Antony and Cleopatra, by Lawrence Alma-Tadema. Noted by Plutarch, and dramatized by Shakespeare, Cleopatra's encounter with Marc Antony at the Nile epitomized tryphé: it upstaged Antony's procession in a greater display of wealth and finery, it provided an exciting spectacle for subjects gathering for the event, and it showcased the kind of gauzy femininity that led many Romans to consider tryphé a sign of effeminacy and weakness when, if anything, it camouflaged unbridled power.
Tryphé (Greek: τρυφἠ) -- variously glossed as "softness", "voluptuousness", "magnificence" and "extravagance", none fully adequate—is a concept that drew attention (and severe criticism) in Roman antiquity when it became a significant factor in the reign of the Ptolemaic dynasty. Classical authors such as Aeschines and Plutarch condemned the tryphé of Romans such as Crassus and Lucullus, which included lavish dinner parties and ostentatious buildings. But there was more to Ptolemaic tryphé than dissipative excess, which after all can be pursued in residential or geographical seclusion, and for purely private purposes. It was a component of a calculated political strategy, in that it deployed not just conspicuous consumption but also conspicuous magnificence, beneficence and feminine delicacy, as a self-reinforcing cluster of signal propaganda concepts in the Ptolemaic dynasty.


Ferdinand Büchner began studying the flute at an early age with his father, who played a leading role in the musical life of Bad Pyrmont. He was later taught by the flutist Christian Heinemeyer. He traveled to London, where he had his first public engagement at the age of 13. In 1847 he received an engagement in Berlin, where he remained for three years. In 1850 he traveled to Russia, and was intensely involved in the musical life of St. Petersburg. In 1856 he was appointed principal flute of the Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow. He retained the position until shortly before his death. His excellent reputation as a soloist and teacher brought him an appointment as professor at the Moscow Conservatory of Nikolai Rubinstein.
Büchner was a virtuoso musician and a composer. He wrote many pieces for the flute, including eight concertos. His finest concerto is considerer to be the one in F minor, Op 38, dedicated to his publisher, Julius Heinrich Zimmermann.
List of Compositions
- Flute Concertino, Op.40
- Flute Concerto No.1, Op.38
- Flute Concerto No.4, Op.51
- Flute Concerto No.8, Op.64
- Biographies for the Collection of Great Portraits: Flute Virtuoso and Composer Delettanten. Berlin, 1906.
- Ernst Stöhr. Music History of Germans from Russia. Laumann-Verlag, 1993. p. 69
- Hugo Riemann, music encyclopedia, Berlin, 1929.


||This article may be too technical for most readers to understand. (August 2012)|
The green-beard effect is a hypothesis used in evolutionary biology to explain selective altruism between designated individuals of a species. It is based on the gene-centered view of evolution, which emphasizes an interpretation of natural selection from the point of view of the gene which acts as an agent that has the metaphorical "goal" of maximizing it's own propagation. A gene for (behavioral) selective altruism can be favored by (natural) selection if the altruism is primarily directed at other individuals who share the same allele.
- a perceptible trait, — the hypothetical "green beard"
- recognition of this trait in others; and
- preferential treatment to those recognized.
The carrier of the allele is essentialy recognizing copies of the same allele in other individuals. Whereas most alleles that are favored by kin selection spread by individuals who show family altruism toward others who share their alleles in a non-specific way, green-beard alleles would rise in frequency by promoting altruism toward individuals who share a specific phenotypic trait (allele). This can have the effect of delineating a subset of organisms within a population that is characterized by members who show greater cooperation toward each other, this forming a "clique" that can be advantageous to it's members who are not necessarily kin.
Green-beard effect could increase altruism on green-beard phenotypes and therefore its presence in a population even if alleles are assisting other genes that are not exact copies of themselves in a molecular sense; all that is required is that they produce the three phenotypic characteristics described above. Green-beard alleles are vulnerable to mutant genes arising that produce the perceptible trait without the helping behaviour.
In the last several years, evolutionary biologists have questioned the potential validity of green-beard alleles, suggesting it would be extraordinarily rare for a single allele to produce three complex phenotypic effects. This criticism has led some to believe that they simply cannot exist or that they only can be present in less complex organisms, such as microorganisms. Several discoveries within the past ten years have illuminated the validity of this critique.
The concept remained a merely theoretical possibility under Dawkins' selfish gene model until 1998, when a green-beard allele was first found in nature, in the red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta). Polygyne colony queens are heterozygous (Bb) at the Gp-9 gene locus. Their worker offspring can have both heterozygous (Bb) and homozygous (BB) genotypes. The investigators discovered that homozygous dominant (BB) queens, which in the wild form produce monogyne rather than polygyne colonies, are specifically killed when introduced into polygyne colonies, most often by heterozygous (Bb) and not homozygous (BB) workers. They concluded that the allele Gp-9b is linked to a greenbeard allele which induces workers bearing this allele to kill all queens that do not have it. A final conclusion notes that the workers are able to distinguish BB queens from Bb queens based on an odor cue.
The gene csA in the slime mould Dictyostelium discoideum, discovered in 2003, codes for a cell adhesion protein which binds to gp80 proteins on other cells, allowing multicellular fruiting body formation on soil. Mixtures of csA knockout cells with wild-type cells yield spores, "born" from the fruiting bodies, which are 82% wild-type (WT). This is because the wild-type cells are better at adhering and more effectively combine into aggregates; knockout (KO) cells are left behind. On more adhesive but less natural substances, KO cells can adhere; WT cells, still better at adhering, sort preferentially into the stalk.
In 2006, green beard-like recognition was seen in the cooperative behavior among color morphs in side-blotched lizards, although the traits appear to be encoded by multiple loci across the genome.
A more recent example, found in 2008, is a gene that makes brewer's yeast clump together in response to a toxin such as alcohol. By investigating flocculation, a type of self-adherence generally present in asexual aggregations, Smukalla et al. showed that S. cerevisiae is a model for cooperative behavior evolution. When this yeast expresses FLO1 in the laboratory, flocculation is restored. Flocculation is apparently protective for the FLO1+ cells, which are shielded from certain stresses (ethanol, for example). In addition FLO1+ cells preferentially adhere to each other. The authors therefore conclude that flocculation is driven by this greenbeard allele.
A mammalian example appears to be the reproductive strategy of the wood mouse, which shows cooperation among spermatozoa. Single sperms hook in each other to form sperm-trains, which are able to move faster together than single sperm would do.
- Maternal effect dominant embryonic arrest (the "Medea" gene): an example of intergenerational gene self-selection, whereby a gene present in a mother organism selectively terminates offspring that do not receive that gene.
- Hamilton WD (July 1964). "The genetical evolution of social behaviour. I". J Theor Biol 7 (1): 1–16. doi:10.1016/0022-5193(64)90038-4. PMID 5875341.
- Hamilton WD (July 1964). "The genetical evolution of social behaviour. II". J Theor Biol 7 (1): 17–52. doi:10.1016/0022-5193(64)90039-6. PMID 5875340.
- Dawkins, Richard (1976). The Selfish Gene. Oxford University Press, Oxford. ISBN 0-19-217773-7.
- Grafen, Alan (6 August 1998). "Green beard as death warrant" (PDF). Nature 394 (6693): 521–522. doi:10.1038/28948. Retrieved 29 November 2009.
- Keller, Laurent; Ross, Kenneth G (6 August 1998). "Selfish genes: a green beard in the red fire ant". Nature 394 (6693): 573–575. doi:10.1038/29064. Retrieved 29 November 2009.
- Queller, David C; Ponte, Eleonora; Bozzaro, Salvatore; Strassmann, Joan E (3 January 2003). "Single-gene greenbeard effects in the social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum" (PDF). Science 299 (5603): 105–106. doi:10.1126/science.1077742. PMID 12511650. Retrieved 29 November 2009.
- Sinervo B, Chaine A, Clobert J, Calsbeek R, Hazard L, Lancaster L, McAdam AG, Alonzo S, Corrigan G, Hochberg ME (May 2006). "Self-recognition, color signals, and cycles of greenbeard mutualism and altruism". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103 (19): 7372–7377. doi:10.1073/pnas.0510260103. PMC 1564281. PMID 16651531.
- Prakash, Sheila (18 December 2008). "Yeast Gone Wild". Seed. Retrieved 29 November 2009.
- Smukalla, Scott; Caldara, Marina; Pochet, Nathalie; Beauvais, A; Guadagnini, S; Yan, C; Vinces, MD; Jansen, A; Prevost, MC (14 November 2008). "FLO1 is a variable green beard gene that drives biofilm-like cooperation in budding yeast". Cell 135 (4): 726–737. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2008.09.037. PMC 2703716. PMID 19013280. Retrieved 29 November 2009.
- Harry Moore, Katerina Dvoráková, Nicholas Jenkins, William Breed (1 March 2002), "Exceptional sperm cooperation in the wood mouse", Nature 418, 174-177, doi:10.1038/nature00832;


