[{},{"de":[["By virtue of providing differential levels of coverage to specific issues, the media are able to shape individuals' perceptions of the relative importance and salience of these issues.",[]],["the press may not be successful all the time in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about",[]],["By making some issues more salient in people's minds (agenda-setting), the mass media can shape the considerations that people take into account when making judgments about political candidates or other issues (priming).",[]]],"rt":[["priming",[]],["framing",[]],["frame-setting",[]]]},{},{"de":[["With the former, stories focus on people who experience problems related to the issue. These stories tend to particularize events and people without exploring a larger context.",[]]],"sp":[["frames",[]]]},{"de":[["A frame can be a phrase, image, analogy, or metaphor that a journalist uses to communicate the essence of an issue or event.",[]],["Frames simplify the story-writing process for journalists and help audiences make sense of what they encounter in the news.",[]]],"sb":[["episodic frame",[]],["thematic frame",[]]]},{"de":[["When they select and share the news, individuals can choose the frames they prefer and encourage their adoption by other people.",[]]],"ex":[["the New York Times regularly issues its Top 5 (articles that an interested party might have missed), and the Reddit Web site encourages people to recommend the news stories they prefer.",[]]]},{"de":[["Frame-building occurs when journalists construct news stories out of the bits and pieces of everyday life.",[]]]},{"de":[["frame-setting is encountered most clearly when the frame refers to something that audience members already value or believe and feel. The frame increases the applicability of already familiar concepts, heightening the likelihood that they will be used to interpret the issue in subsequent situations. Thus the frame is a vehicle for highlighting linkages between concepts rather than for introducing new concepts.",[]],["frame-setting is encountered most clearly when the frame refers to something that audience members already value or believe and feel. The frame increases the applicability of already familiar concepts, heightening the likelihood that they will be used to interpret the issue in subsequent situations.",[]]],"rt":[["agenda-setting",[]],["persuasion",[]],["learning",[]]]},{},{"de":[["To frame is to select some aspects of a perceived reality and make them more salient in a communicating text, in such a way as to promote a particular problem definition, causal interpretation, moral evaluation, and/or treatment recommendation for the item described.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The basic media-priming process consists of two steps. In the first step, information received through a media channel (i.e., the \"media prime\") activates preexisting associated knowledge in the mind of the receiver (i.e., \"available\" cognitive units or concepts). This activation makes the cognitive units more accessible, which means that the receiver is more likely to use them in interpreting and evaluating a subsequently encountered target stimulus (i.e., the attitude object). A media priming effect occurs if, in the second step, the receiver applies the primed, now more accessible concept to a target stimulus when s/he would not otherwise have done this.",[]]],"sy":[["priming",[]]],"rt":[["agenda-setting",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Priming is often understood as closely related to agenda-setting. First, both effects are grounded in mnemonic models of information-processing, which assume that individuals form attitudes on the strength of considerations that are most salient, and thus most accessible, when making decisions.",[]]],"rt":[["agenda-setting",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This more recent development predicts that the issue's attributes emphasized by the news media will influence not only the issue's prominence on the public agenda, but also how the public will think about that issue.",[]]],"sy":[["attribute agenda-setting",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Stories featuring the thematic frame explore the systemic nature of issues. They highlight the social and political contexts within which events and issues reside.",[]],["They highlight the social and political contexts within which events and issues reside.",[]]],"sp":[["frames",[]]]},{"sp":[["automated content modification",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["These systems operate on the basic principle of measuring the user behavior of potential subscribers before personalizing the paywall.",["Piechota 2022"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["adhere to ethical standards",[]]],"sy":[["responsible AI",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the gist of the fake news story overlaps with other related memories",[]]],"sb":[["verbatim traces",[]],["gist traces",[]]],"ex":[["'COVID vaccines are good'",[]],["'COVID vaccines are bad'",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Individuals evaluate their mental experiences through the first system, relying on heuristic judgements to quickly assess whether the memory's features are characteristic of a true memory; or the second system, relying on systematic and deliberative processes whereby the plausibility of the memory contents are assessed and evaluated against prior knowledge.",[]],["memory reconstruction is prone to systematic bias",[]],["if prior knowledge and opinions guide",[]],["an influential approach which has contributed to current understanding of false memory generation.",[]]],"rt":[["false memory generation",[]]]},{"rt":[["gist traces",[]]],"sp":[["Fuzzy trace theory",["Reyna et al., 2016"]]],"ex":[["remembering that a pedestrian was struck by a 2018 Toyota Corolla",[]]]},{"sb":[["Affect (negative)",[]],["Affect (neutral)",[]],["Affect (positive)",[]]]},{"rt":[["Affect (neutral)",[]],["Affect (positive)",[]]]},{"rt":[["Affect (negative)",[]],["Affect (positive)",[]]]},{"rt":[["Affect (negative)",[]],["Affect (neutral)",[]]]},{"de":[["attention may be based on the cognitive judgements people make about the relevance of specific stimuli to themselves or their tasks",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["quality and appropriateness of the interactivity to the user's task",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It is also defined as sudden and unexpected changes that occur on the interface that evoke a reaction from the user",["Aboulafia & Bannon, (P11, P13"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This was achieved by the presentation of feedback and novel information and features on the interface.",[]],["Interviewees were also more likely to stay in the engagement when they perceived that they were in charge of the interaction and appropriately challenged.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sb":[["falsification",[]],["exaggeration",[]],["concealment",[]],["hoax",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["satellite",[]]]},{"de":[["RST differentiates between rhetorically stand-alone parts of a text, some of which are more salient (nucleus) than the others (satellite).",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["nucleus",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["They can provide a kind of shortcut for visualizing groups and categories of people and conceptualizing highly complex social constructs.",[]],["When stereotypes are taken as fact and applied uncritically (as to individual members of a social category), they can lead to bias, prejudice, discrimination, and outright harm.",[]]]},{"de":[["a narrower, more instrumental set of 'traits, attributes and behaviours that underpin success in education and work' (DfE, 2015).",["2015"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["individuals consider other people to be influenced, not necessarily because they deem it to be correct or important",[]],["Reading or watching the news provides information on what a society thinks as a whole. Even if economic experts themselves may be sceptical concerning media content, they assume that other people are not.",[]]]},{"rt":[["inoculation messages",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["inoculation messages",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["often serve as informational judgment cues.