (r)。为确定对自身工作满意度影响最为显著的管理者变革型领导实践维度，进行多元回归分析。

研究结果与讨论

根据表1，本研究中大多数受访者为女性，占100名受访者总数的82.0%。而只有18名受访者

---

469

Education Research Seminar 2017
March 20-22 at IPBL, Kuching, Sarawak

---

additional information from documentation references from libraries, websites, and resource centers.

The study population consists of teachers working in 10 SKM-type Chinese National-type Primary Schools in the Meradong district. Since the number of teachers serving in Grade B Chinese National-type Primary Schools in Meradong is not large, this study involves all 100 existing primary school teachers. Sampling techniques were not required for this study.

The questionnaire used is divided into three parts: Part A, Part B, and Part C. Part A requires respondents to provide personal information such as gender, education level, and teaching experience. Part B measures the headmaster's leadership style using the 40-item Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) introduced by Avolio & Bass (2004), which has been adapted by several previous studies (e.g., Mohamad Zabidi, 2009) and modified by the researcher. Part C measures teacher job satisfaction using the Job Description Index (JDI) by Smith, Kendall, and Hulin (1969), published by Bowling Green University. This questionnaire was modified by Ahmat Daud (2011).

TA pilot study was conducted to assess validity and reliability. To test the validity and reliability of the questionnaire, an expert teacher in Bahasa Malaysia was chosen to examine the instrument. Additionally, the researcher consulted a supervisor to ensure the validity and reliability of the questionnaire. The pilot study was conducted with 30 respondents at a primary school that was not the actual research site, using a random sampling method. Based on the pilot study, the Cronbach's Alpha ($ \alpha $) value for Part B was $ 0.927 $, while the value for Part C was $ 0.944 $.

According to Sekaran (1992), the closer the Alpha value is to 1, the higher the reliability of the constructed items. In conclusion, based on the reliability analysis findings, all items in every dimension of transformational leadership practices and the teacher job satisfaction construct can be used in this study as the Cronbach's Alpha index exceeded 0.9.

In this study, descriptive statistics were applied to identify the level of principals' transformational leadership practices and the level of teacher job satisfaction. Descriptive analysis based on frequency, mean score, standard deviation, and percentage measurements was applied to obtain data in this study. Based on these descriptive statistics, the researcher can describe the mean frequency and percentage for all data contained in the instrument.

To identify the relationship between transformational leadership practices and personal job satisfaction among school administrators, Pearson's Correlation Test was used to obtain the correlation value (r). To identify the most dominant dimension of administrators' transformational leadership practices influencing personal job satisfaction, a multiple regression test was conducted.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

Based on Table 1, the majority of respondents in this study were female, accounting for 82.0 percent of the total 100 respondents. Meanwhile, only 18 respondents

---

469


ĐẬU ĐEN XANH LÒNG
*BLACK BEANS GREEN HEART*

NON·GMO
NATURAL

1Kg

青仁黑豆
*黑豆青仁*

非转基因
天然

1公斤

BLACK BEANS GREEN HEART
*BLACK BEANS GREEN HEART*

NON·GMO
NATURAL

1Kg


INFO PUSAT !!!
GUNUNG RINJANI TUTUP
1 JAN 2 APR 25

@falisha.journey

重要通知 !!!
林贾尼火山封山
2025年1月1日至4月2日

@falisha.journey

CENTRAL INFO !!!
MOUNT RINJANI CLOSED
1 JAN - 2 APR 25

@falisha.journey


---

se úteis ao nível macro das populações no seu todo mas não ao nível micro, ou seja, ao nível individual de cada utente.

Reportando-se ao trabalho de Sackett *et al.* (1996), refere concordar que a evidência e a perícia pertencem a duas categorias lógicas diferentes. De acordo com Rolfe (1999), enquanto a evidência exterior (na forma de artigos de investigação) é um objecto tangível, palpável e observável, a perícia clínica é o processo através do qual o profissional formula um juízo clínico que envolve a integração de diferentes conhecimentos - experiencial e pessoal, incluindo as preferências do utente, no contexto dos recursos disponíveis.