|Born||Harald August Bohr
22 April 1887
|Died||22 January 1951
|Parents||Christian and Ellen Bohr|
|Olympic medal record|
|Competitor for Denmark|
|Silver||1908 London||Team Competition|
Harald August Bohr (22 April 1887 – 22 January 1951) was a Danish mathematician and football player. After receiving his doctorate in 1910, Bohr became an eminent mathematician, founding the field of almost periodic functions. His brother was the Nobel Prize-winning physicist Niels Bohr. He was a member of the Danish national football team for the 1908 Summer Olympics, where he won a silver medal.
Bohr was born in 1887 to Christian Bohr, a professor of physiology, from a Lutheran background, and Ellen Adler Bohr, a woman from a wealthy Jewish family of local renown. Harald had a close relationship with his elder brother, which The Times likened to that between Captain Cuttle and Captain Bunsby in Charles Dickens' Dombey and Son.
Like his father and brother before him, in 1904 Bohr enrolled at the University of Copenhagen, where he studied mathematics, obtaining his masters in 1909 and his doctorate a year later. Among his tutors were Hieronymus Georg Zeuthen and Thorvald N. Thiele. Bohr worked in mathematical analysis; much of his early work was devoted to Dirichlet series including his doctorate, which was entitled Bidrag til de Dirichletske Rækkers Theori (Contributions to the Theory of Dirichlet Series). A collaboration with Göttingen-based Edmund Landau resulted in the Bohr–Landau theorem, regarding the distribution of zeroes in zeta functions.
In 1915 he became a professor at Polyteknisk Læreanstalt, working there until 1930, when he took a professorship at the University of Copenhagen. He remained in this post for 21 years until his death in 1951. Børge Jessen was one of his students there.
In the 1930s Bohr was a leading critic of the anti-Semitic policies taking root in the German mathematical establishment, publishing an article criticising Ludwig Bieberbach's ideas in Berlingske Aften in 1934.
Bohr was also an excellent football player. He had a long playing career with Akademisk Boldklub, making his debut as a 16 year old in 1903. During the 1905 season he played alongside his brother Niels, who was a goalkeeper. Harald was selected to play for the Danish national football team in the 1908 Summer Olympics, where football was an official event for the first time. Though a Danish side had played at the 1906 Intercalated Games, the opening match of the 1908 Olympic tournament was Denmark's first official international football match. Bohr scored two goals as Denmark beat the French "B" team 9–0. In the next match, the semi-final, Bohr played in a 17–1 win against France, which remains an Olympic record to this day. Denmark faced hosts Great Britain in the final, but lost 2–0, and Bohr won a silver medal. After the Olympics he made one further appearance for the national team, in a 2–1 victory against an England amateur team in 1910. His popularity as a footballer was such that when he defended his doctoral thesis the audience was reported as having more football fans than mathematicians.
Bohr was known as an extremely capable academic teacher and the annual award for outstanding teaching at the University of Copenhagen is called the Harald, in honour of Harald Bohr. With Johannes Mollerup, Bohr wrote an influential four-volume textbook Lærebog i Matematisk Analyse (Textbook in mathematical analysis).
- Bohr–Mollerup theorem
- Bohr compactification
- Bohr–Favard inequality
- Danish Mathematical Society
- List of select Jewish football (association; soccer) players
- Politiets Registerblade [Register cards of the Police] (in Danish). Copenhagen: Københavns Stadsarkiv. 7 June 1892. Station Dødeblade (indeholder afdøde i perioden). Filmrulle 0002. Registerblad 3341. ID 3308989.
- J J O'Connor and E F Robertson. "Harald August Bohr". Retrieved 2008-08-17.
- "Obituary: Prof. Harald Bohr". The Times (Times Digital Archive 1785-1985) . 6 February 1951. p. 8.
- Bochner, Salomon (January 1952). "Harald Bohr". Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society 58 (1): 72–75. doi:10.1090/S0002-9904-1952-09551-3. Retrieved 2008-12-21.
- H. P Boas (1997). "The Football Player and the Infinite Series". arXiv:math.CV/9705204 [math.CV].
- Institute for Advanced Study: A Community of Scholars
- Menzler-Trott, Eckart (2008). Logic's Lost Genius: The Life of Gerhard Gentzen. AMS. p. 115. ISBN 0-8218-3550-5.
- Akademisk Boldklub. "AB's historie". Retrieved 2008-08-18.[dead link]
- "Harald Bohr". Sports-Reference.com. Retrieved 2008-08-18.
- "Denmark - Internationals 1908-1912". RSSSF. Retrieved 2008-08-18.
- "Mathematical Moments - Harald Bohr". Plus magazine. Retrieved 2008-08-20.
- "Bibliography of Harald Bohr". University of Copenhagen. Retrieved 2008-08-20.
- "KAJ MUNK IN MEMORIAM". De frie Danske (in Danish). January 1944. p. 6. Retrieved 18 November 2014.
Meddelelsen om denne nye Voldsdaad i Danmark, Mordet paa en af vore største Digtere og modigste Personligheder, har opfyldt os alle med Afsky og Forfærdelse, og vi forstaar, at Kaj Munks Anseelse og den Beundring man nærede for ham her i Sverige, var saa stor, at vore Følelser deles af det svenske Folk
- O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Harald Bohr", MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews.
- Harald Bohr at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
- Danish national team profile
- Some photos of Harald Bohr


In Fair Palestine: A Story of Romeo and Juliet
In Fair Palestine: A story of Romeo and Juliet is a film produced by Palestinian high school students at the Quaker-run Ramallah Friends Schools in the West Bank. A documentary drama, it reprises the story of Romeo and Juliet in the modern-day context of life in a Palestinian city, Ramallah. Work on the project was initiated in January 2006 by Doug Hart, an English teacher of American background . The film premiered on 19 January 2008 at the Ramallah Cultural Palace to an audience of 800 people in the 700 seat cinema. The premiere garnered coverage by mainstream media outlets in the Palestinian territories, Jordan and Syria.
Hart proposed the idea to create the movie and gathered together a group of 10th grade students to work on the project. Students did background research on Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet. During 11th grade, the writers and the director of the movie worked on the script and, in the summer, begin shooting. Shooting ran from 7 June until 28 September. Editing efforts continued through 12th grade until the film was finalized, a few days before its premier on 19 January 2008.
Tarek Knorn, one of the students involved as a co-writer and as an actor, playing the role of Mercutio, explained why the students chose to do an adaptation of Shakespeare's play:
"We thought we would use a play that has values and principles that are shared by people all over the world. Issues that people all over the world have to deal with and learn from such as arranged marriages, love at first sight, teenage life, etcetera. We felt it was a good idea and saw it as our first chance to express ourselves in a manner different from the way the news represents us."
According to the students, the film is designed to humanize Palestinians and show the side of Palestine that does not always make its way into film. The film is made in the form of dramatic scenes interspersed with documentary pieces, so as to convey the lives of Palestinian teenagers. Based on the play by William Shakespeare, the movie deals with the lives of two star-crossed Palestinian lovers as they grapple with the realities of their everyday lives.
In this adaptation of the famous play, Romeo and Juliet meet at a party celebrating the Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca. They are wed in secret by a sheikh. The film follows the basic plotline of the original Romeo and Juliet, though in the film, Romeo does not hear of Juliet's faked death because a messenger sent to bring him the news is stopped at an Israeli checkpoint.
- Mahmoud Amra (Fall 2007). "Shakespeare in Ramallah, Palestine: A Love Story". Ramallah Friends Schools. Retrieved 2008-02-03.
- Yazan Nahhas and Faris Giacaman. "Romeo and Juliet in Palestine: the History of the Project". Behind the Wall. Retrieved 2008-02-03.
- "Retuers Transcript". Reuters. 29 January 2008. Retrieved 2008-02-11.[dead link]
- Concord Media DVD copies can be bought from this Quaker charity in Britain.
- The trailer of the movie on YouTube
- Reuters transcript of coverage
- Film coverage by two teachers at the Friends Boys School
- Pictures from the premier by Westbanktarheel
- Al-Watan newspaper, Syria
- Al-Quds newspaper, Palestine
- Dar Al-Hayat newspaper, Jordan


Mohammad Khan Qajar
|This article needs additional citations for verification. (December 2013)|
|Mohammad Khan Qajar|
|Shahanshah of Persia|
|Reign||21 March 1794 – 17 June 1797 [3 years 2 months 27 days]|
|Predecessor||Lotf Ali Khan|
|Successor||Fat′h-Ali Shah Qajar|
|Father||Mohammad Hasan Khan Qajar|
|Died||Saturday, 17 June 1797 [aged 55]
Shusha, Karabakh Khanate
Agha Muḥammad Khān Qājār (1742–1797; Persian: آغا محمد خان قاجار) was the chief of the Qajar tribe, succeeding his father Mohammad Hassan Khan, who was killed on the orders of Adil Shah. He became the Emperor/Shah of Persia in 1794 and established the Qajar dynasty. He was succeeded by his nephew, Fat′h Ali Shah Qajar.
Agha Mohammad Khan was born in around 1742. At the age of six, he was castrated on the orders of Adil Shah, the enemy of his father, to prevent him from becoming a political rival, but this loss did not hinder his career. Despite being a eunuch, he became the chief of his tribe in 1758. In 1762 he was captured by a rival tribe and sent to Shiraz as a prisoner to Karim Khan's court. Agha Muhammad spent the next 16 years as a hostage, until he escaped in 1779. That same year, the death of Shah Karim Khan Zand plunged the country into a series of civil wars and disputes over the succession, with many members of the Zand dynasty acceding to the Sun Throne in the space of only ten years. Agha Muhammad took the opportunity to launch a rebellion which, in 1794, succeeded in capturing Lotf Ali Khan, the last Zand ruler. Two years later he proclaimed himself Shahanshah (King of Kings).
Agha Muhammad restored Persia to a unity it had not had since Karim Khan. He was, however, a man of extreme violence who killed almost all who could threaten his hold on power. In 1795 he ravaged and reconsidered Georgia, which had been under intermittent Iranian suzerainty since 1555, but had declared itself independent after the disintegrating of the Iranian Afsharid Dynasty. In the same year he also captured Khorasan. Shah Rukh, ruler of Khorasan and grandson of Nadir Shah, was tortured to death because Agha Muhammad thought that he knew of Nadir's legendary treasures.
In 1778, Agha Muhammad moved his capital from Sari in his home province of Mazandaran to Tehran. He was the first Persian ruler to make Tehran — the successor to the great city of Rayy — his capital, although both the Safavids and the Zands had expanded the town and built palaces there. He was crowned in 1796 and founded the Qajar dynasty.
Although the Russians briefly took and occupied Derbent and Baku during the Persian Expedition of 1796, he successfully expanded Persian influence into the Caucasus, reasserting Iranian sovereignty over its former dependencies in the region. He was, however, a notoriously cruel ruler, who reduced Tbilisi to ashes and massacred its Christian population, as he had done with his Muslim subjects. He based his strength on tribal manpower of Genghis Khan, Teimur and Nader Shah.
Agha Muhammad was assassinated in 1797 in the city of Shusha, the capital of Karabakh khanate, less than 3 years in power. According to Hasan-e Fasa'i's' Farsnama-ye Naseri, during Agha Muhammad's stay in Shusha, one night "a quarrel arose between a Georgian servant named Sadeq and the valet Khodadad-e Esfahani. They raised their voices to such a pitch that the shah became angry and ordered both to be executed. Sadeq Khan-e Shaghaghi, a prominent emir, interceded on their behalf, but was not listened to. The shah, however, ordered their execution to be postponed until Saturday, as this happened to be the evening of Friday (the Islamic holy day), and ordered them back to their duties in the royal pavilion, unfettered and unchained, awaiting their execution the next day. From experience, however, they knew that the King would keep to what he had ordered, and, having no hope, they turned to boldness. When the shah was sleeping, they were joined by the valet Abbas-e Mazandarani, who was in the plot with them, and the three invaded the royal pavilion and with dagger and knife murdered the shah."
- Cyrus Ghani (6 January 2001). Iran and the Rise of the Reza Shah: From Qajar Collapse to Pahlavi Power. I.B.Tauris. pp. 9–. ISBN 978-1-86064-629-4. Retrieved 4 November 2012.
Mohammad Khan QajarBorn: 1742 Died: 17 June 1797
Lotf Ali Khan
|Shah of Persia
Fat′h Ali Shah Qajar