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["refutational pre-emption",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["social bots",[]]],"sp":[["Social bots",[]]]},{"sp":[["Social bots",[]]]},{"sp":[["social bots",[]]]},{"rt":[["false positives",[]]]},{"rt":[["false negatives",[]]]},{},{"de":[["They can generate content automatically and interact with human users, often posing as, or imitating, humans",["Ferrara et al., 2016a"]],["They can generate content automatically and interact with human users, often posing as, or imitating, humans (Ferrara et al., 2016a).",["Ferrara et al., 2016a"]]],"sb":[["spam bots",[]],["mention bots",[]],["cyborgs",[]],["Deceptive social bots",[]],["fake followers",[]],["botnet",[]]],"ex":[["identity thieves: they copy usernames, profile information, and pictures of other accounts and use them as their own, making only small changes",["Cresci et al., 2015"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["social bot",[]],["social bots",[]]]},{"de":[["a broader and more flexible concept, generally deployed by the social scientists that have developed a recent interest in various forms of automation on social media",[]],["typically built to rely on hard-coded scripts that post predetermined messages, or that copy the messages of users in a predictable manner, such that they are incapable of participating in conversations.",[]],["communicate primarily over public posts that appear on social media pages.",[]],["this definition of-ten includes a stipulation that social bots mimic human users.",["Stieglitz et al. (2017)"]],["These latter bots are typically built to rely on hard-coded scripts that post predetermined messages, or that copy the messages of users in a predictable manner, such that they are incapable of participating in conversations.",[]]],"sy":[["automated social agents",[]]],"rt":[["chatbots",[]],["web-scrapers",[]]],"sb":[["political bots",[]]],"sp":[["bot",[]]]},{"sy":[["sybils",[]]],"rt":[["sybils",[]]],"sp":[["social bots",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The term generally implies manual control over accounts, but it is often used to include automated bot accounts as well",["Bastos and Mercea 2017"]]],"sy":[["troll",[]]],"sb":[["trolls",[]]]},{"rt":[["trolls",[]]]},{"rt":[["botnets",[]]],"sp":[["bot",[]]]},{"rt":[["sockpuppets",[]]],"sp":[["sockpuppet",[]]]},{"rt":[["crawler",[]]]},{"rt":[["social bots",[]],["chatbots",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["can be processed more deeply and remembered more easily",["Bromme & Kienhues, 2014"]],["portrayed as an important principle when processing information",[]],["coherence is portrayed as an important principle when processing information.",["Bromme's and Kienhues' (2014)"]]]},{"de":[["A coherent composition of elements was a dominant criterion mentioned by the students exclusively in phase 2.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Thus, how the information is transmitted plays a crucial role in deceiving the user, for example, exploiting emotions through emotive images or the professional appearance of a post or website.",[]]]},{"de":[["it is potentially problematic in its reliance on group opinion as it is subject to crowd behavior and may falsely equate popularity with credibility",["Metzger et al., 2010"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["a trusting familiarity with the account decreases the need for other credibility criteria, such as an indication of sources.",[]]]},{"de":[["They can be conscious or unconscious",["Gigerenzer & Gaissmaier, 2011"]],["also found that the heuristics are not mutually exclusive because many decision-making situations require multiple and combined heuristics.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["students mentioned a high number of likes as a sign of credibility",[]],["students still perceived the amount likes but did not view it as a sign of credibility",[]]]},{"de":[["In this heuristic, commercial content is a strong negative credibility criterion, especially when not obvious, as it leaves the user feeling manipulated and therefore activates defense mechanisms",["Metzger & Flanagin, 2013"]]]},{"de":[["contentrelated",[]],["Plausibility judgments are made based on factors such as comprehensibility of the information, coherence, previous content knowledge and beliefs, and value systems.",["Bromme & Kienhues, 2014"]],["where coherence is portrayed as an important principle when processing information",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["by (i) raising awareness of possible threats and (ii) exposing people to those threatening strategies",["Banas & Rains, 2010"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Social media are characterized by their interactivity and participatory features, which facilitate a quick dissimilation of a large amount of output.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["source-related",[]],["trust judgments are made according to criteria such as integrity and benevolence and expertise, and responsibility",["Bromme & Kienhues, 2014"]]]},{},{"ex":[["the opening of a popular fast food restaurant might cause many people in an area to gain weight, and this contextual effect might cause us to falsely infer that peers are influencing one another",[]]]},{"rt":[["induction",[]]]},{"sy":[["inter-personal induction",[]]],"rt":[["homophily",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["this telegraphic phrase can be seen as problematic by some. For instance, so far, the evidence offered above pertains to clustering, not influence; moreover, the use of the word 'rule' may imply a degree of determinism that is too strong. However, similar to the widespread use of the expression 'six degrees of separation,' this turn of phrase is meant to be evocative, not definitive.",[]]],"rt":[["six degrees of separation",[]]]},{"de":[["In order to create such an algorithm you need a lot of information, such as which country someone comes from in order to adjust the language well or whether you are a boy or a woman. There is a lot of information that influences such an algorithm. If someone finds out about these data, someone could find out very very much about you. The algorithm also stores other information.",["FG 2, 124"]]],"ex":[["In the beginning my account was full of climate change content. But then eventually I stopped liking and commenting the posts and just kept on scrolling, so that the algorithm wouldn't show it to me anymore. It was too much for me.",["FG 6, 55"]]]},{"de":[["Arguing that algorithm literacy empowers users to successfully navigate digital spaces",[]]],"rt":[["media literacy",[]]],"sb":[["(1) awareness and knowledge",[]],["(2) critical evaluation",[]],["(3) coping strategies",[]],["(4) creation and influence skills",[]]],"sp":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["A user may be aware that algorithms exist without actually understanding what an algorithm is or how it works.",[]]],"rt":[["Knowledge of algorithms",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["continued influence effect",["Lewandowsky et al., 2012"]]],"rt":[["continued influence effect",[]]]},{"ex":[["\"I think the challenge also is, that if you have already believed an information, it becomes harder to trust other sources and posts.\"",["FG 4, 67"]],["I think the challenge also is, that if you have already believed an information, it becomes harder to trust other sources and posts.",["FG 4, 67"]]]},{"ex":[["\"Pages are looking at what gets the most clicks instead of putting more important things in the foreground that need more attention but that don't get as many clicks, like new temperature highs.\"",["FG 3, 98"]],["Pages are looking at what gets the most clicks instead of putting more important things in the foreground that need more attention but that don't get as many clicks, like new temperature highs.",["FG 3, 98"]]]},{"de":[["misinformation with intention to cause harm",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["the formation of groups that share the same worldview and in which other opinions are excluded",[]],["the selectivity of the proposed content based on the interests of the users",[]]],"rt":[["filter bubble",[]]],"ex":[["\"A video on the earth being flat is shown to people that believe in that. That's why in the comments they will write: 'Yes, the earth is flat and no one thinks the earth is round.' Differing opinion cannot access this bubble, only the one opinion and everyone thinks it's a hundred percent true.\"",["FG 6,125"]],["A video on the earth being flat is shown to people that believe in that. That's why in the comments they will write: 'Yes, the earth is flat and no one thinks the earth is round.' Differing opinion cannot access this bubble, only the one opinion and everyone thinks it's a hundred percent true.",["FG 6,125"]]]},{"de":[["The workings of social media mechanisms, such as filter bubbles and echo chambers (Section 2.2), have a significant influence on the epistemic processes that convey and transform scientific information on social media",[]],["selectivity of the proposed content based on the interests of the users",[]]],"rt":[["filter bubbles",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["filter bubble",[]],["echo chamber",[]]],"ex":[["If you spread information you don't think it's false because SO many people posted it and are saying the same thing. You automatically think that it has to be right, but it doesn't.",["FG 4, 67"]]]},{"sy":[["bubble",[]],["bubbles",[]],["algorithm bubble",[]]],"rt":[["echo chamber",[]],["false-consensus effect",[]]],"ex":[["\"I do realize that some topics are purposely shown to me and that they are a certain opinion and from a certain type of people, especially concerning values and things that are important to people. For me that's stuff like climate, feminism and anti-racism.