Rolfe (1999) chama, no entanto, à atenção para o equívoco de por vezes se confundir na literatura anos de experiência com perícia, os quais, na sua opinião, são dois aspectos diferentes. Como salienta, um profissional experiente é alguém que acumulou um corpo de conhecimentos experiencial de muitos anos de prática, mas este conhecimento pode ser utilizado de forma inadequada ou pouco inteligente. Poderão, assim, existir profissionais com muitos anos de experiência que não são capazes de a utilizar, concluindo que o que distingue um enfermeiro experiente de um perito é a aplicação inteligente e prudente do conhecimento experiencial.

Este autor propõe um modelo alternativo de decisão clínica, que consiste num processo de perícia que integra e sintetiza o conhecimento científico, o conhecimento advindo da própria experiência anterior do profissional e o conhecimento pessoal dos utentes, individualmente ou do próprio, no contexto dos constrangimentos dos recursos disponíveis.

Neste modelo, um novo conceito de prática baseada na evidência é também proposto, no sentido de passar a incorporar todos os tipos de conhecimento nas decisões clínicas, o qual, na perspectiva de Rolfe (1999), apenas poderá ser desvendado através do processo de reflexão sobre a acção entretanto decorrida, estando a evidência associada não apenas à investigação mas, sobretudo, à prática reflectida.

Semelhante opinião, embora enfatizando o papel da experiência relativamente ao do conhecimento científico, possui Marks-Maran (1999), quando se apoia no trabalho de Page (1996) para afirmar que apenas cerca de 12% das decisões clínicas e

---

78

---

在宏观层面上对整体人群有用，但在微观层面上，即对每个服务对象的个体层面则不然。

参考萨克特 *等人*（1996）的研究，作者表示赞同“证据”与“专家能力”属于两个不同的逻辑范畴。根据罗尔夫（1999）的观点，外部证据（以研究论文的形式呈现）是一个有形的、可感知的、可观察的对象；而临床专家能力则是一个过程，该过程涉及在可用资源的背景下，整合不同的经验知识和个人知识，包括用户的偏好。

然而，罗尔夫（1999）提醒人们注意文献中常将“多年经验”与“专家能力”混为一谈的误区。在他看来，这是两个不同的方面。正如他所指出的，一名经验丰富的专业人员是积累了多年实践经验知识的人，但这些知识可能会被不恰当地或缺乏智慧地使用。因此，可能存在拥有多年经验却无法有效利用这些经验的专业人员。结论是，区分“经验丰富的护士”与“专家”的关键在于对经验知识进行聪明且审慎的应用。

该作者提出了另一种临床决策模型，这是一种专家能力过程，旨在整合并综合以下内容：科学知识、专业人员自身以往经验所得的知识，以及服务对象个人或自身的个人知识，并置于现有资源限制的情境中。

在该模型中，还提出了一种新的“循证实践”概念，即在临床决策中整合所有类型的知识。在罗尔夫（1999）看来，这只能通过对已发生的行为进行反思的过程来揭示。因此，证据不仅与研究相关，更重要的是与反思性实践相关。

马克斯-马兰（1999）也持有类似观点，尽管他相对于科学知识而言更强调经验的作用。他援引佩奇 （1996）的研究指出，仅有约 12% 的临床决策

---

78

---

useful at the macro level of populations as a whole, but not at the micro level, i.e., at the individual level of each patient.

Referring to the work of Sackett *et al.*  (1996), the author agrees that evidence and expertise belong to two different logical categories. According to Rolfe (1999), while external evidence (in the form of research articles) is a tangible, palpable, and observable object, clinical expertise is the process through which the professional formulates a clinical judgment. This involves the integration of different types of knowledge—experiential and personal—including the user's preferences, within the context of available resources.

Rolfe (1999), however, draws attention to the common misconception in literature of confusing "years of experience" with "expertise," which, in his opinion, are two distinct aspects. As he points out, an experienced professional is someone who has accumulated a body of experiential knowledge from many years of practice, but this knowledge can be used inappropriately or unintelligently. Thus, there may be professionals with many years of experience who are unable to utilize it effectively. He concludes that what distinguishes an experienced nurse from an expert is the intelligent and prudent application of experiential knowledge.