Naupactus; view from the fortress.
|Administrative region:||West Greece|
|Population statistics (as of 2011)|
|- Area:||159.9 km2 (62 sq mi)|
|- Density:||124 /km2 (320 /sq mi)|
|Time zone:||EET/EEST (UTC+2/3)|
|Elevation (min-max):||0–3 m (0–10 ft)|
|Postal code:||303 xx|
Naupactus or Nafpaktos (Greek: Ναύπακτος, formerly Έπαχτος; Latin: Naupactus; Italian: Lepanto; Turkish: İnebahtı), is a town and a former municipality in Aetolia-Acarnania, West Greece, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform, it has been part of the municipality Nafpaktia, of which it is the seat and a municipal unit. It is the third largest town of Aetolia-Acarnania, after Agrinio and Missolonghi.
Naupactus is situated on a bay on the north coast of the Gulf of Corinth, 3 km (2 mi) west of the mouth of the river Mornos. The harbour is accessible only to the smallest craft. It is 9 km (6 mi) northeast of Antirrio, 18 km (11 mi) northeast of Patras, 35 km (22 mi) east of Missolonghi and 45 km (28 mi) southeast of Agrinio. The Greek National Road 48/E65 (Antirrio - Naupactus - Delphi - Livadeia) passes north of the town.
The 1571 Battle of Lepanto, in which the navy of the Ottoman Turks was decisively defeated by a coalition of European Christians, is named for Naupactus under the Italian form of its name.
- 1 Name
- 2 History
- 3 Ecclesiastical history
- 4 Residents
- 5 Landmarks
- 6 Subdivisions
- 7 Nearest places
- 8 Historical population
- 9 Media
- 10 Notable people
- 11 Gallery
- 12 Twin cities
- 13 Sports teams
- 14 See also
- 15 References
- 16 Sources
- 17 External links
The name Naupaktos means "boatyard", from ναύς (ancient Greek naus, meaning "ship") and πηγνύειν (Ancient Greek pêgnuein meaning "to build"). It was later Latinized as Naupactus. In the Byzantine period, the name used was the slightly altered form Epachtos (Έπαχτος), while the Venetian term was Lepanto and the Ottoman Turkish İnebahtı. The ancient name was revived in the 19th century.
In historical times it belonged to the Ozolian Locrians; but about 455 BC, in spite of a partial resettlement with Locrians of Opus, it fell to the Athenians, who peopled it with Messenian refugees and made it their chief naval station in western Greece during the Peloponnesian war. Two major battles were fought here. In 404 it was restored to the Locrians, who subsequently lost it to the Achaeans, but recovered it through Epaminondas.
The town and its hinterland were hit by an epidemic coming from Italy in 747/8 and almost deserted.
From the late 9th century, probably the 880s, it was capital of the Byzantine thema of Nicopolis. At the same time, its bishopric was elevated to a metropolis. During the 9th–10th centuries, the town was an important harbour for the Byzantine navy and a strategic point for communication with the Byzantine possessions in southern Italy.
A rebellion of the local populace, which led to the death of the local strategos George, is recorded during the early reign of Constantine VIII (r. 1025–28). In 1040, the town did not take part in the Uprising of Peter Delyan, and although attacked by the rebel army, alone among the towns of the theme of Nicopolis, it resisted successfully. The history of the town over the next two centuries is obscure; during the visit of Benjamin of Tudela, there was a Jewish community of about 100 in the town.
Following the dissolution of the Byzantine Empire after the Fourth Crusade, it became part of the Despotate of Epirus. Under its metropolitan, John Apokaukos, the see of Naupactus gained in importance and headed the local synod for the southern half of the Epirote domains. In 1294, the town was ceded to Philip I, Prince of Taranto as part of the dowry of Thamar Angelina Komnene. The ruler of Thessaly, Constantine Doukas, attacked Epirus in the next year and captured Naupactus, but in 1296 they handed most of their conquests back to the Angevins, and Naupactus became a major Angevin base on the Greek mainland. In 1304 or 1305, the Epirotes recovered Naupactus during a war with the Angevins, but handed it back when peace was concluded in 1306.
In 1361 the town was captured by the Catalans of the Duchy of Athens. In 1376 or 1377 it fell to the Albanians under John Bua Spata. Apart from a brief occupation by the Knights Hospitaller in 1378, Naupactus remained in Albanian hands until 1407, when Paul Spata, wedged between the expanding lands of the Count of Cephalonia Carlo I Tocco and the Ottoman possessions, sold the town to the Republic of Venice.
By 1449, the Ottomans had completed their conquest of all of Epirus and Aetolia-Acarnania apart from Naupactus, which remained in Venetian hands. The town was important to Venice, as it secured their trade through the Corinthian Gulf, and the Republic took care to erect strong fortifications to secure its possession. In the end, the fortress fell to the Ottomans in 1499, during the Second Ottoman–Venetian War.
Ottoman rule and modern period
Under the Ottomans, Naupactus was known as İnebahtı and was the seat of a Turkish province, the Sanjak of İnebahtı. The mouth of the Gulf of Lepanto was the scene of the great sea battle in which the naval power of the Ottoman Empire was nearly completely destroyed by the united Papal, Spanish, Habsburg and Venetian forces (Battle of Lepanto, October 7, 1571). In 1687 it was recaptured by the Venetians, but was again restored to the Ottomans in 1699, by the Treaty of Karlowitz. It became part of independent Greece in March 1829.
Naupactus suffered damage from the 2007 Greek forest fires.
Today the population is about 19,768 people according to the 2011 census. Residential homes align with the Gulf of Corinth over a length of about 3 km (2 mi) and a width of about 1 km (0.6 mi). The port divides the beachfront in two parts. The Western part is called Psani, while the Eastern part Gribovo. Naupactus sits on a shoulder of a mountain range on the north while farmlands dominate the western part. It used to be on the GR-48/E65 linking Antirrio and Amfissa; now it is bypassed to the north at the elevation of 150 to 200 m (492 to 656 ft) above sea level. The bypass has contributed significantly in lowering the number of heavy trucks passing through the narrow streets of the town.
- The port and castle provide the main attraction for the town. Shops, cafes and bars dot the immediate area, while a cafe is also located within the castle walls
- The port also includes monuments commemorating the Battle of Lepanto (1571), and there is also a statue of the Cervantes by the Mallorcan artist Jaume Mir.
- A small water park is located just past the western portion of the beach near Psani
- Nafpaktos is also home to a local museum
- The Fethiye Mosque, the city's largest Ottoman-era mosque
The municipal unit Naupactus is subdivided into the following communities (constituent villages in brackets):
- Afroxylia (Ano Afroxylia, Kato Afroxylia)
- Dafni (Dafni, Kato Dafni)
- Mamoulada (Kato Mamoulada, Mamoulada)
- Neokastro (Neokastro, Paliampela)
- Palaiochoraki (Palaiochoraki, Mikro Palaiochoraki)
- Pitsinaiika (Pitsinaiika, Kastraki, Sykia)
- Riganio (Riganio, Diasello, Poros)
- Vlachomandra (Vlachomandra, Gefyra Bania, Sfikaaika)
- Vomvokou (Vomvokou, Agios Vasileios, Lefka Vomvokous, Marmara)
- Antirrio (west)
- Katafygio (Katafigio): One of the traditional villages in Orini Nafpaktia (mountainous Nafpaktia).
- Ano chora (north): One of the traditional villages of Orini Nafpaktia
- Kentriki (north): One of the traditional villages of Orini Nafpaktia
- Aspria (north): One of the traditional villages of Orini Nafpaktia
- Chomori: One of the traditional villages of Orini Nafpaktia
- Elatovrisi or Elatou: One of the traditional villages of Orini Nafpaktia with famous natural spring water.
- Skala: Village found in the hills minutes from the town centre; overlooks the town itself
- Skaloma: beaches
- Hiliadou: Part of the strip of beachside villages outside of Nafpaktos (Hiliadou-Monastiraki-Skaloma); sandy beach makes it a popular destination for residents of Nafpaktos and tourists
- Klepa: One of the villages in Orini Nafpaktia
|Year||Town population||Municipality population|
- Agelaus (3rd century BC), politician
- John Apokaukos (died 1233), Metropolitan of Naupactus from 1200 to 1232
- Georgios Athanasiadis-Novas (1893–1987), lawyer, politician and former Prime Minister of Greece
- Hierotheos (Vlachos) (born 1945), Metropolitan of Nafpaktos and Agios Vlasios
- "Detailed census results 2011" (xls 2,7 MB). National Statistical Service of Greece. (Greek)
- Kallikratis law Greece Ministry of Interior (Greek)
- Veikou, Myrto (2012). Byzantine Epirus: A Topography of Transformation. Settlements of the Seventh-Twelfth Centuries in Southern Epirus and Aetoloacarnania, Greece. BRILL. pp. 466–468. ISBN 9004221514.
- Nesbitt, John W.; Oikonomides, Nicolas, eds. (1994). Catalogue of Byzantine Seals at Dumbarton Oaks and in the Fogg Museum of Art, Volume 2: South of the Balkans, the Islands, South of Asia Minor. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. pp. 9–10, 18. ISBN 0-88402-226-9.
- Gregory, T. E. (1991). "Naupaktos". In Kazhdan, Alexander. The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford University Press. pp. 1442–1443. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6.
- Fine, John Van Antwerp (1994). The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest. University of Michigan Press. p. 65. ISBN 978-0-472-08260-5.
- Fine, John Van Antwerp (1994). The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest. University of Michigan Press. p. 115. ISBN 978-0-472-08260-5.
- Fine, John Van Antwerp (1994). The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest. University of Michigan Press. pp. 236–237. ISBN 978-0-472-08260-5.
- Fine, John Van Antwerp (1994). The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest. University of Michigan Press. pp. 239–240. ISBN 978-0-472-08260-5.
- Fine, John Van Antwerp (1994). The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest. University of Michigan Press. pp. 352, 356, 401. ISBN 978-0-472-08260-5.
- Fine, John Van Antwerp (1994). The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest. University of Michigan Press. p. 544. ISBN 978-0-472-08260-5.
- "Lepanto". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913.
- This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nafpaktos.|
|Antirrio||Gulf of Corinth|