\"",["FG 4, 44"]],["I have a TikTok account that is completely filled with my interests, where my algorithm has adapted to me. And I tested the algorithm a bit. I have three different accounts (laughs) with whom I'm testing what happens when you stay longer on videos or like videos that don't really interest you and that's really interesting because the algorithm on these three accounts is completely different. So, one account I created to trick the algorithm because I figured I was in a specific algorithm bubble in terms of my interests. But there's a relatively large algorithm bubble of trending videos and I wasn't in that at all and I tried that out to test it and that's really super interesting.",["FG 4, 10"]],["I do realize that some topics are purposely shown to me and that they are a certain opinion and from a certain type of people, especially concerning values and things that are important to people. For me that's stuff like climate, feminism and anti-racism.",["FG 4, 44"]]]},{"de":[["The students within the filter bubble might predominantly see content that presents climate change as a less urgent or exaggerated issue.",[]],["one-sided nature of the opinions they enclose",[]]],"rt":[["echo chamber",[]],["echo chambers",[]]]},{},{},{},{"ex":[["\"In my opinion scientific contributions should be published on separate homepages, where you can be sure that only normal people work there and that there're no fake news. On Instagram, anyone can make a contribution and mess with people.\"",["FG 2, 77"]],["In my opinion scientific contributions should be published on separate homepages, where you can be sure that only normal people work there and that there're no fake news. On Instagram, anyone can make a contribution and mess with people.",["FG 2, 77"]]]},{"de":[["Because of accepted cookies on the Internet, we have an incredible data transfer between companies. If my mother and I are looking for something on the same device and she's looking for tickets to some concert, for example, and I'm playing a game with banner ads, I'm shown explicit concert offers from those bands, for example. There really is a huge market with data sales. And if I've searched for something on Google, for example a band, I'm shown ads from this band or similar bands on Instagram between the stories.",["FG 5, 130"]],["Some of these inductive mechanisms, which influence the perception of science-related information, are specific to the social media environment",[]]],"ex":[["searching for shoes that would later automatically appear on the social media feed in the form of ads",[]],["There are so many reports, that the TikTok algorithm conducts good microtargeting, meaning speaking to individual people. It's important for commercial, but it is very intransparent about what is shown and what isn't.",["FG 5, 78"]]]},{"sy":[["false information",[]]],"sb":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"ex":[["I also think that fake news travels a lot faster than real news.",["FG 1, 67"]]]},{"ex":[["\"I would also say people are searching for their own opinion and are trying to select information that is supporting their opinion.\"",["FG 2, 78"]],["I would also say people are searching for their own opinion and are trying to select information that is supporting their opinion.",["FG 2, 78"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the account just doesn't show up, even though the account still exists.",["FG 4, 164"]],["Affected users can no longer be found on the platform and are not notified that they have been censored",["Jones, 2023"]],["Some of these inductive mechanisms, which influence the perception of science-related information, are specific to the social media environment",[]]],"ex":[["But on the other hand, Instagram shadow bans content that includes highly political information.",["FG 1, 101"]]]},{"de":[["instead of the term naive we use the term simple because it is less evaluative and more descriptive concerning the students' specific utterances",[]]],"sy":[["naive",[]]]},{},{"de":[["These social media algorithms function on user personalization",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["filter bubble",[]]],"ex":[["If you spread information you don't think it's false because SO many people posted it and are saying the same thing. You automatically think that it has to be right, but it doesn't.",["FG 4, 67"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In this survey, we consider as bias the inclination or prejudice of a decision made by an AI system which is for or against one person or group, especially in a way considered to be unfair.",[]]]},{"sp":[["causal reasoning",[]]]},{"sp":[["predicted outcome",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["predicted and actual outcome",[]]]},{"sp":[["similarity based",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Bias is an old concept in Machine Learning (ML), traditionally referring to the assumptions made by a specific model (inductive bias) (Mitchell, 1997).",["Mitchell, 1997"]]]},{"ex":[["Institutional racism and sexism are common examples (Chandler & Munday, 2011).",[]]]},{"sy":[["vicious cycles that perpetuate discrimination and disadvantage",[]]]},{"sy":[["other correlated features",[]],["correlated features",[]]]},{"rt":[["selection bias",[]]]},{"sb":[["self-selection bias",[]],["the reverse exclusion bias",[]],["reverse exclusion bias",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["These alt-media sources publish politically motivated articles, often directly challenging the narratives as published by mainstream media.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["A conspiracy theory \"involves not only the denial of official, commonlyheld explanations about the causes of an event, but also the attribution of the event to a plan devised by a group of agents with hidden, unlawful, and malevolent intent\".",[]]]},{"de":[["generative adversarial networks to learn to replace faces in videos with that of someone else, and ultimately create realistic videos that can easily fool gullible viewers into thinking it is genuine.",[]]],"sy":[["Deepfake",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The content of disinformation, in many cases, is highly sensationalized and is written using extreme sentiments, usually to affect the reader, which makes them interact with the post more",["Shu, Sliva, Wang, Tang, & Liu, 2017"]],["Disinformation can exist in different forms -false text, images, videos, etc.",[]],["the users that disinformation is targeting",[]],["the content of the disinformation itself",[]],["the way disinformation spreads over the network",[]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]]],"rt":[["hoaxes",[]]],"sb":[["fake news",[]]],"ex":[["So fake news is an example of disinformation.",[]]]},{"sy":[["filter bubbles",[]]],"rt":[["filter bubbles",[]]]},{"de":[["tends to be much more novel than the truth across all novelty metrics",["Vosoughi, Roy, & Aral, 2018"]],["Spreading fake news can be a sense making activity in ambiguous situations and the frequency of fake news increases in uncertain situations, such as natural disasters or political events such as elections when people are unsure of the results",["DiFonzo & Bordia, 2007"]],["Fake news represents ways of coping with uncertain and uncontrollable situations.",[]],["So fake news is an example of disinformation. In this paper, we use the terms \"disinformation\" and \"fake news\" interchangeably.",[]]],"sy":[["disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"sy":[["echochambers",[]]],"rt":[["echo chambers",[]]]},{"de":[["Hoaxes are messages created with the intention of being spread to a large number of people, to \"persuade or manipulate other people to do or prevent pre-established actions, mostly by using a threat or deception\" (Vuković, Pripužić, & Belani, 2009;Hernandez, Hernandez, Sierra, & Ribagorda, 2002).",["Vuković, Pripužić, & Belani, 2009","Hernandez, Hernandez, Sierra, & Ribagorda, 2002"]]]},{},{"rt":[["provenance paths",[]]]},{"rt":[["alternative media",[]]]},{},{"de":[["often considered as an \"honest mistake.