This author (Rolfe) proposes an alternative model of clinical decision-making, which consists of an expertise process that integrates and synthesizes scientific knowledge, knowledge stemming from the professional's own prior experience, and the personal knowledge of patients (individually) or of oneself (the professional), in the context of the constraints of available resources.

In this model, a new concept of evidence-based practice is also proposed, which entails incorporating all types of knowledge into clinical decisions. This new concept, from Rolfe's (1999) perspective, can only be fully understood through the process of reflecting on the action that has taken place. In this view, evidence is associated not only with research but, above all, with reflective practice.

Marks-Maran (1999) holds a similar opinion, though emphasizing the role of experience over scientific knowledge, drawing on the work of Page (1996) to state that only about 12% of clinical decisions

---

78


SIC notícias

Como vai estar o tempo no fim de semana e o que se pode esperar até ao final de abril?

SIC新闻

周末天气如何，到四月底前又将有何展望？

SIC News

How will the weather be on the weekend and what can be expected until the end of April?


เที่ยวมรดกโลก ตามรอยลิซ่า
วัดมหาธาตุ Unseen อยุธยา

游览世界遗产 追寻丽莎的足迹
玛哈泰寺 大城府秘境

Touring a World Heritage Site: Following in Lisa's Footsteps
Wat Mahathat, Unseen Ayutthaya


BACK-TO-SCHOOL SEASON
Celebrating September 5th


JAPAN TRAVEL
Machiya, merupakan sebutan untuk rumah kayu tradisional khas Jepang yang ikonik

日本旅行
町屋（Machiya）是日本标志性传统木屋的称谓

JAPAN TRAVEL
Machiya, is the term for the iconic traditional wooden houses characteristic of Japan


COURGIFLETTE LÉGÈRE
Par une diététicienne

轻盈版西葫芦焗奶酪
来自一位营养师

LIGHT COURGETTE TARTIFLETTE
By a dietitian


√ Thông tin chủ ruộng: Cháo Khế Mây (SĐT: 0916125346); Nguyễn Văn Quỳnh (SĐT: 0979069086)

√ Diện tích thử nghiệm: 1ha chia làm 2 điểm, mỗi điểm 5000m2

√  Cây trồng mục tiêu: Cây trồng mục tiêu: Bắp Cải; Mật độ trồng: 35000 cây/ha.

√ Tập quán bón phân tại địa phương: Bón phân hữu cơ 3000kg/ha chia 2 lần sau khi trồng cây non 10 ngày và 30 ngày; Bón thúc: NPK 16-16-8 1000kg/ha, chia 2 lần sau khi trồng cây non 60 ngày và 80 ngày.

√  Tình hình canh tác trước đây: Trồng rau màu.

9.1.2.8. Mô hình tại tỉnh Phú Thọ:

√  Địa chỉ: Khu 10, xã Phú Hộ, thị xã Phú Thọ, tỉnh Phú Thọ.

√  Thông tin chủ ruộng: Ông Hồng chủ ruộng, Chủ tịch HTX chè. SĐT: 0971396088

---

58

√ 田主信息：晁克梅 (电话号码：0916125346); 阮文琼 (电话号码：0979069086)

√ 试验面积：1公顷，分为2处，每处5000平方米

√ 目标作物：目标作物：大白菜；种植密度：35000 株/公顷。

√ 当地施肥习惯：施用有机肥3000公斤/公顷，幼苗种植后10天和30天分2次施用；追肥：NPK 16-16-8复合肥1000公斤/公顷，幼苗种植后60天和80天分2次施用。

√ 以往耕作情况：种植蔬菜。

9.1.2.8. 富寿省示范点：

√ 地址：富寿省富寿市社富户乡10区。

√ 田主信息：田主洪先生，茶叶合作社社长。电话号码：0971396088

---

58

√ Field owner information: Chao Khe May (Phone: 0916125346); Nguyen Van Quynh (Phone: 0979069086)

√ Trial area: 1ha divided into 2 plots, each plot 5000m2

√ Target crop: Target crop: Cabbage; Planting density: 35000 plants/ha.