|Olaus J. Murie|
Mardy Murie and Olaus at their home, Grand Tetons, 1953
|Born||March 1, 1889
|Died||21 October 1963
|Occupation||author, ecologist, forester, wildlife biologist,|
|Alma mater||University of Michigan|
|Subject||Ecology, Conservation, Wilderness Preservation|
|Notable works||Elk of North America|
|Notable awards||Pugsley Medal, Audubon Medal, Sierra Club John Muir Award|
|Relatives||see Murie family article|
Olaus Johan Murie (March 1, 1889 – October 21, 1963), called the "father of modern elk management", was a naturalist, author, and wildlife biologist who did groundbreaking field research on a variety of large northern mammals. Rather than conducting empirical experiments, Murie practiced a more observational based science.
Murie focused his research on the North American continent by conducting vast studies throughout Canada, Alaska and Wyoming. Through these constructive yet sometimes treacherous trips, Murie was able to gain valuable experience observing species and collecting specimens. During his first expedition to Canada, Murie discovered his passion for fieldwork and was able to develop resourceful skills from his Eskimo and Indian guides, which were critical for his survival in such a harsh environment. Murie employed many of these same skills as he travelled to Alaska and finally to Wyoming.
These trips served as the foundation for many of his key ideas about wildlife management and conservation. As a scientist of the U.S. Biological Survey, Murie developed key ideas concerning predator prey relationships. Generally unheard of during his time, Murie argued that a healthy predator population was key to ensuring a harmonious balance between predator and prey populations. Murie used these ideas to improve current wildlife management practices.
Throughout his life Murie advocated on behalf of wildlife conservation and management. With his wife, Mardie Murie, he successfully campaigned to enlarge the boundaries of the Olympic National Park, and to create the Jackson Hole National Monument and the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. During his career, Murie held many respected positions within environmental organizations. He served as president of The Wilderness Society, The Wildlife Society, and as director of the Izaak Walton League.
Murie was born on March 1, 1889, in Moorhead, Minnesota, the child of Norwegian immigrants. Growing up in this less urbanized region helped foster a love for the wilderness from an early age. Murie studied biology at Fargo College, private liberal arts college of the Congregational Church. When his zoology professor moved to Pacific University in Oregon, he offered Murie a scholarship to transfer there, where he completed studies in zoology and wildlife biology and was graduated in 1912. He did graduate work at the University of Michigan and was granted an M.S. in 1927. He began his career as an Oregon State conservation officer and participated in scientific explorations of Hudson Bay and Labrador, financed by the Carnegie Museum. He joined the U.S. Bureau of Biological Survey (now the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service) in 1920 as a wildlife biologist, spending the next 6 years in the field with his brother Adolph Murie, studying Alaskan caribou, mapping migratory routes and estimating numbers. He married Margaret Thomas in 1924 in Anvik, Alaska. They spent their honeymoon tracking caribou through the Koyukuk River region.
Books and articles
In 1927, the Biological Survey assigned Murie to research the Jackson Hole elk herd, resulting in the classic publication The Elk of North America. He also authored six other major publications, including Alaska-Yukon Caribou (North American Fauna [NAF] No. 54, 1935); Food Habits of the Coyote in Jackson Hole, Wyoming (1935); Field Guide to Animal Tracks (1954); Fauna of the Aleutian Islands and Alaska Peninsula (NAF No. 61, 1959); and Jackson Hole with a Naturalist (1963). Wapiti Wilderness (with his wife, Mardy Murie) was published posthumously, in 1966.
Research, service, and wildlife organizations
One of Murie’s first experiences collecting specimen and conducting research was in 1914-1915 and 1917 in Canada. Hired by W. E. Clyde Todd, the curator of birds at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History, and accompanied by Native American guides Paul Commanda, William Morrison and Jack (Jocko) Couchai, Murie embarked on his apprenticeship to study wildlife in Canada in 1914. While on this trip, Murie had numerous jobs and expectations. Murie was responsible for collecting bird, rodent and larger mammal specimens, as well as sketching and taking photographs of different organisms and environments. To do so, Murie was required to preserve and label not only animal skins but also rolls of film that was to be given to Carnegie Museum. During his time in Canada, Olaus Murie travelled to various locations and became accustomed to the harsh environment of the Arctic. Murie decided to stay an extra winter in Canada to gain more experience, despite the departure of his colleagues. Murie used this additional time to collect more animal samples as well as explore the ecological and cultural similarities and differences of the Hudsonian and Arctic life zones.
Two years later, Murie returned to Canada with Clyde Todd, Alfred Marshall, a wealthy businessman, and guides Paul Commanda, Philip St. Onge and Charles Volant. The trip was ambitious, as they proposed to travel 700 miles north across Labrador, an expedition that had never been done before. They began by following the Ste. Marguerite River until they reached the Labrador Plateau, which they were required to trek across to access the Moisie River. Eventually they reached the Hamilton River and finally Ungava Bay and their destination, Fort Chimo. Although the trip was not without its trials, especially when they were unsure of the correct direction of their destination, it was a success overall for amassing specimen. In total 1,862 specimen were collected, which represented 141 species of birds and 30 species of mammals. Murie’s time in Canada provided him with skills needed for a lifetime working in wildlife biology. Because of the pristine and relatively untouched conditions of the arctic due to the lack of humans, Murie was able to establish a more holistic understanding of humans’ impact on an environment, which he would develop more in subsequent trips around North America.
Following his work in Canada, Murie accepted a position working for the U.S. Biological Survey in Alaska in 1920. His main responsibility was to conduct an extensive study of the caribou in Alaska, to determine the location of the largest caribou populations with the intentions of crossbreeding them with reindeer. Additionally, Murie was expected to collect specimens of various animals, and act as a Fur Warden by enforcing laws that protected animals against illegal fur trade practices. Olaus was also encouraged to ensure large caribou populations in the region. To do so one practice employed by the U.S. Biological Survey’s during this time was predator poisoning, which reduced predator populations in order to increase prey species such as elk. For Murie, however, the more he studied caribou populations, the more he opposed the idea.] Although Murie at first was not extremely vocal in his opposition, he still began to express his views. He remarked, “I have a theory that a certain amount of preying on caribou by wolves is beneficial to the herd, that the best animal survive and the vigor of the herd is maintained. Man's killing does not work in this natural way, as the best animals are shot and inferior animals left to breed. I think that good breeding’s as important in game animals as it is in domestic stock. With our game, however we have been accustomed to reverse the process killing off the finest animals and removing the natural enemies which tend to keep down the unfit.” Murie saw that hunting by humans did not abide by trends produced by nature and counteracted Darwin’s survival of the fittest. Despite this, Murie believed the true cause of a reduction in elk populations was due not from wolves but rather human economic drive. Murie believed that the “caribou’s greatest menace is not the wolf nor the hunter but man's economic development, principally the raising of reindeer”. Murie observed that elk, along with other wild species, needed ample land to survive. Thus, to ensure a species’ survival, Murie argued that preservation of its habitat was necessary. While Murie was critical of his own agency’s ways, it was not until later in his life that he became more outspoken about his views. Besides allowing Murie to formulate his own ideas towards conservation, his time in Alaska gave him additional experience working in the field and resulted in more recognition for him in realm of field biology.]
In 1927, after his time in Alaska, Murie was hired by the National Elk Commission to determine the cause of the elk winterkill problem in Jackson Hole, Wyoming. As the chief field biologist, Murie concluded that human development was causing overcrowding in the elk’s winter range. Murie was one of the first to discover that these elk historically resided in the mountains and not solely in the plains thus contributing to overcrowding. Although a National Elk Refuge existed in this region consisting of 4,500 acres, this refuge had some unexpected consequences. Due to supplemental feeding and a rougher browse, elk were developing bacterial lesions in their throat and mouth called necrotic stomatitis or calf diphtheria. The squirrel-tail grass seeds found on the refuge contributed to the irritation of these lesions and the close proximity of elk allowed for the bacteria to spread easily. Through these observations, Murie determined that protecting the elk’s habitat initially, would have been more beneficial than attempting to mitigate the problem later.
Service and Wildlife Organizations
In 1937, Murie accepted a council seat on the recently created Wilderness Society. In this role, Murie lobbied successfully against the construction of large federal dams within Glacier National Park, Dinosaur National Monument, Rampart Dam on Alaska’s Yukon River and the Narrows Dam proposed for the mouth of Snake River Canyon[disambiguation needed].
Murie helped to enlarge existing national park boundaries and to create additional new units. Testimony on the boundaries of Olympic National Park helped to convince President Franklin D. Roosevelt to add the temperate rain forest of the Bogachiel River and Hoh Rain Forest in the Hoh River valley. Lobbying for a natural boundary for the elk of the Grand Teton area, Murie helped to create Jackson Hole National Monument in 1943 (it was upgraded to national park status several years later, then incorporated into the Grand Teton National Park). The Jackson Hole National Monument was especially near to his heart because he had studied the elk in this region for a long period of time. Before it was distinguished as a national park, Murie and others encouraged John D. Rockefeller, Jr to purchase the land and donate it to the federal government. During this time Murie was unaware that Rockefeller intended to create " a wildlife display" so tourists could easily view wild animals without actually putting in much effort. Murie greatly opposed this measure, believing that it would actually reduce the value and appreciation of nature by making it so available and convenient for people. In his article "Fenced Wildlife for Jackson Hole" he stated that "commercialized recreation has tend more and more to make us crave extra service, easy entertainment, pleasure with the least possible exertion." He believed instead that "national parks were created for preservation in their primitive conditions."
Once the park was established in 1943, Murie was appointed as the head of the Wildlife Management Division of the National Park Service and was in charge of creating a management plan for the monument. Despite protest from local sportsmen, Murie banned hunting within the national park. Even when the state of Wyoming, in the case State of Wyoming V Franke, claimed that the additional land held no archeological, scientific or scenic interest, Murie stood by the decision to deem it a national park. He maintained that the park had biological significance with countless species of birds and mammals that lived within the park. Although in the end the court announced it could not interfere in the matter, conservationists such as Murie interpreted this as a win for their side.
With a new position as Director of the Wilderness Society, Murie would continue to fight for and defend existing national parks. Murie relied on techniques that stressed the economic value of national preservation sites because he knew this was the most effective way to appeal to America’s public. For instance, in the case of Jackson Hole National Monument, he emphasized how new tourism was contributing to Jackson's local economy. Murie would go on to advocate for the preservation of many additional parks from human development. He believed that those who wished to "seek the solitude of the primitive forest" should have the ability to do so and that a democratic society should protect this right.
In 1956, Murie began a campaign with his wife to protect what is now the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. The couple recruited U.S. Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas to help persuade President Dwight Eisenhower to set aside 8,000,000 acres (32,000 km2) as the Arctic National Wildlife Range.
In 1948, Murie became the first American Fulbright Scholar in New Zealand and conducted research in the Fiordland National Park. In 1950, Murie became president of the Wilderness Society. He was also a president of the Wildlife Society and a director of the Izaak Walton League. He received the Aldo Leopold Memorial Award Medal in 1952, the Pugsley Medal in 1953, the Audubon Medal in 1959, and the Sierra Club John Muir Award in 1962.
Olaus Murie died on October 21, 1963. The Murie Residence in Moose, Wyoming was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1990, and as part of the Murie Ranch Historic District was designated a National Historic Landmark in 2006. The house and grounds are the headquarters for the Murie Foundation, a non-profit organization dedicated to conservation work.
-  U.S. National Park Service website: ParkWise > Teachers > Culture > Living in Kenai Fjords
-  Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation web site, description of award created in Murie’s honor
- Kendrick, Gregory, D. (April 1978). "AN ENVIRONMENTAL SPOKESMAN: OLAUS J. MURIE AND A DEMOCRATIC DEFENSE OF WILDERNESS". Annals Of Wyoming: The Wyoming History Journal 50 (2).
-  Pugsley Medal biography of Murie
- Little, John J. (October 2000). "A Wilderness Apprenticeship: Olaus Murie in Canada, 1914-15 and 1917". Environmental History 5 (4).
- James, Glover, M. (July 1992). "Sweet days of a naturalist: Olaus Murie in Alaska, 1920-26". Forest & Conservation History 36 (3).
- James, Glover, M. (Fall 1989). "Thinking like a wolverine: the ecological evolution of Olaus Murie". Environmental Review 13 (3/4).
- Zontek, Ken (October 1998). "THE SAVVY OF A SAGE: OLAUS MURIE AND THE HISTORIC RANGE OF WAPITI IN THE WEST". Annals Of Wyoming: The Wyoming History Journal 70 (4).
- Becher, Anne; Joseph Richey (2008). "Murie, Mardy, and Olaus, Murie". American Environmental Leaders: From Colonial Times to the Present. Amenia: Grey House Publishing.
- Murie, Olaus (1946). "Fenced Wildlife for Jackson Hole" 20. pp. 8–11.
-  Wilderness Society web site
-  Fulbright New Zealand Quarterly, Volume 10, No. 4, p. 6, November, 2004
-  The Wildlife Society web site, list of winners
-  Pugsley Medal Recipients 1928-1964
-  Murie Center web site
- Journeys to the Far North ISBN 0-910118-30-2
- The Elk of North America ISBN 0-933160-02-X
- Alaska-Yukon Caribou (North American Fauna [NAF] No. 54, 1935) LCCN agr35000394
- Food Habits of the Coyote in Jackson Hole, Wyoming (1935)
- Field Guide to Animal Tracks (1954) ISBN 0-395-91094-3
- Fauna of the Aleutian Islands and Alaska Peninsula (NAF No. 61, 1959) LCCN 59062296
- Jackson Hole with a Naturalist (1963);
- Wapiti Wilderness ISBN 0-87081-155-X
- National Leaders of American Conservation Stroud, Richard H., ed. (1984); Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.
- The Joys of Solitude and Nature: Naturalist finds fulfillment in Wilderness Life Magazine (1959); 47(26), December 28.
- Living Wilderness (Summer-Fall, 1963)
- Little, John J. (October 2000). "A Wilderness Apprenticeship: Olaus Murie in Canada, 1914-15 and 1917". Environmental History 5 (4).
- The Murie Center
- Pugsley Medal biography
- Park Service biography
- Works by or about Olaus Murie in libraries (WorldCat catalog)