\"",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the con-nectivity of bots is different from human users on social media",[]],["bots have different characteristics than human users",[]]],"sy":[["bots",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["is essentially based on shifting the reference point.",[]]]},{"rt":[["prospect theory's framing effect",["Kahneman & Tversky, 1979"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In most of these studies the framing manipulations are, however, not based on shifting the reference point, but involve selectively emphasizing the probability of success (gain, or positive frame) versus emphasizing the probability of failure (loss, or negative frame).",[]],["the framing manipulations are, however, not based on shifting the reference point, but involve selectively emphasizing the probability of success (gain, or positive frame) versus emphasizing the probability of failure (loss, or negative frame).",[]],["Salience effects can be explained as differential attention to particular aspects of the decision.",[]],["If, for example, the positive outcome of a risky option is made salient, subjects will tend to pay more attention to this positive outcome.",[]],["In other words, salience of the positive outcome results in a more positive evaluation of the risky option than salience of the negative outcome.",[]],["selectively addressing one side of the risky outcomes",[]],["involve selectively emphasizing the probability of success (gain, or positive frame) versus emphasizing the probability of failure (loss, or negative frame).",[]]],"rt":[["framing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Prospect theory thus states that outcomes of a decision are perceived as changes in wealth or welfare from a certain reference point.",[]]]},{"de":[["This reference point causes people to view outcomes as either gains or losses.",[]]]},{"de":[["In both situations gain problems would result in risk aversion and loss problems in risk acceptance.",[]],["The reflection effect we obtained in the second experiment could partly be due to the fact that the amounts of money at stake were more valuable to the younger (and less \"wealthy\") subjects in this experiment compared to the older subjects in the first experiment.",[]],["Preference reversal has also been demonstrated for decision problems (i.e., gambles) differing in the sign of the (actual) outcomes.",[]]],"sy":[["preference reversal",[]]],"rt":[["preference reversal",[]],["risk aversion",[]],["risk acceptance",[]],["prospect theory",[]]],"sp":[["prospect theory",[]]]},{"de":[["Making specific aspects of an issue more salient can influence attitudes and decisions",["van der Pligt & Eiser, 1984"]],["salient stimuli have a disproportionate influence on people's judgments",["Taylor & Fiske, 1978","Slovic, Fischhoff, Lichtenstein, 1982"]]]},{},{"de":[["Clickbaits are purposely implemented to misguide or redirect social media users to increase the views and web traffic of certain websites for online advertising earnings",["4"]],["Clickbaits in some cases are designed to disrupt interactions or to lure individuals into arguing in disturbed online interactions or communications",["37"]]],"sb":[["Political Clickbaits",[]],["Financial Clickbaits",[]],["Malicious Clickbaits",[]]]},{"de":[["It is the ability of an individual to understand thought and execute valid reasoning and understanding of concept",["34"]]]},{"de":[["Consequently, social media users will share information to gain social approval and to build their image",["12"]]]},{"de":[["Disinformation has the potential to cause issues, within minutes, for millions of people",["10"]],["Disinformation has been known to disrupt election processes, create unease, disputes and hostility among the public",["17"]]]},{"de":[["The spreading of misinformation can cause confusion and unnecessary stress among the public",["10"]]],"sy":[["misinformation",[]],["false information",[]]]},{"de":[["It is the publication of known false information and sharing it amongst individuals",["7"]],["It is the intentional publishing of misleading information and can be verified as false through fact-checking",["2"]]]},{"sp":[["Clickbaits",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Clickbaits",[]]]},{"de":[["The spreading of misinformation can cause confusion and unnecessary stress among the public",["10"]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]],["false information",[]]]},{"de":[["These satire articles consist of jokes or forms of sarcasm that can be written by everyday social media users",["10"]],["Most satire articles are designed to mislead and instruct certain individuals",["13"]]]},{"de":[["When they are unable to evaluate certain information on their own, they adapt to compare themselves to other members, within the same environment, with the same beliefs and opinions",["12"]]]},{"sy":[["Malicious users",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["social-context-based methods",[]]]},{"de":[["fake news content often contains textual and visual information.",[]]]},{"rt":[["propagation patterns",[]]]},{"de":[["identifying the differences in propagation patterns between fake news and the truth",[]]],"rt":[["content-based methods",[]],["social-context information",[]],["propagation patterns",[]],["user profiles",[]],["opinions",[]]]},{"de":[["EE is an instrumental and field-based practice, drawing upon theories from different disciplines",[]],["EE is an SBCC strategy that has been applied and embraced by global, national, and local change makers to serve the interests of underserved communities.",[]],["EE is characterized by deliberate intention and requires sustained creative efforts to seamlessly incorporate educational content with enabling features into the entertainment programming.",[]],["EE purposely tackles real-life complex social problems and should engage key field-based stakeholders to foster trusting partnerships to enable desirable and sustainable change at the individual, community, institutional, and societal level.",[]]],"rt":[["narrative persuasion",[]],["social and behavioral change communication (SBCC)",[]]],"sp":[["social and behavioral change communication (SBCC)",[]]],"ex":[["Simplemente María",[]],["East Los High",[]],["Main Kuch Bhi Kar Sakti Hoon (I, A Woman, Can Achieve Anything)",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["These WEIRD biases become insidious when scholars fail to acknowledge the fundamental limitation of their research-the lack of ecological validity.",[]],["a sample bias characterized as \"WEIRD,\" that is, Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic",["Eden et al., 2014, p. 514"]]],"sp":[["sample bias",[]]]},{"sy":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["Fake news is unarguably a threat to the society (Panke, 2020) and it has become a challenging problem for social media users and researchers alike.",["Panke, 2020"]]],"sy":[["deceptive news",[]]],"ex":[["Alcohol is a cure for COVID-19",[]]]},{"de":[["These can originate from the fine-tuning dataset or the pre-trained model or a combination of both.",[]]]},{"de":[["We focus on the pre-training, where representation harms (i.e. encoding stereotypes) can occur in the pre-trained LMs",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["first-level agenda setting",[]],["second-level agenda setting",[]]]},{"de":[["the properties, qualities, characteristics, and relations",[]]]},{"sp":[["Agenda setting",[]],["agenda-setting theory",[]]]},{"sy":[["second-level agenda setting",["40"]]]},{},{"de":[["By making some political issues salient, agenda setting makes these specific issues more accessible than others",[]]],"sy":[["framing",["40"]]],"sp":[["Agenda setting",[]],["agenda-setting theory",[]]]},{"de":[["If there are more people denying or doubting the truth of an event, this event is more likely to be a rumor.",[]]],"rt":[["sentiment features",[]]]},{"de":[["keeping only a set of carefully curated negative words.",[]]],"ex":[["hoax",[]],["rumor",[]],["not true",[]]]},{"sy":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["most users perceive the internet as a platform where they can express themselves freely and anonymously",[]],["although it is also true that such anonymity can only become a possibility through the implementation of specific strategies and tools usually not known to most educated laymen who use the internet",["de Salvador Carrasco 2012: 2"]]]},{"sp":[["discourse analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["understood (in a non-restrictive way)",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["even though the term 'hate speech' is often incorporated, at least as a notion, into legal and policy documents, there is still no universally accepted definition for it",[]],["incitement to hate crime, violence and discrimination",[]]],"rt":[["stir up racial hatred",[]],["stirring up religious hatred",[]]],"sb":[["hard hate speech",[]],["soft hate speech",[]]],"ex":[["all conduct publicly inciting to violence or hatred directed against a group of persons or a member of such a group defined by reference to race, colour, religion, descent or national or ethnic origin",["Council of the European Union 2008"]],["advocacy of discriminatory hatred which constitutes incitement to hostility, discrimination or violence",["UN General Assembly 1966"]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["measures that would effectively target far-right extremism",[]]]},{"de":[["What these protected characteristics are, however, remains open to interpretation, with different states including different categories under this rubric",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["measures that would effectively target far-right extremism",[]]]},{"sp":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"rt":[["stirring up religious hatred",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["measures that would effectively target far-right extremism",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Cyborg accounts are usually registered by a human as a disguise for automated programs that are set to perform activities on social media.",[]],["The easy switch between humans and bots offer cyborg users unique opportunities to spread fake news.",[]]],"sp":[["Malicious accounts",[]]]},{"sp":[["homogeneous networks",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Implicit stances",[]]],"ex":[["such as Facebook's \"like\" actions.",[]]]},{"de":[["Fake news on social media is growing fast in volume and can have negative societal impacts.