√ Local fertilization practice: Organic fertilizer 3000kg/ha applied in 2 applications, 10 days and 30 days after planting seedlings; Top dressing: NPK 16-16-8 1000kg/ha, applied in 2 applications, 60 days and 80 days after planting seedlings.

√ Previous cultivation status: Vegetable cultivation.

9.1.2.8. Model in Phu Tho province:

√ Address: Zone 10, Phu Ho commune, Phu Tho town, Phu Tho province.

√ Field owner information: Mr. Hong, field owner, Chairman of Che Cooperative. Phone: 0971396088

---

58


Università degli Studi di Roma “Tor Vergata”
 Facoltà di Economia
 Dottorato di ricerca in Banca e Finanza
 XVI° Ciclo

Tesi di dottorato
Un modello interpretativo dei processi di integrazione dei mercati mobiliari europei: analisi dei progetti in atto e prospettive di Borsa Italiana Spa

Relatore:
Char.mo Prof. Alessandro Carretta

Coordinatore:
Char.mo Prof. Alessandro Carretta

Candidato
Dott. Gianni Nicolini

罗马第二大学
经济学院
银行与金融博士研究生项目
第十六期

博士论文
欧洲证券市场一体化进程的解读模型：对意大利证券交易所现有项目的分析和前景的展望

导师:
尊敬的亚历山德罗·卡雷塔教授

项目协调人:
尊敬的亚历山德罗·卡雷塔教授

博士候选人
詹尼·尼科利尼博士

University of Rome “Tor Vergata”
Faculty of Economics
PhD Program in Banking and Finance
16th Cycle

Doctoral Thesis
An interpretative model of the integration processes of European securities markets: analysis of current projects and prospects of Borsa Italiana S.p.A.

Supervisor:
Distinguished Professor Alessandro Carretta

Coordinator:
Distinguished Professor Alessandro Carretta

Candidate
Dr. Gianni Nicolini


e vuoi mangiare una pizza diversa dal solito?

你想吃点与众不同的披萨吗？

And do you want to eat a pizza that's different from the usual?


O Passeio de trem até Morretes: uma viagem inesquecível

*RR* Viagens

乘火车前往莫雷蒂斯：一次难忘的旅行

*RR* 旅行

The Train Ride to Morretes: an Unforgettable Journey

*RR* Travel


*ЭКОСИСТЕМНЫЕ УСЛУГИ И ЭКОНОМИКА*

---

Нужно различать понятия экономической ценности и цены для экосистемных услуг (природных ресурсов и услуг). Экономическая ценность должна охватывать все четыре функции природного ка-питала, названные выше, максимальное количество экосистемных услуг. Цена же фактически «работает» только в случае первой — ре-сурсной — природной функции. Если оценка первой функции ры-ночной экономикой осуществляется, хотя часто и с занижением, то экономические оценки второй и третьей природных функций прак-тически отсутствуют или минимальны. А именно эти экономические оценки регулирующих функций, ассимиляционного потенциала и природных услуг являются решающими для определения экономи-ческой ценности многих природных ресурсов, например, биораз-нообразия, климатической системы и пр.

В идеале цена экосистемных услуг должна совпадать с их эко-номической ценностью или приближаться к ней; тогда функциони-рование экономики, соотношение спроса и предложения, поведе-ние потребителей будет учитывать экологический фактор. В этом от-ношении позитивным является появление рынков новых товаров и услуг, связанных с еще не имеющими в настоящее время цены природными функциями (квоты на выбросы парниковых газов).

Одним из масштабных примеров использования подхода об-щей экономической ценности к оценке экосистемных услуг было исследование ценности лесов в различных странах региона Сре-диземного моря (Pagiola, von Ritter, Bishop, 2004). На основе рас-чета отдельных компонент общей экономической ценности был по-лучен ежегодный поток выгод от различных услуг и функций леса. Собственно древесина и древесное топливо в среднем составляют менее трети от общей экономической ценности. Т.е. сохранение ле-сов обеспечивает две трети общей выгоды за счет «недревесных» функций. Измерение выгод от рекреации и охоты несовершенно, но в европейских странах эти выгоды сопоставимы с ценностью древесины, а иногда и превосходят её. Защита района водосбо-ра — важная выгода в Италии, Сирии. Ценность прямого исполь-зования составляет в полученном значении общей экономической ценности почти 65%, хотя её доля, скорее всего, завышена: цен-ность прямого использования измерять проще, чем другие виды ценности. Значения ценности пассивного использования, связан-ной со стоимостью существования (удовольствие, эстетическое на-