|Stylistic origins||Punk rock, experimental rock, krautrock, art rock, funk, dub, disco, glam rock|
|Cultural origins||Mid–late 1970s, United Kingdom, United States, Australia|
|Typical instruments||Guitar, drums, bass guitar, synthesizers, keyboard, drum machine, modified electronics|
|Derivative forms||Gothic rock, alternative rock, industrial music, dark wave, dance-punk, post-punk revival, synthpop, shoegazing, post-rock, post-hardcore|
|Netherlands – Germany – France – Perú|
|No wave – New wave – Dance-rock – Art punk|
Post-punk is a rock music genre that paralleled and emerged from the initial punk rock explosion of the late 1970s. The genre is a more experimental and arty form of punk. Post-punk laid the groundwork for alternative rock by broadening the range of punk and underground music, incorporating elements of krautrock (particularly the use of synthesizers and extensive repetition), disco, dub music, and studio experimentation into the genre. It was the focus of the 1980s alternative music/independent scene, and led to the development of genres such as gothic rock and industrial music.
In November and December 1977, writers for Sounds used the terms "New Musick" and "post punk" for music acts which Jon Savage described as sounding like "harsh urban scrapings/controlled white noise/massively accented drumming". The term came to signify artists such as Siouxsie and the Banshees, whose sounds, lyrics and aesthetics differed significantly from their punk contemporaries, and soon became applied to other British musicians, including Public Image Ltd, Joy Division, The Fall, Wire, Alternative TV, The Cure, Gang of Four, Magazine, This Heat, The Sound and The Pop Group.
Although American bands such as Pere Ubu, Devo, Suicide, Television, The B-52s and Talking Heads had been pioneering a style of music with qualities similar to post-punk since the early 1970s, New York's no wave scene, including Teenage Jesus and the Jerks, Glenn Branca, Rhys Chatham, Mars and James Chance and the Contortions emerged contemporaneously with the British scene. A short-lived New York City scene existed. It focused more on performance art than actual coherent musical structure. The Brian Eno-produced No New York compilation is considered the quintessential testament to the history of no wave.
Despite existing since the inception of the early punk rock movement, bands such as Throbbing Gristle and Cabaret Voltaire, as well as other bands on the experimental rock trajectory such as Chrome, were associated with the post-punk genre. These bands pioneered the emergence of industrial music from the post-punk movement.
British post-punk entered the 1980s with a champion, late-night BBC DJ John Peel, with seminal landmark bands such as Gang of Four, Joy Division, Siouxsie and the Banshees, Echo & the Bunnymen, Bauhaus, The Teardrop Explodes, The Raincoats, The Psychedelic Furs and Killing Joke, and a network of supportive record labels like Rough Trade, Industrial, Fast, Factory, Cherry Red, Mute, Zoo, Postcard, Axis/4AD and Glass.
In 1980, critic Greil Marcus characterised "Britain's postpunk pop avant-garde" – in a Rolling Stone article (referring to bands including Gang of Four, The Raincoats and Essential Logic) – as "sparked by a tension, humour and sense of paradox plainly unique in present day pop music."
While not labeled post-punk as such in the U.S., prominent U.S. groups adopting similar sounds included The Replacements, Minutemen, Mission of Burma, The Lounge Lizards, DNA, Bush Tetras, Theoretical Girls, Swans and Sonic Youth.
In Australia, other influential acts to emerge included Primitive Calculators, Tactics, The Triffids, Laughing Clowns, The Moodists, Severed Heads, Whirlywirld, Kill the King and Crime & the City Solution.
The original post-punk movement ended as the bands associated with the movement turned away from its aesthetics, just as post-punk bands had originally left punk rock behind in favor of new sounds. Some shifted to a more commercial new wave sound (such as Gang of Four), while others were fixtures on American college radio and became early examples of alternative rock. In the United States, driven by MTV and modern rock radio stations, a number of post-punk acts had an influence on or became part of the Second British Invasion of "New Music" there. Perhaps the most successful band to emerge from post-punk was U2, who combined elements of religious imagery together with political commentary into their often anthemic music.
|This section requires expansion. (December 2012)|
Post-punk led to the development of many musical genres, including dance-rock, industrial music, synthpop, post-hardcore, neo-psychedelia and, most prominently, alternative rock.
|This subsection needs additional citations for verification. (March 2013)|
The turn of the 21st century saw a post-punk revival in British and American alternative and indie rock, which soon started appearing in other countries, as well. The earliest sign of a revival was the emergence of various underground bands in the mid-'90s. However, the first commercially successful bands – The Strokes, Franz Ferdinand, Interpol, Editors and Neils Children – surfaced in the late 1990s to early 2000s. Additionally, some darker post-punk bands similar in style to Joy Division and The Cure began to appear in the indie music scene in the 2010s, including Cold Cave, She Wants Revenge and Light Asylum, who are also affiliated with the current darkwave revival, as well as A Place to Bury Strangers, who combine early post-punk and shoegaze. These bands tend to draw a fanbase who are a combination of the hipster subculture, older post-punk fans and the current goth subculture.
- Erlewine, Stephen Thomas. "Post-Punk | Significant Albums, Artists and Songs | AllMusic". AllMusic. Retrieved 5 December 2014.
- Cateforis, Theo (2011). Are We Not New Wave: Modern Pop at the Turn of the 1980s. University of Michigan Press. p. 26. ISBN 978-0-472-03470-3.
- Reynolds 2006.
- Masters, Marc (2008). No Wave. New York City: Black Dog Publishing. p. 9. ISBN 1-906155-02-X.
- Stubbs, David (2009). Fear of Music: Why People Get Rothko But Don't Get Stockhausen. John Hunt Publishing. p. 86. ISBN 1846941792.
- Kellman, Andy. "Mix-Up – Cabaret Voltaire | Songs, Reviews, Credits, Awards | AllMusic". AllMusic. Retrieved 5 December 2014.
- Lapatine, Scott (17 April 2009). "Throbbing Gristle @ Masonic Temple, Brooklyn 4/16/09 – Stereogum". Stereogum. Retrieved 5 December 2014.
- Ingram, Matt (31 October 2010). "20 Best: Post-Punk 7"s Ever Made – Fact Magazine: Music News, New Music.". Fact. Retrieved 5 December 2014.
- Doran, John (8 December 2011). "The Quietus | Features | Before Cease to Exist: Throbbing Gristle's Reissues Examined". The Quietus. Retrieved 5 December 2014.
- Reynolds 1996, p. 91.
- Reynolds 2006, p. 109.
- Middles, Mick (2009). The Rise and Fall of the Stone Roses: Breaking into Heaven. Music Sales Group. p. 40. ISBN 0857120395.
- Reynolds 2010, p. 150.
- Marcus, Greil (1 March 1994). Ranters & Crowd Pleasers. Anchor Books. p. 109. ISBN 9780385417211.
- Allmusic Mission of Burma bio: "Burma's music is vintage early-'80s post-punk: jittery rhythms, odd shifts in time, declamatory vocals, an aural assault"
- Andy Kellman. "Songs of the Free - Gang of Four : Songs, Reviews, Credits, Awards". Allmovie. Retrieved 8 July 2012.
- Hard Allmusic review
- Sullivan, Jim (2 March 1984). "Triumph of the 'New'". The Michigan Daily. Retrieved 8 July 2012.
- "Cateforis.doc". Google Docs. Retrieved 8 July 2012.
- Hoffman, F. W.; Ferstler, H. (2004). Encyclopedia of Recorded Sound, Volume 1 (2nd ed.). New York City, New York: CRC Press. p. 1135. ISBN 0-415-93835-X.
- Campbell, Michael (2008). Popular Music in America: And the Beat Goes On. Cengage Learning. p. 359. ISBN 0-495-50530-7.
- Reynolds, Simon (1996). The Sex Revolts: Gender, Rebellion, and Rock 'n' Roll. Harvard University Press. p. 91. ISBN 978-0674802735.
- Middles 2009, p. 40.
- Nicholls 1998, p. 373.
- "'We Were Synth Punks' | Inquirer Entertainment". Inquirer.net. 5 March 2012. Retrieved 5 December 2014.
- "Post-Hardcore | Significant Albums, Artists and Songs | AllMusic". AllMusic. Retrieved 5 December 2014.
- "Neo-Psychedelia | Significant Albums, Artists and Songs | AllMusic". AllMusic. Retrieved 5 December 2014.
- "Goth Rock | Significant Albums, Arists and Songs | AllMusic". AllMusic. Retrieved 5 December 2014.
- Reynolds, Simon (2006). Rip It Up and Start Again: Postpunk 1978–1984. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-21570-6.
- Reynolds, Simon (2010). Totally Wired: Postpunk Interviews and Overviews. Soft Skull Press. ISBN 1593763948.
- Hebdige, Dick (1979). Subculture: The Meaning of Style. London: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-03949-9.
- Heylin, Clinton (2007). Babylon's Burning: From Punk to Grunge. Viking, Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-102431-8.
- McNeil, Legs; McCain, Gillian (1997). Please Kill Me: The Uncensored Oral History of Punk. London: Little, Brown Book Group. ISBN 978-0-349-10880-3.