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["From a network analysis perspective, the goal is to minimize the scope of fake news spreading on social media.",[]]]},{"de":[["The algorithms make assumptions about user preferences based on the user's historical data, such as former click behavior, browsing history, search history, and location.",[]],["Given these assumptions, the website is more likely to present information that will support the user's past online activities.",[]],["A filter bubble can reduce connections with contradicting viewpoints, causing the user to become intellectually isolated.",[]],["A filter bubble will amplify the individual psychological challenges to dispelling fake news.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["Explicit stances",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The knowledge network integrates linked open data, such as DBdata and Google Relation Extraction Corpus (GREC), as a heterogeneous network topology.",[]],["Fact-checking using a knowledge graph checks whether the claims in news content can be inferred from existing facts in the knowledge networks",[]]],"sy":[["knowledge graph",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["network intervention",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["influence minimization",[]],["Mitigation Campaign",[]]]},{"sb":[["content dimension",[]],["social dimension",[]],["temporal dimension",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The algorithm automatically produces content and interacts with humans (or other bot users) on social media.",[]],["Social bots can be malicious entities designed specifically for manipulating and spreading fake news on social media.",[]]],"sp":[["Malicious accounts",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["viewpoints",[]]],"ex":[["supporting",[]],["opposing",[]]]},{"sy":[["viewpoints",[]]],"ex":[["supporting, opposing, etc.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Trolls enable the easy dissemination of fake news among otherwise normal online communities.",[]]],"sp":[["Malicious accounts",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This influence is determined by many factors, such as the novelty and resonance of their messages with those of their followers and the quality and frequency of the content they generate.",[]],["The influence of a user thus depends on not only the size of the influenced audience, but also on their passivity.",[]],["pairwise influence relationships between users",[]]],"ex":[["In Twitter, for example, one can measure how much influence user A has on user B by counting the number of times B retweeted A.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["authority",[]],["influence",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The users that receive information from other users may never see it or choose to ignore it.",[]]],"ex":[["when we considered nodes with high passivity, we found a majority of them to be spammers and robot users.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["NASA Social, 42 which provides in-person opportunities for users who currently engage on NASA social media accounts, such as meet and greet sessions and behind the scenes events to connect with NASA scientists.",["42"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Social media engagement lends a human element to our communications. Engagement keeps us from being perceived as tone deaf or insensitive to the concerns and needs of our audiences-if we are engaged, truly engaged, we are constantly listening, responding, interacting, learning, and growing.",[]]],"rt":[["user-generated content",[]],["public health communication",[]],["risk communication",[]],["community engagement",[]],["community building",[]]],"sb":[["online and offline engagement",[]]]},{"rt":[["Vagueness, uncertainty, change",[]]]},{"de":[["AI futures frames are organizing principles that determine how complex and uncertain information about AI futures is processed.",[]],["frames play an important role in the sensemaking processes through which social worlds are being constructed and interpreted by individuals.",[]],["AI futures frames are not only a matter of cognition but also of communication, marked by strategic use of language (Entman 1993).",["Entman 1993"]],["mask the ambiguity and openness integral to possible AI futures and are used to orient and mobilize public action",[]],["help the public to make sense of new AI realities",[]]],"rt":[["problem definition",[]],["cause diagnosis",[]],["evaluation",[]],["solutions",[]],["discursive hegemony",[]]],"sb":[["distant futures",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["AI futures frames",[]]]},{"sb":[["distant futures",[]]]},{"rt":[["AI futures frames",[]]]},{},{"de":[["play an influential role in conveying political and popular interpretations of ambiguous phenomena and complex political issues such as AI.",[]],["they equally affect the envisioning of futures in which new technologies are expected to be crucial",["Cobb 2005","Metze 2018","Ouchchy et al. 2020","Veenman et al. 2019","Williams 2006"]],["the framing of a problem has a powerful effect on how people […] perceive the world and act in it",["Berendt 2019"]]]},{"rt":[["discursive hegemony",["Ossewaarde 2017"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["AI futures frames",[]]],"ex":[["the call for increasing investments to successfully compete in the race for AI leadership",[]],["the demand for intensified national and international cooperation",[]],["the request to foster the public debate on AI futures",[]],["the need for stricter legal regulations and ethical guidelines",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["what people think about",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["\"coalition forces\" or \"invading forces,\" \"freedom fighters\" or \"terrorists\"",["7"]],["\"immigrant\" or \"economic migrant.\"",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["likewise affects which perspective is taken on the event",[]]]},{"de":[["In the social sciences, the two primarily used methods to analyze the spin of articles are frame analysis, and more generally content analysis.",[]]],"rt":[["frame analysis",[]]],"sb":[["deductive content analysis",[]],["inductive content analysis",[]],["qualitative analysis",[]],["quantitative analysis",[]],["frame analysis",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["filter bubble",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["echo chamber",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In the social sciences, the two primarily used methods to analyze the spin of articles are frame analysis, and more generally content analysis.",[]]],"rt":[["content analysis",[]]],"sp":[["content analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["Journalists use framing to present a topic from their perspective to \"promote a particular interpretation\"",["55"]],["has the ability to draw attention to either the negative or the positive aspects of an issue",["41"]],["how topics are communicated",[]]],"sy":[["frames",[]]],"rt":[["frames",["54"]]]},{"sy":[["selection bias",[]],["agenda bias",[]]]},{"sy":[["hostile media perception",["70"]],["preexisting attitude toward the described event",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Factors influencing this bias can include ownership or source of income of the media outlet, or a specific political or ideological stance of the outlet and its audience",["4"]],["In this article, we thus focus on intentional media bias, which journalists and other involved parties implement purposely to achieve a specific goal",["13"]],["While many instances of media bias fit into one of the other more precisely defined forms of media defined in the news production and consumption process (see Sect. 2.2), some instances of bias do not.",[]],["Media bias can potentially negatively impact the public, since biased news coverage may influence elections or public opinion on societal issues.",[]],["Since media bias has been, and continues to be, structurally inherent in news coverage [27,56,58]",["27","56","58"]],["at times, the news coverage of media outlets is far from objective, a phenomenon called media bias.",[]]],"rt":[["unintentional bias",[]],["coverage",[]],["gatekeeping",[]],["statement",[]],["content analysis",[]],["frame analysis",[]],["meta-analysis",[]]],"sb":[["event selection",[]],["source selection",[]],["commission and omission of information",[]],["labeling and word choice",[]],["story placement",[]],["size allocation",[]],["picture selection",[]],["picture explanation",[]],["spin",[]],["agenda setting",[]],["priming",[]],["framing",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["media bias",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the context in which news is perceived",[]]]},{"de":[["sentiment analysis to find biased words in captions",[]],["Explicitly stated opinion can reliably be extracted with the help of state-of-the-art NLP methods, such as sentiment analysis.",[]]],"ex":[["identify whether customers used \"positive,\" such as \"good\" and \"durable,\" or \"negative\" words, such