---
*28*

*生态系统服务与经济*

---

需要区分生态系统服务（自然资源和服务）的经济价值与价格这两个概念。经济价值应涵盖上述自然资本的全部四项功能、尽可能多的生态系统服务。而价格实际上仅在第一项——资源性——自然功能的情况下“发挥作用”。虽然市场经济体对第一项功能的评估虽常被低估但仍有开展，但对第二项和第三项自然功能的经济评估则几乎不存在或微乎其微。而恰恰是这些对调节功能、同化潜力和自然服务的经济评估，对确定诸多自然资源（如生物多样性、气候系统等）的经济价值起到决定性作用。

理想情况下，生态系统服务的价格应与其经济价值相符或趋近于它；这样一来，经济运行、供需关系、消费者行为便会将生态因素考虑在内。在这方面，与目前尚未定价的自然功能相关的新商品和服务市场的出现（如温室气体排放配额）是积极的现象。

运用整体经济价值方法评估生态系统服务的一个大规模案例，是对地中海地区不同国家森林价值的研究（帕吉奥拉，冯·里特，主教，2004年）。基于对整体经济价值各组成部分的计算，得出了森林各类服务与功能带来的年度收益流。实际上，木材和薪柴平均仅占整体经济价值的不到三分之一。也就是说，森林的保护通过“非木材”功能提供了三分之二的总收益。对休闲和狩猎收益的衡量并不完善，但在欧洲国家，这些收益与木材价值相当，有时甚至超过木材价值。在意大利和叙利亚，水源涵养区保护是一项重要收益。直接利用的价值在得出的整体经济价值数值中占近65%，不过其占比很可能被高估：直接利用的价值比其他类型的价值更容易衡量。被动使用价值关系到存在价值（愉悦感、审美上的

---
*28*

*ECOSYSTEM SERVICES AND ECONOMICS*

---

It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of economic value and price for ecosystem services (natural resources and services). Economic value should encompass all four functions of natural capital mentioned above, the maximum number of ecosystem services. Price, however, effectively "works" only in the case of the first — resource — natural function. While the first function is assessed by the market economy, although often undervalued, economic assessments of the second and third natural functions are practically non-existent or minimal. And it is precisely these economic assessments of regulatory functions, assimilation capacity, and natural services that are crucial for determining the economic value of many natural resources, for example, biodiversity, the climate system, etc.

Ideally, the price of ecosystem services should coincide with or approximate their economic value; then the functioning of the economy, the balance of supply and demand, and consumer behavior will take the environmental factor into account. In this regard, the emergence of markets for new goods and services related to natural functions that do not currently have a price (e.g., greenhouse gas emission quotas) is a positive development.

One large-scale example of using the total economic value approach to assess ecosystem services was a study on the value of forests in various countries of the Mediterranean Sea region (Pagiola, von Ritter, Bishop, 2004). Based on the calculation of individual components of total economic value, an annual flow of benefits from various forest services and functions was obtained. Timber and wood fuel themselves, on average, account for less than a third of the total economic value. I.e., forest conservation provides two-thirds of the total benefit from "non-timber" functions. The measurement of benefits from recreation and hunting is imperfect, but in European countries, these benefits are comparable to, and sometimes exceed, the value of timber. Watershed protection is an important benefit in Italy and Syria. The value of direct use accounts for almost 65% of the obtained total economic value, although its share is likely overestimated: direct use value is easier to measure than other types of value. The values of passive use value, related to existence value (pleasure, aesthetic en-

---
*28*


©Mondocialde

LOLLOCAFFÈ

nocciola

espresso

*gusto e passione*

MADE IN ITALY

©Mondocialde

LOLLOCAFFÈ

榛果味

意式浓缩咖啡

*品味与激情*

意大利制造

©Mondocialde

LOLLOCAFFÈ

hazelnut

espresso

*taste and passion*

MADE IN ITALY