Rose Mary Woods
|Rose Mary Woods|
|Woods demonstrates the "Rose Mary Stretch", a gesticulation that purportedly led to the erasure of five-plus minutes of the Watergate tapes.|
|Personal Secretary to the President|
January 20, 1969 – August 9, 1974
|Appointed by||Richard Nixon|
|Preceded by||Gerri Whittington|
|Succeeded by||Dorothy E. Downton|
|Born||December 26, 1917
|Died||January 22, 2005
Rose Mary Woods (December 26, 1917 – January 22, 2005) was Richard Nixon's secretary from his days in Congress in 1951, through the end of his political career. Before H. R. Haldeman and John Ehrlichman became the operators of Nixon's presidential campaign, Woods was Nixon's gatekeeper.
Early life and connection to Nixon
Rose Mary Woods was born in northeastern Ohio in the small pottery town of Sebring on December 26, 1917. Following graduation from McKinley High School, she went to work for Royal China, Inc., the city's largest employer. Woods had been engaged to marry, but her fiance died during World War II. To escape all the memories of her hometown she moved to Washington, D.C., in 1943, working in a variety of federal offices until she met Nixon while she was a secretary to the Select House Committee on Foreign Aid. Impressed by his neatness and efficiency, she accepted his job offer in 1951.
Secretary to the President
Woods was President Nixon's personal secretary, the same position she held from the time he hired her until the end of his lengthy political career.
Fiercely loyal to Nixon, Woods claimed responsibility in a 1974 grand jury testimony for inadvertently erasing up to five minutes of the 181⁄2 minute gap in a June 20, 1972, audio tape. Her demonstration of how this might have occurred – which depended upon her stretching to simultaneously press controls several feet apart (what the press dubbed the "Rose Mary Stretch") – was met with skepticism from those who believed the erasures, from whatever source, to be deliberate. The contents of the gap remain a mystery.
- Wilkinson, Francis (2005-12-25), Nixon's Real Enforcer, New York Times, retrieved 2008-10-08
- Rose Mary Woods, Nixon Presidential Library and Museum, retrieved 2012-04-26
- Sullivan, Patricia (2005-01-24), Rose Mary Woods Dies; Loyal Nixon Secretary, Washington Post, retrieved 2008-10-08
- The Watergate Files - Battle for the Tapes: July 1973 - November 1973, Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library
- Shenon, Philip (2005-01-24), Rose Mary Woods, 87, Nixon Loyalist for Decades, Dies, New York Times, retrieved 2008-10-08


List of state capitols in the United States
This is a list of U.S. state and territorial capitol buildings in the United States and is not to be confused with a list of state capitals, which are the cities where these buildings are located.
Most U.S. states (39 of the 50) have facilities named "State Capitol". Indiana and Ohio use the term "Statehouse" and eight states use "State House": Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and Vermont. Delaware has a "Legislative Hall". The State of Alabama has a State Capitol, but the Legislature has since 1985 met in the State House.
A capitol typically contains the meeting place for its state's legislature and offices for the state's governor, though this is not true for every state. The legislatures of Alabama, Nevada and North Carolina meet in other nearby buildings, but their governor's offices remain in the capitol. The Arizona State Capitol is now strictly a museum, and both the legislature and the governor's office are in nearby buildings. Only Arizona does not have its governor's office in the state capitol, though in Delaware, Ohio, Michigan, Vermont and Virginia, the office there is for ceremonial use only.
In 9 states, the state's highest court also routinely meets in the capitol: Indiana, Kentucky, Nebraska, North Dakota, Oklahoma (both civil and criminal courts), Pennsylvania (one of three sites), South Dakota, West Virginia, and Wisconsin. The other 40 states have separate buildings for their supreme courts, though in Minnesota and Utah the high court also has ceremonial meetings at the capitol.
Eleven of the fifty state capitols do not feature a dome: the Alaska, Florida, Hawaii, Louisiana, New Mexico, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Tennessee and Virginia state capitols.
Table of State Capitols
Table of Territorial Capitols
|Picture||Capitol name||Location||Years of current capitol construction||Notes|
|American Samoa Fono Building||Fagatogo, American Samoa
|John A. Wilson Building
||1904-1908||National Register of Historic Places, originally called the District Building until renamed in 1994 after district councilor John A. Wilson|
|Guam Legislature Building||Hagåtña, Guam
|Northern Mariana Islands Commonwealth Legislature Building||Capitol Hill, Saipan
|Capitol of Puerto Rico
Capitolio de Puerto Rico
|San Juan, Puerto Rico
||1921-1929||National Register of Historic Places|
|Virgin Islands Legislature Building||Charlotte Amalie, USVI
- "Virtual Tour of the Virginia State Capitol". Virginia Capitol.gov. Retrieved May 2011.
- "State Capitols and Domes". NCSL.org (National Conference of State Legislatures). Retrieved October 9, 2013.
- "IDOA: The Statehouse Story". IN.gov. Retrieved 2010-05-19.
- History of the State House and Its Dome. msa.maryland.gov (Maryland State Archives), 2007. Retrieved on April 5, 2014.
- Pennsylvania Manual p. xiv
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The Thin Red Line (Battle of Balaclava)
|This article needs additional citations for verification. (February 2008)|
|Thin Red Line|
|Part of Battle of Balaclava, Crimean War|
The Thin Red Line, painted by Robert Gibb
|Commanders and leaders|
|550 ||2,500 |
The Thin Red Line was a military action by the British Sutherland Highlanders 93rd (Highland) Regiment at the Battle of Balaklava on 25 October 1854, during the Crimean War. In this incident, the 93rd, aided by a small force of Royal Marines and some Turkish infantrymen, led by Sir Colin Campbell, routed a Russian cavalry charge. Previously, Campbell’s Highland Brigade had taken part in actions at the Battle of Alma and the Siege of Sevastopol. There were more Victoria Crosses presented to the Highland soldiers at that time than at any other. The event was galvanized in the British press and became an icon of the qualities of the British soldier in a war that was poorly managed and increasingly unpopular.
The Russian cavalry force of 2,500 was on the road to Balaklava. About 400 of them were involved in the incident. It was early morning, and the sole force that lay between the oncoming cavalry and the disorganised and vulnerable British camp was the 93rd Regiment.
Colin Campbell, 1st Baron Clyde is said to have told his men, "There is no retreat from here, men. You must die where you stand." Sir Colin's aide John Scott is said to have replied, "Aye, Sir Colin. If needs be, we'll do that." (Campbell's relationship with his men was almost family-like.) Campbell formed the 93rd into a line two deep — the "thin red line". Convention dictated that the line should be four deep. However, Campbell, a veteran of 41 years military service, had such a low opinion of the Russian cavalry that he did not bother to form four lines, let alone a square, but met the charge head on with the 2-deep firing line. As the Russian cavalry approached, the 93rd discharged three volleys: at 600, 350 and 150 yards respectively, however they did not get a chance to discharge one at point-blank (as at Minden in 1759) range as in popular belief. This is due to the fact that the Russian commander, seeing such a thin line of infantry, concluded that this was a diversion and that there was a much stronger force behind the 93rd, and ordered the cavalry to withdraw. At that, some of the Highlanders started forward for a counter-charge, but Sir Colin stopped them with a cry of "93rd, damn all that eagerness!"
The Times correspondent, William H. Russell, wrote  that he could see nothing between the charging Russians and the British regiment's base of operations at Balaklava but the "thin red streak tipped with a line of steel" of the 93rd. Popularly condensed into "the thin red line", the phrase became a symbol of British composure in battle.
The battle is represented in Robert Gibb's 1881 oil painting of the same name, which is displayed in the Scottish National War Museum in Edinburgh Castle. It is also commemorated in the assembly hall of Campbell's former school, High School of Glasgow, where there is a painting of the action hung in the grand position, a tribute to one of the school's two generals, the other being Sir John Moore who was dismembered by a cannonball during the Peninsular War.
Later uses of the term
The Thin Red Line has become an English language figure of speech for any thinly spread military unit holding firm against attack. The phrase has also taken on the metaphorical meaning of the barrier which the relatively limited armed forces of a country present to potential attackers.
The term "the thin red line" later referred to the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders and their job to defend the British Empire and the United Kingdom after the incorporation of the Argylls and Sutherlands into a single regiment now known as the Argyll and Sutherland battalion of the Royal Regiment of Scotland.
The derived term The Thin Blue Line refers colloquially to the police, which soon gave birth to the equal term of the "Thin Red Line" which refers colloquially to the fire brigade.
- Rudyard Kipling wrote the poem Tommy that has the lines "Then it's Tommy this, an' Tommy that, an' Tommy, 'ow's yer soul? / But it's "Thin red line of 'eroes' when the drums begin to roll," – "Tommy Atkins" being slang for a common soldier in the British Army.
- James Jones wrote a novel about American infantry soldiers fighting in Guadalcanal during World War II and titled it The Thin Red Line. The book was adapted into feature films in 1964 and in 1998.
- George MacDonald Fraser describes the Thin Red Line, the Charge of the Heavy Brigade, and the Charge of the Light Brigade in his novel Flashman at the Charge.
- In the film Carry On... Up the Khyber, a soldier draws a thin red line on the ground with paint and brush, arguing that the enemy will not dare to cross it.
- The action was the origin of the now-traditional Scottish song, A Scottish Soldier (The Green Hills of Tyrol). The Green Hills of Tyrol is one of the best known tunes played by pipe bands today. It was originally from the opera William Tell by Rossini, but was transcribed to the pipes in 1854 by Pipe Major John MacLeod after he heard it played by a Sardinian military band when serving in the Crimean War with his regiment, the 93rd Sutherland Highlanders.
- Kenneth Alford (also known as Major Fredrick Joseph Ricketts) wrote his march The Thin Red Line in 1908 (published in 1925) to commemorate the "thin red line".
- The battle is referenced by English metal band Saxon in the song "The Thin Red Line" on their 1997 album Unleash the Beast, and by the Canadian band Glass Tiger on their 1986 album The Thin Red Line.
- The band Steeleye Span references the term in their song "Fighting for Strangers" from the album Spanning the Years.
- Van Halen`s "Unchained" references the term on their 1981 album Fair Warning.
- The band Big Audio Dynamite references the term in their song "Union, Jack" from the album Megatop Phoenix.
- Jason Isbell references the term in his song "Grown" from the album Sirens of the Ditch.
References and notes
- "Crimea: The Great Crimean War, 1854-56", by Trevor Royle, pages 266 - 267
- "Crimea: The Great Crimean War, 1854-56", by Trevor Royle, pages 268
- "Crimea, 1854 The Battle of Balaklava". British Battles Exhibition. The National Archives. Retrieved 27 October 2013.
- This original Russian cavalry force divided itself into two smaller groups, and only about 400 of them were involved in the "Thin Red Line" incident. These 400 Russians were the Cossacks and Ingermanlandsky hussars of the 6th Hussar Brigade, commanded by General Rijov. The rest of Rijov's force attacked the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders. Rijov's command was part of General Pavel Liprandi's 23,000 strong army at Balaklava.("Crimea: The Great Crimean War, 1854-56", by Trevor Royle, pages 266 - 268)
- The 93rd Highlanders involved in the "Thin Red Line" incident probably numbered no more than a few hundred infantrymen. This was part of the British, French and Turkish forces at Balaclava which totaled approximately 21,000 strong.
- The Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders (Princess Louise's) - Scottish Regiments, 1st Battalion A&SH, National Service, world war time, peace time and active service with the Ar...
- B. Perret, "At All Costs!"
- B. Perrett, "At All Costs!" Cassel Military Paperback, 1994
- The war in the Crimea - from our special correspondent - Heights Before Sebastopol, The Times 14 November 1854, p7. Times Archive