as \"poor quality,\" to review a product",["143"]]]},{},{"de":[["Bias by spin is not, however, just the sum of all other forms but includes other factors, such as the order of information presented in a news article, the article's tone, and emphasis on certain facts.",["85"]],["Journalists create the spin of an article on all textual levels, e.g., by supporting a quote with an explanation (phrase level), highlighting certain parts of the event (paragraph level), or even by concluding the article with a statement that frames all previously presented information differently (article level).",[]],["The order in which facts are presented to the reader influences what is perceived (e.g., some readers might only read the headline and lead paragraph) and how readers rate the importance of reported information [85].",["85"]]],"rt":[["frame analysis",[]],["content analysis",[]],["media bias",[]]],"sp":[["media bias",[]]],"ex":[["supporting a quote with an explanation (phrase level)",[]],["highlighting certain parts of the event (paragraph level)",[]],["concluding the article with a statement that frames all previously presented information differently (article level)",[]]]},{"de":[["An article's spin is essentially a combination of all previously mentioned forms of bias and other minor forms",[]]]},{"sy":[["presentation bias",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["According to the interviewees, women's tendency to focus on community explains the genderbased differences in our analyzed reviews.",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["using stereotypical male examples such as dragons and castles to vividly explain learning content",[]]]},{"ex":[["older adults",["Noeltner et al. 2019"]],["Black people",["Cain and Trauth 2013"]],["women",["Cheryan et al. 2013;Clayton et al. 2009;Smith et al. 2005;Yücel and Rızvanoğlu 2019"]]]},{"de":[["Easterbrook and Hadden (2021) characterize these psychological barriers as a sense of threat to social identity and a feeling of incongruence between student identity and educational success.",["Easterbrook and Hadden (2021)","Easterbrook and Hadden 2021"]],["Psychological barriers in the context of online learning include cues in learning environments, such as verbal, visual, or behavioral artifacts, that may unconsciously threaten learners' social identities by signaling the importance of certain social identities, such as majorities, for a given subject",["Kizilcec and Saltarelli 2019b"]]]},{"sy":[["STT",[]]],"ex":[["if a girl or woman performs a difficult computer science task while identifying with her gender identity, she feels threatened to confirm a negative stereotype, which affects her actual performance.",[]]]},{"de":[["They tend to be inaccurate and do not always apply to this group",["Devine 1989"]],["They tend to be inaccurate and do not always apply to this group (Devine 1989).",["Devine 1989"]]],"rt":[["IT-based stereotypes attribute particular IT-related characteristics to a specific user group (Noeltner et al. 2019).",["Noeltner et al. 2019"]]]},{},{"ex":[["the emergence of the earthmoving movement",["Vasconcelos-Silva and Castiel 2020"]],["the global warming farce",["Vasconcelos-Silva and Castiel 2020"]],["anti-vaccination discourses",["Vasconcelos-Silva and Castiel 2020"]]]},{"de":[["FNs multiply rapidly and act as narratives that omit or add information to facts",["Naeem et al. 2020"]],["The potential effect of FN stems from conspiracy theories, such as a biological weapon produced in China, water with lemon or coconut oil that could kill the virus, or drugs, which even if approved for other indications, could have potential effectiveness in prevention or treatment of COVID-19.",[]],["dominating traditional and social platforms, becoming increasingly part of many people's daily lives.",[]],["FNs multiply rapidly and act as narratives that omit or add information to facts (Naeem et al. 2020).",["Naeem et al. 2020"]]],"sy":[["fabricated and fraudulent news",[]],["False news",[]]]},{"de":[["infodemic knowledge can cause psychological disorders and panic, fear, depression, and fatigue.",[]]],"ex":[["Other worrisome examples of infodemic knowledge include cases of hydroxychloroquine overdose in Nigeria, drug shortages, changing treatment of patients with rheumatic and autoimmune diseases, and panic over supplies and fuel (CNN 2020;Tentolouris et al. 2021).",["CNN 2020","Tentolouris et al. 2021"]]]},{"rt":[["opinion",[]],["attitude",[]],["subjective norm",[]],["emotion",[]]],"sb":[["Relative Agreement Model",[]],["Theory of Planned Behavior",[]],["Theory of Emotional Coherence",[]],["Consumat Model",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["threshold model",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["innovation diffusion",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["Deffuant model",[]]],"sp":[["opinion dynamics models",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["attitudes",[]],["subjective norms",[]],["perceived behavioral control",[]]]},{"de":[["Most importantly, philanthropy lacks the \"voice\" element that is characteristic for advocacy.",[]]],"rt":[["philanthropy",[]]]},{"de":[["CPA assumes that corporations engage in such advocacy advertising merely for their own sake, that is, in order not to create public, but private value for the firm.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["CPA focuses on companies becoming politically engaged only for the purpose of advancing their own interests.",[]],["Corporate political action, from that point of view, is seen as the advancement of private interests through engagement and involvement in collective decision-making processes",[]]],"rt":[["Corporate political action",[]]],"sb":[["constituency building",[]],["campaign contributions through a political action committee",[]],["advocacy advertising",[]],["lobbying",[]],["coalition building",[]]]},{"de":[["advocacy manifests itself in the promotion and support of values and ideals that are disconnected from the core business of the company.",[]],["they are promoted based on their own inherent and intrinsic merit, that is, the company understands those values and ideals as worth promoting independently of what its business is and it would do so even if it was engaged in an entirely different sector.",[]],["while it is inherently political in nature, it always at least partially takes place outside formal political channels. That is, it is always also addressed to and made visible for a larger public, rather than exclusively to formal political institutions and agents.",[]],["In advocacy the connection to the corporate purpose and activity that characterizes the different types of lobbying described above dissolves further.",[]],["corporate political advocacy is located both beyond the explanatory scope of CPA and beyond the concepts of legitimacy underlying political CSR.",[]],["exposes corporations publicly and on issues which are of no direct relevance to their economic interests",[]],["aims at the exposure of the corporation beyond such processes and at the partial and at times confrontational promotion of certain ideals and causes over others",[]],["characterized precisely by its dissolving link to it",[]],["First, with reference to the etymological root of advocare as \"summoning assistance\", we could conclude that a company engaging in political advocacy is promoting such issues, causes, or groups of people not primarily or exclusively in its own self-interest, but always also in support for their own sake.",[]],["Based on this insight, second, we believe that in its ultimate consequence advocacy manifests itself in the promotion and support of values and ideals that are disconnected from the core business of the company.",[]],["We believe that a third aspect is characteristic for this new type of political engagement: while it is inherently political in nature, it always at least partially takes place outside formal political channels.",[]],["corporate political advocacy, as analyzed here, crucially denotes corporate political involvement beyond the company's immediate economic interests.",[]],["while it is inherently political in nature, it always at least partially takes place outside formal political channels.",[]]],"rt":[["classical lobbying",[]],["ethical lobbying",[]],["lobbying",[]],["CPA",[]],["political advocacy",[]],["corporate political involvement",[]],["Corporate Political Activity (CPA)",[]],["political CSR",[]],["corporate philanthropy",[]]],"ex":[["Ben & Jerry's activism for gay rights",[]],["Google's statement against Proposition 8 in California in 2008",[]]]},{},{"de":[["it shares the close connection to the company's business strategies with the definition of classical lobbying.",[]],["In practice, the main drivers of ethical lobbying, thus understood, are professional associations of lobbyists, whose historical purpose it is to establish and advance lobbying as a profession and thus to lay down certain ideals and standards in codes of ethics that are specific for the profession.",[]],["It does not question the legitimacy of lobbying as a means to advance the company's self-interest as such, but it subjects it to standards with regards to how such self-interested