William Stone (Maryland governor)
|William Stone, Governor of Maryland|
|3rd Proprietary Governor of Province of Maryland|
|Preceded by||Thomas Greene|
|Succeeded by||Josias Fendall|
Charles County, Maryland
On 15 Sept 1619 William Stone set sail for Virginia on the Margaret of Bristol, and was one of the people being sent to Berkeley Hundred to work under Captain John Woodlief's supervision. William was supposed to serve the Society of Berkeley Hundred's investors for six years in exchange for 30 acres of land. Sometime prior to 9 February 1629, he received a tobacco bill from Richard Wheeler. By 4 June 1635, William had patented 1,800 acres in Accomack. Local court records reveal that he was the brother to Andrew Stone and Captain John Stone, who had been trading on the Eastern Shore since 1626. By 1634 William Stone had become a commissioner of the county court. Some time prior to February 1636, he married Verlinda, the daughter of Captain Thomas Graves. William went on to become sheriff and vestryman. In 1645 he was residing on the Eastern Shore, in what had become Northampton County. By 1648 he had become the third proprietary governor of Maryland. Stone came to America in 1628 with a group of Puritans who settled in the Eastern shore of Chesapeake Bay in Virginia. Their settlement thrived, but eventually came into conflict with Virginia's established Episcopal Church.
Governor of the Maryland colony
On August 8, 1648, Lord Baltimore named Stone the Governor of his colony. He was the first Protestant Governor. The Assembly sought a confirmation of their religious liberty and in 1649 Governor Stone signed the Religious Toleration Act, which permitted liberty to all Christian denominations.
In 1654, after the Third English Civil War (1649–51), Parliamentary forces assumed control of Maryland and Stone went into exile in Virginia. Per orders from Lord Baltimore, Stone returned the following spring at the head of a Cavalier force. But, in what is known as the Battle of the Severn (March 25, 1655), Stone was defeated and taken prisoner.
Stone was replaced as Governor by Josias Fendall (1628–87), and took no further part in public affairs.
William Stone wrote his will on 3 Dec 1659, and it was proved in Charles Co. Maryland on 21 Dec 1660. Verlinda Graves Stone wrote her will on 3 March 1674-5, and the will was proved on 13 July 1675 in Charles Co., MD.
Restoration and land grant
In 1660, the monarchy in England and the proprietor's government in Maryland were restored. Lord Baltimore granted Stone as much land as he could ride around in a day, as a reward for Stone's faithful service. Stone concentrated on developing his plantation at Poynton Manor in what is now Charles County, Maryland, where he died in about 1660.
Stone's great-grandson, David (born 1709), greatly expanded the value of the estate at Poynton and returned the family to prominence. William Stone's great-great-grandsons made major contributions to the foundation of Maryland as an American state: Thomas Stone signed the Declaration of Independence, Michael Jenifer Stone represented Maryland in the First United States Congress, John Hoskins Stone was Governor of Maryland 1794–97, and William Murray Stone was the Episcopal Bishop of Baltimore. A great-great-great grandson, Barton W. Stone, was a prominent early leader of the Restoration Movement.
- List of colonial governors of Maryland
- Proprietary Governor
- Province of Maryland
- English Interregnum
- English Civil War
- The Protectorate
- Concise Dictionary of American Biography, p. 1018. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons/London: Oxford University Press, 1964.
- Martha W. McCartney (2007). Virginia Immigrants & Adventurers 1607-1635: A Biographical Dictionary. Genealogical Publishing Co., Baltimore. p. 672.
- Jane Baldwin (1988). The Maryland Calendar of Wills I. Family LIne Publications, Westminster, MD. pp. 12, 111.
- David Stone died intestate on March 18, 1773, at the age of 64
- Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-8028-3898-7, ISBN 978-0-8028-3898-8, 854 pages, entry on "Stone, Barton Warren"


|Motto: "Wright Time... Wright Community...Wright Now!"|
Location of Wright, Wyoming
|• Total||2.85 sq mi (7.38 km2)|
|• Land||2.85 sq mi (7.38 km2)|
|• Water||0 sq mi (0 km2)|
|Elevation||5,121 ft (1,561 m)|
|• Estimate (2012)||1,856|
|• Density||634.0/sq mi (244.8/km2)|
|Time zone||Mountain (MST) (UTC-7)|
|• Summer (DST)||MDT (UTC-6)|
|GNIS feature ID||1605008|
|Website||Town of Wright Wyoming|
Settlement began in the area near Wright in the 1970s, with the creation of the Black Thunder Coal Mine, the largest mine in the Powder River Basin and most productive mine in the United States. The town itself was incorporated in 1985.
Originally known as Reno Junction (descendants of Major Reno from Custer's troop resided in the area), the town was renamed "Wright" after the owner of the Long Branch Bar, Dale Wright, who agreed to sell land to Atlantic Richfield Corporation, the developer of the Black Thunder Mine, who planned to build the town to accommodate the work force that would be hired to operate the mine.
On August 12, 2005, an F2 rated tornado struck a mobile home park at Wright, destroying 91 homes, damaging others, and killing two people.
Wright is located at (43.754988, -105.490691).
As of the census of 2010, there were 1,807 people, 685 households, and 476 families residing in the town. The population density was 634.0 inhabitants per square mile (244.8/km2). There were 813 housing units at an average density of 285.3 per square mile (110.2/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 94.5% White, 0.1% African American, 1.4% Native American, 0.2% Asian, 1.8% from other races, and 2.0% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6.2% of the population.
There were 685 households of which 40.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.9% were married couples living together, 6.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 7.4% had a male householder with no wife present, and 30.5% were non-families. 24.4% of all households were made up of individuals and 1.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.64 and the average family size was 3.16.
The median age in the town was 32.8 years. 30.5% of residents were under the age of 18; 7.8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 28.7% were from 25 to 44; 30.8% were from 45 to 64; and 2.2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 55.0% male and 45.0% female.
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,347 people, 475 households, and 388 families residing in the town. The population density was 490.0 people per square mile (189.1/km²). There were 544 housing units at an average density of 197.9 per square mile (76.4/km²). The racial makeup of the town was 97.62% White, 0.45% Native American, 0.07% Asian, 0.82% from other races, and 1.04% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.30% of the population.
There were 475 households out of which 48.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 68.6% were married couples living together, 7.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 18.3% were non-families. 15.4% of all households were made up of individuals and 1.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.84 and the average family size was 3.15.
In the town the population was spread out with 33.9% under the age of 18, 6.6% from 18 to 24, 34.7% from 25 to 44, 23.3% from 45 to 64, and 1.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females there were 112.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 107.2 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $53,125, and the median income for a family was $55,764. Males had a median income of $46,058 versus $22,955 for females. The per capita income for the town was $20,126. About 3.9% of families and 6.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.8% of those under age 18 and 33.3% of those age 65 or over.
Public education in the town of Wright is provided by Campbell County School District #1. Zoned campuses include Cottonwood Elementary School (grades K-6) and Wright Junior/Senior High School  (grades 7-12).
Having been established as a mining town, the majority of people living in Wright are employed by the various mines surrounding it. The site for the proposed, but stalled, Two Elk Energy Park is several miles from town. The Two Elk power plant is a planned 300 megawatt power plant which would burn "waste coal" from mines in the area. Waste coal is low-grade coal unsuitable for shipping and sale which would otherwise be reburied. Recent iterations of the plan include using beetle-killed pine as fuel. Only a shed and a partial foundation are at the site. Over 16 years, a series of permit extensions have been issued by Wyoming. Nearly half a billion dollars are available from tax-exempt bonds, but additional investment is required in order to fund the plant.
- "US Gazetteer files 2010". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2012-12-14.
- "American FactFinder". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2012-12-14.
- "Population Estimates". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2013-06-01.
- "American FactFinder". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-01-31.
- "US Board on Geographic Names". United States Geological Survey. 2007-10-25. Retrieved 2008-01-31.
- "Wright, Wyoming". City-Data.com. Retrieved July 18, 2012.
- "US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990". United States Census Bureau. 2011-02-12. Retrieved 2011-04-23.
- Mead Gruver (March 30, 2013). "Wyo. power plant stalls 17 years, faces skepticism". San Francisco Chronicle. Associated Press. Retrieved March 31, 2013.


- 'Life of Aristotle,' Cambridge, 1839.
- 'Commemoration Sermon in Trinity College,' 1842.
- 'Conciones Academicæ,' London, 1843.
- 'Where does the Evil lie?' (a pamphlet upon private tuition at Cambridge), London, 1845.
- 'The Way of Peace,' a sermon, 1852.
- 'Herodotus with a Commentary,' 2 vols., forming part of Macleane's 'Bibliotheca Classica, 1852-54.
- 'History of Greek and Roman Philosophy and Science,' part of the article in the 'Encyclopædia Metropolitana,' ed. 2, London, 1858.
- 'Four Months in Algeria, with a Visit to Carthage,' Cambridge, 1859.
- 'Real Belief and True Belief,' a sermon, 1862.
- 'A Preelection as Candidate for the Regius Professorship,' on 1 Cor. xi. 17-31 (privately printed).
[Saturday Review, 25 April 1886; Guardian, 22 April 1885; private information.]
BLAKEWAY, JOHN BRICKDALE (1765–1826), topographer, was the eldest son of Joshua Blakeway, of Shrewsbury, by Elizabeth, sister of Matthew Brickdale, M.P. in several parliaments for the city of Bristol. He was born at Shrewsbury on 24 June 1765, and educated in the free school there. In 1775 he was removed to Westminster, at which school he remained till 1782, when he proceeded to Oriel College, Oxford (B.A. 1786, M.A. 1795). On leaving the university he entered at Lincoln's Inn, and was called to the bar in 1789. He followed the law more as an amusement than as a necessary means of support, and began to go the Oxford circuit. Suddenly he found his hereditary expectations destroyed, and he was compelled to provide himself with an income by his own exertions. In these circumstances the expensive profession of the law was no longer to be thought of. He resolved to enter the church, and was ordained in 1793.
In 1794 he was presented by his uncle, the Rev. Edward Blakeway, to the ministry of the Royal Peculiar of St. Mary's, Shrewsbury, and on his uncle's death he became official of the peculiar, and also succeeded him in the vicarage of Neen Savage, Shropshire, and in the rectory of Felton, Somersetshire. In 1800 he was presented to the vicarage of Kinlet. He was elected a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries in 1807. From 1800 till 1816 he divided his time between Kinlet and Shrewsbury, but, finding it inconvenient to keep up two houses, he gave up Felton and Kinlet in that year, and thenceforward resided exclusively in his native town. He died at the council house, Shrewsbury, on 10 March 1826, and was buried in St. Mary's Church, where a fine Gothic monument, executed by John Carline, was erected to his memory by his parishioners.
His works are:
- 'An Attempt to ascertain the Author of the Letters published under the signature of Junius,' Shrewsbury, 1813, 8vo. He ascribes the authorship of these famous letters to Horne Tooke.
- 'The Sequel of an Attempt to ascertain the Author of the Letters published under the signature of Junius,' London, 1815, 8vo.
- 'A History of Shrewsbury,' 2 vols., London, 1825, 4to. Written in collaboration with the Ven. Hugh Owen, F.S.A., archdeacon of Salop.
- 'The Sheriffs of Shropshire, with their armorial bearings, and notices, biographical and genealogical, of their families,' Shrewsbury, 1831, fol.
- Single sermons, and a tract on the subject of Regeneration.
[Salopian Journal. 15, 22, and 29 March 1826; Gent. Mag. xcvi. (i.) 277, 369; Leighton's Guide through the Town of Shrewsbury, 72, 73, 182; Cat. of Printed Books in Brit. Mus.]
BLAKEY, NICHOLAS (fl. 1753), designer and engraver, was a native of Ireland, but resided chiefly in Paris, and died there. The dates of his birth and death are not recorded. He enjoyed a considerable reputation about the middle of the last century as an illustrator of books, and, amongst other works, designed and engraved the plates to Jonas Hanway's 'Travels in Persia,' 1753, and those to an edition of Pope's works. Blakey was associated with Francis Hayman, R.A., in the production of a set of prints of subjects from English history, of which the following bear his name only as the designer: 'The Landing of Julius Caesar,' 'Vortigem and Rowena,' and 'Alfred in the Island of Athelney receiving News of a Victory over the Danes;' these were engraved respectively by S. F. Ravenet, G. Scotin, and F. Vivares. One of Blakey's most graceful compositions is a vignette in the manner of Boucher, representing nymphs dancing under the influence of Love, engraved by John Ingram.
[Redgrave's Dictionary of Artists (1878); MS. notes in British Museum.]
BLAKEY, ROBERT (1795–1878), miscellaneous writer and professor of logic and metaphysics at Queen's College, Belfast, was the son of a mechanic, and was born at Morpeth 18 May 1795. Losing his father when only nine months old, he was taken charge of by his grandmother. From his ninth to his thirteenth year he assisted his