goals can be pursued.",[]]],"rt":[["classical lobbying",[]]],"sp":[["lobbying",[]]]},{"de":[["denotes what the company stands for.",[]]]},{"de":[["It is based on the premise that businesses, with their connections and their proficiency in using their influence, are often better equipped and better positioned to advance social change then individuals or other institutions, including non-profits (Peterson & Pfitzer, 2009: p. 46).",["Peterson & Pfitzer, 2009: p. 46"]],["This dissolving link between lobbying efforts and corporate self-interest characterizes lobbying for good",[]]],"sy":[["weak form of advocacy",[]]],"rt":[["ethical lobbying",[]]]},{},{"de":[["focuses on the role and responsibility of corporations within such 'new forms of governance' such as public-policy networks or multi-stakeholder initiatives",[]],["the focus of political CSR tends to be narrower than that on corporate political advocacy, which takes place both within (lobbying for the good) and outside (advocacy in a weak sense) of the constitutional sphere",[]],["Thus, in contrast to CPA, this debate highlights the political role of corporations predominantly in the 'extraconstitutional' sphere (Baur, 2011).",["Baur, 2011"]],["It focuses on the role and responsibility of corporations within such 'new forms of governance' such as public-policy networks or multi-stakeholder initiatives.",[]]],"rt":[["CSR",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["eWOM content provided in these platforms is important for customers as it provides indirect experiences of a product",["Do-Hyung et al. 2007"]],["These communications are strategic and cost-effective marketing tools for business (Hajli 2015a).",["Hajli 2015a"]],["the information produced through online platforms has no geographical restrictions and can be accessible worldwide (Do-Hyung et al. 2007).",["Do-Hyung et al. 2007"]],["In eWOM, there is no need to exchange information at the time when correspondents are present (Karakaya and Barnes 2010).",["Karakaya and Barnes 2010"]],["textual information provided through eWOM communication is accessible for an open-ended period of time; this capability is not available in traditional form (Park and Lee 2009).",["Park and Lee 2009"]]],"sy":[["eWOM",[]]]},{"sp":[["Social support",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Social support",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Social support is multi-dimensional, with different scholars developing various constructs in their studies.",[]]],"sb":[["emotional support",[]],["informational support",[]],["appraisal",["House 1981"]],["instrumental",["House 1981"]]]},{},{"de":[["Information produced by individuals through social media, such as online consumer reviews, is quality information presented by customers who have experienced the product; it includes their evaluations and experiences, introducing a new form of eWOM communication (Do-Hyung et al. 2007), social word of mouth (sWOM).",["Do-Hyung et al. 2007"]]],"sy":[["sWOM",[]]],"rt":[["eWOM",[]]],"sp":[["eWOM",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It thus reinforces the structural relationships and behaviour patterns that facilitate environmental appropriation resulting in a lack of meaningful response to continuing ecological devastation and to the dangers posed by climate change",[]]],"rt":[["business case approach",[]]]},{"de":[["capitalism is a manifestation of and cannot function without being underpinned by patriarchal logics that operate through hierarchical and interrelated dualisms",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This is a practical morality that sees the self not as atomized nor as self-optimizing, but as a self in relationship.",[]]]},{"sp":[["ethics of care",[]]]},{"de":[["Such an ethics views the self as part of a web of relationships and is committed to negotiating and promoting practices that enhance the flourishing of relevant parties.",[]]],"sy":[["care-sensitive ethics",[]]]},{"de":[["Glazebrook (2005) points to the importance of emotional attachments and engagements to develop caring relationships with other humans and within the natural world.",[]]]},{"de":[["calls attention to relationships, responsibility and experience and their cultural, historical and psychological contexts",[]],["values interdependencies and caring relations that connect persons to one another, rather than privilege independence and individualization.",[]],["emphasizes ethics as a process of making judgements based in real, lived experiences and in the constellation of relationships and institutions in which caring is positioned.",[]],["It is an ethics that values interdependencies and caring relations that connect persons to one another, rather than privilege independence and individualization. It emphasizes ethics as a process of making judgements based in real, lived experiences and in the constellation of relationships and institutions in which caring is positioned.",[]],["It is an ethics that values interdependencies and caring relations that connect persons to one another, rather than privilege independence and individualization.",[]],["It emphasizes ethics as a process of making judgements based in real, lived experiences and in the constellation of relationships and institutions in which caring is positioned.",[]]],"sy":[["care ethics",[]]],"sb":[["four phases of care",[]],["Ecofeminist Care-Sensitive Ethics",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["views the planet as a means to achieve economic ends.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["two-fold typology that considers (i) whether the abuse is directed at a specific target or towards a generalized group, and (ii) the degree to which it is explicit or implicit.",[]],["only some phenomena along the spectrum of abusive content are actually addressed, while others are neglected for being either too subtle or quite rare",[]]],"sy":[["hate speech",[]],["derogatory",[]],["profane",[]]],"sb":[["Hate Speech",[]],["microaggressions",[]],["insults",[]]]},{"ex":[["You should be fired, you're a moronic wimp who is too lazy to do research. It makes me sick that people like you exist in this world",[]]]},{"ex":[["tutto tempo danaro e sacrificio umano sprecato senza eliminazione fisica dei talebani e dei radicali musulmani e tutto inutile (it's all a waste of time, money and human lives without the extermination of Taliban and radical Muslims it's all useless)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["lying at the intersection of multiple tensions as expression of conflicts between different groups within and across societies",[]],["a complex and multi-faceted notion that has proven difficult to recognize, both by humans and machines.",[]],["often conveyed by means of rhetoric devices such as aggressive language, threats, slurs, obscenity, offenses and even sarcasm; yet, it can be expressed just as well without any of these devices.",[]],["That HS is an extremely complex notion is well known to those familiar with the topic, and the variety of definitions proposed in the papers we found proves it.",[]],["hateful language and violent propaganda by organized groups",[]]],"sy":[["HS",[]]],"rt":[["abusive",[]],["toxic",[]],["dangerous",[]],["offensive",[]],["aggressive language",[]],["racism",[]],["misogyny",[]],["sexism",[]],["homophobia",[]],["islamophobia",[]],["antisemitism",[]],["anti-gypsism",[]],["threats",[]],["slurs",[]],["obscenity",[]],["offenses",[]],["sarcasm",[]],["aggressive",[]]],"sb":[["racism",[]],["misogyny",[]],["sexism",[]],["homophobia",[]],["islamophobia",[]],["antisemitism",[]],["anti-gypsism",[]]],"sp":[["abusive language",[]]],"ex":[["These savages invade Our Country, disrupt cities, turn many into sh***es like where they came from and WE THE PEOPLE are paying for this SH*T. [...]",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Hate Speech",[]]],"ex":[["oltre 2300 miliardi diuro. Il P.D. va a caccia , ora, dei soli voti di ricchioni, omosessuali, trans, naziskin , ... URL (over 2300 billionuros. PD is now hunting only votes from fags, homosexuals, trans, skinheads, ... URL )",[]]]},{"sb":[["stereotyping",[]],["objectification",[]],["dominance",[]],["derailing",[]],["harassment",[]],["threat",[]],["discredit",[]]],"sp":[["Hate Speech",[]]],"ex":[["I've yet to come across a nice girl. They all end up being bit**es in the end",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["@USER Figures! What is wrong with these idiots? Thank God for @USER",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["racial microaggressions",["Sue et al. 2007"]]],"sp":[["Hate Speech",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Collective efficacy is also low: A fifth (22 %) of our respondents believed that society could reduce global warming, but won't because people are unwilling to change their behavior.",[]]],"sp":[["efficacy perceptions",[]]]},{"sb":[["response efficacy",[]],["self-efficacy",[]],["collective efficacy",[]]]},{"de":[["We have renamed the construct \"injunctive beliefs,\" given the strong focus on what should occur.",[]]],"rt":[["personal normative beliefs",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["risk perceptions",[]]]},{"sp":[["efficacy