AN ESSAY ON QUANTITY
tremely unfortunate. For, first, Whereas all proof should be taken from principles that are common to both sides, in order to prove a thing we deny, he assumes a principle which we think further from the truth; namely, that the height to which the body rises is the whole effect of the impulse, and ought to be the whole measure of it. Secondly, His reasoning serves as well against him as for him. For may I not plead with as good reason, at least, thus? The velocity given by an impressed force, is the whole effect of that impressed force; and therefore the force must be as the velocity. Thirdly, Supposing the height to which the body is raised to be the measure of the force, this principle overturns the conclusion he would establish by it, as well as that which he opposes. For, supposing the first velocity of the body to be still the same, the height to which it rises will be increased, if the power of gravity is diminished; and diminished, if the power of gravity is increased. Bodies descend slower at the equator, and faster towards the poles, as is found by experiments made on pendulums. If, then, a body is driven upwards at the equator with a given velocity, and the same body is afterwards driven upwards at Leipsic with the same velocity, the height to which it rises in the former case will be greater than in the latter; and therefore, according to his reasoning, its force was greater in the former case; but the velocity in both was the same; consequently, the force is not as the square of the velocity, any more than as the velocity.
Sec. 8. Reflections on this controversy.
Upon the whole, I cannot but think the controvertists on both sides have had a very hard task; the one to prove, by mathematical reasoning and experiment, what ought to be taken for granted; the other, by the same means, to prove what might be granted, making some allowance for impropriety of expression, but can never be proved.
If some mathematician should take it in his head to affirm, that the velocity of a body is not as the space it passes over in a given time, but as the square of that space, you might bring mathematical arguments and experiments to confute him; but you would never by these force him to yield, if he was ingenuous in his way; because you have no common principles left you to argue from, and you differ from one another, not in a mathematical proposition, but in a mathematical definition.
Suppose a philosopher has considered only that measure of centripetal force which is proportional to the velocity generated by it in a given time, and from this measure deduces several propositions: another philosopher, in a distant country, who has the same general notion of centripetal force, takes the velocity generated by it, and the quantity of matter together, as the measure of it. From this he deduces several conclusions,


Norman Roberts, or Doc, is an Army medic assigned to an advisory team in Afghanistan’s Laghman Province in 2007, who has grown steadily disillusioned by the war. Doc is often conflicted by his non-violent humanist upbringing and a deep-seated rage that began when the North Tower fell during the Sept. 11 terror attacks, killing his father.
It doesn’t help that he’s an opium addict.
In Brandon Caro’s debut novel, “Old Silk Road,” each patrol and mission is haunted by Doc’s fear that some injury or attack — an explosion that leads to multiple casualties, or the agonizing final moments of a dying friend — might threaten his precious store of morphine, his sole escape from a reality he no longer wants any part of. Doc, his team, and the Afghan National Army soldiers they’re tasked with training, set out on a winding, deadly, and perpetually tense journey along Route 1, once called the Silk Road — the ancient thoroughfare for all of Afghanistan’s previous, and long-since dead, conquerors — in Caro’s work, published on Oct. 13.
An Afghanistan War veteran and former Navy corpsman, Caro weaves an insightful and surreal story around war, addiction, and loss of self. Through Doc’s manic inner monologue, Caro conveys what it feels like to serve in an asymmetrical war, one where the front lines and the rear are blurred to the point of nonexistence — and where your allies are as likely to kill you as the enemy you were sent to fight.
Caro captures the sense of futility that comes during those quiet moments after a bad day, in a brutal war, with no end in sight. When Doc wakes up in the back of a Humvee, strung out after shooting up, he looks around at the neat rows of vehicles — many are in varying states of disrepair — and sees the motor pool as a thinly veiled metaphor for the war effort:
It was all so structured. So squared away. … The war was often like that, it seemed. Copacetic in appearance, but in a de facto state of disorder. And though clean-shaven, trained, and even battle-tested, our ranks were staffed mostly by dropouts and fuckups — the ones who’d nearly slipped through the cracks — redeemed for our delineation of the straight path of success by our taking up the cause of war. And I was the greatest fuckup of them all.
For Doc, Afghanistan was supposed to be “the good war” in contrast to Iraq, but the more he sees, the more that ideal unravels. “Old Silk Road” is as much about a man at war as it is about a man who is unmade by war. Doc is chewed up, not by bullets or explosions, but by his own ideals and his inability to reconcile them with the brutal reality of what he sees and does.
The novel, written in the first person and following a non-linear timeline, repurposes tropes and techniques reminiscent of Joseph Conrad’s “Heart of Darkness,” and Dante’s epic poem “The Divine Comedy” to great effect. The Silk Road, for which the book is named and where much of it takes place, functions similarly to the river in Conrad’s work, with the main character moving deeper into uncertainty and addiction the more he travels on the dusty Afghan road. Doc takes on a role similar to Dante during hallucinatory encounters with Pat Tillman, who functions like Dante’s guide, Virgil. The novel takes place three years after Tillman, who turned down a professional football career to enlist in the Army, was killed by friendly fire on April 22, 2004.
Tillman goads and encourages Doc to keep moving deeper into the hellish landscape that Afghanistan becomes during the novel’s final chapters. When Doc first asks why or how Tillman is alive, the latter nonchalantly answers: “It’s complicated. … I’m mixed up in some pretty high-level shit right now. Can’t really go into detail…”
Beyond the plot twists and philosophical dilemmas that underscore this war story, the back-and-forth banter between the characters in “Old Silk Road” provides brief moments of humanity and hilarity.
While manning the Humvee turret during a convoy, Doc and his commanding officer, Captain Harold, strike up a conversation about the American dream and the unconditional love of country that is the birthright and obligation of all red-blooded American patriots.
“If ‘Murica was a woman, I’d take her out for a steak dinner on a Friday night, hold the door for her, take her coat, and pull the chair out. … Then we’d end the evening in the backseat of my Chevy Malibu, makin’ sweet love under the stars,” says Captain Harold, his rhetoric reinforcing the image of the good old Southern boy he is meant to represent.
However, like all things in this novel, the conversation is not without its pitfalls and moral quandaries delivered with just the right amount of snark.
“What if America turned out to be a dude?” is Doc’s earnest response, and one that nearly causes Captain Harold to drive off the road. “No really…what if you and America were in the backseat, about to get it on, and you reached up her skirt and came up with a handful of cock’ n’ balls? Then what?”
Intermingled with the adrenaline rush of combat and the post-high lows and shakes are those moments of banter that are simultaneously childish, vulgar, and irreverent, yet make you wonder whether you’re being let in on some essential truth, or if it really is just a dick joke.
Caro’s “Old Silk Road” is fast, hard, jarring, and leaves you longing for closure and resolution — two things that war rarely brings — until you finally get it in the novel’s last few chapters and are no longer sure that’s what you wanted.
All said, “Old Silk Road” is a compelling account of what war feels like, reading like a dying man’s last dream, with its end bringing both blissful release and genuine remorse.
“Old Silk Road” (Post Hill Press, 2015) is available for purchase beginning Oct. 13.


From November, Verizon is going to start feeding information from its controversial supercookie identifier, which it uses to monitor mobile internet browsing habits of its customers, to AOL. The media company will then use that data, including users’ gender, age, location and browsing habits, to build an accurate profile of each person and target them with specific ads.
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AOL’s ad network is represented on 40 percent of live websites, so that’s a lot of targeted ads.
It’s a questionable move, mainly because of the level of tracking involved and the fact it’s unencrypted. That means it’s potentially open to interception from both hackers and even the government. The NSA is one example of an organization that has been known to use Google’s cookies to identify users.
There is an option to opt out of using Verizon’s supercookie, which seems advisable at this point in time, but it is automatically turned on by default on all new Verizon phones.


With Christmas shopping hanging over our heads we can often forget that giving doesn’t have to be limited to gifts under the tree. Why not spend your lunchbreak doing something special for someone in need without even leaving the office.
Put a smile on the face of a sick child
Postpals is an amazing company that lets you send an email, letter or card to a child in need. You can read all about their condition and send them something to cheer them up when they need it the most.
Translating videos for the deaf and hard of hearing
Amara is a crowd source subtitling platform that engages volunteers from around the world to translate online videos. The captions that volunteers provide make videos accessible for viewers who are deaf or hard of hearing or for people who want to just watch a video in a language they do not speak.
Describe pictures to assist the blind
Describe Me is a project of the Museum Victoria in Australia who require volunteers to write alternative text (alt-text) for images to make their Collections Online more useful for people who are blind or have low vision. Alt-text is text associated with an image that conveys the same essential information as the image. It is important for people who use screen readers or view websites in text-only format.
The way the project works is that you’ll be shown a randomly-selected photo, or you can use tags to find images you’re interested in, after which you’ll be asked to write a few words (usually between 3 to 7) to describe what you see in the image presented in front of you.
Send an email
Amnesty International helps causes all around the world. The simple act of sending an email, signing a petition or writing a letter can make a huge difference to someone’s life.