perceptions",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["efficacy perceptions",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["visual climate change frames",[]]]},{"sy":[["'literal' meaning",[]]]},{"sp":[["visual climate change frames",[]]],"ex":[["widespread use of awe-inspiring, vast, people-less polar ice imagery as a visual synecdoche",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The amount of coverage of an issue is necessarily limited by the format of the media; for example, the number of pages in a newspaper, or minutes available for a TV broadcast (Schäfer et al. 2014).",["Schäfer et al. 2014"]],["An increase in issue attention makes a topic more salient in peoples' minds.",[]]]},{"de":[["Studies have investigated how the issue-attention cycle plays out for the climate change issue, showing the importance of narratives for maintaining issue cycle trajectories (McComas and Shanahan 1999), examining different media sources (cross-culturally, Brossard et al. 2004; across social media, Lörcher and Neverla 2015), empirically demonstrating how public awareness of climate change is increased when climate change received a high level of issue attention in the mass media (Sampei and Aoyagi-Usui 2009) and illuminating how the cycle plays out in practice with insights from journalists (Farrow 2000).",[]]]},{"de":[["Again, partly as a function of the limited space for communication within a media item-but also as a consequence of ideology, the social and professional routines of journalists, journalistic norms and the influence of pressure groups and elitessome aspects of reality are emphasised, whilst others are de-emphasised (Entman 1993).",["Entman 1993"]],["Framing is fundamentally about understanding how the communications process necessitates some aspects of an issue being emphasised, and made more salient (Entman 1993), at the expense of others.",["Entman 1993"]]]},{},{"de":[["a frame necessarily will support particular engagements with the issue of climate change, whilst marginalising others",[]]],"sb":[["distancing visual frame",[]],["contested visual frame",[]]]},{},{"de":[["As these synecdoches become embedded in the visual discourse, they can become clichéd or stereotyped.",[]],["As Linder (2006) described in his study of climate change advertising, visual synecdoches may also become subject to parody, inverting and challenging the original reading of the visual.",["Linder (2006)"]]],"ex":[["Notable visual synecdoches arising within this dataset are ice imagery and polar bears, smokestacks and wind turbines",[]]]},{"sp":[["Critical consuming",[]]]},{"sp":[["new media literacy (NML)",[]]]},{"sp":[["Critical prosuming",[]]]},{"sb":[["participation",[]],["creation",[]],["creation indicator",[]]],"sp":[["new media literacy (NML)",[]]]},{"de":[["students with a higher level of abilities to participate interactively, critically in media environments, and abilities to create media contents, especially with a critical understanding of embedded socio-cultural values and ideology issues, are predicted to have higher learning outcomes in online classes.",[]],["with a critical understanding of embedded socio-cultural values and ideology issues",[]]],"sy":[["critical prosuming literacy",[]]],"rt":[["functional prosumption",[]]],"sp":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"sp":[["Functional prosuming",[]]]},{"sp":[["Critical consuming",[]]]},{"rt":[["functional consumption",[]],["critical consumption",[]],["functional prosumption",[]],["critical prosumption",[]]],"sb":[["functional prosumption",[]],["functional consumption",[]],["critical consumption",[]],["critical prosumption",[]]]},{"de":[["In this model, NML consisted of four components namely functional consuming, functional prosuming, critical consuming, and critical prosuming.",[]]],"rt":[["media literacy",[]]],"sb":[["functional consuming",[]],["functional prosuming",[]],["critical consuming",[]],["critical prosuming",[]]],"sp":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["on top of consuming skills",[]]],"sp":[["new media literacy (NML)",[]]]},{"sp":[["Functional consuming",[]]]},{"de":[["Figure 5 represents the blueprint of the mechanism that underlies the truthful nature of semantic information.",[]]],"sy":[["CTT",[]]]},{"sp":[["semantic paradoxes",[]]],"ex":[["\"Cretans always lie\"",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["semantic paradoxes",[]]],"ex":[["\"this sentence is false\"",[]],["\"this sentence is true\"",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["\"how are you?\"",[]],["the inarticulate sounds made by a listener during a telephone conversation",[]]]},{"de":[["semantic information is, strictly speaking, inherently truth-constituted and not a contingent truth-bearer, exactly like knowledge but unlike propositions or beliefs, for example, which are what they are independently of their truth values and then, because of their truth-aptness, may be further qualified alethically.",[]],["qualifying it as true is worse than informationally redundant, it is pointlessly noisy",[]],["Semantic information is primarily understood in terms of content about a referent.",[]],["According to it, semantic information is, strictly speaking, inherently truth-constituted and not a contingent truth-bearer, exactly like knowledge but unlike propositions or beliefs, for example, which are what they are independently of their truth values and then, because of their truth-aptness, may be further qualified alethically.",[]],["qualifying it as true is worse than informationally redundant, it is pointlessly noisy.",[]]],"rt":[["knowledge",[]],["content about a referent",[]],["propositions",[]],["beliefs",[]]],"ex":[["If \"the beer is in the fridge\" qualifies as information, to add that it is true fails to provide any further information and only messes up the communication, wasting resources.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the condition in [DEF] that the data need to be veridicalcorresponds to the one characterising the definition of knowledge.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["one of the most widely discussed epistemically problematic cognitions, challenging reliable belief formation and the correction of inaccurate views.",[]],["Confirmation bias is typically viewed as an epistemically pernicious tendency.",[]],["allows us to accumulate argumentative ammunition, which strengthens our argumentative skill",[]],["a general tendency",[]],["when we automatically reinforce any of our views no matter whether we favor them",[]],["Jill does have a confirmation bias with respect to her beliefs and interprets the available evidence so that it supports her beliefs.",[]],["domain-general tendency to confirm our own beliefs",[]],["confirmation bias provides her with certainty and simpler information processing that simultaneously facilitates accurate predictions (via contributing to SFPs).",[]],["selective information processing characteristic of confirmation bias",[]],["the bias should be common and pronounced when (1) it comes to social beliefs, that is, beliefs (a) about oneself, (b) about other people, and (c) about social structures that the subject can determine, and when (2) social conditions are conducive to reality matching.",[]],["piling up reasons that support our preconceived views is not the best way to correct them. […] [It] stop[s] people from fixing mistaken beliefs",["110"]],["by disregarding objections or counterevidence to one's beliefs, one can remain convinced about them, which helps align social reality (not only, e.g., people's intentions) with them",[]],["For a general tendency to think that one's views rest on good reasons even when one doesn't know them is a tendency to favor and confirm these views while resisting balanced scrutiny of their basis.",[]],["a subject's largely automatic and unconscious tendency to (i) seek support for her pre-existing, favored or not favored beliefs and (ii) ignore or distort information compromising them",["Klayman 1995: 406","Nickerson 1998: 175","Myers and DeWall 2015: 357","Palminteri et al. 2017: 14"]],["confirmation bias comes in two different flavors: \"motivated\" and \"unmotivated\" confirmation bias. And the operation of the former can be understood as motivated reasoning itself, because it too involves partial information processing to buttress a view that one wants to be true",[]],["Unmotivated confirmation bias, however, operates when people process data in one-sided, partial ways that support their predetermined views no matter whether they favor them.",[]],["domain-general tendency to confirm any of our beliefs",[]]],"sy":[["myside bias",[]]],"rt":[["motivated reasoning",[]],["wishful thinking",[]],["epistemic distortion",[]],["reality-matching (RM) account",[]],["motivated confirmation bias",[]]],"sb":[["motivated confirmation bias",[]],["Unmotivated confirmation bias",[]],["\"unmotivated\" confirmation bias",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["mindshaping",[]]]},{"de":[["which is maladaptive",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["folk-psychology",[]]]},{"sp":[["confirmation bias",[]],["motivated reasoning",[]]]},{"sy":[["wishful thinking",["ibid: 45"]]],"rt":[["motivated confirmation bias",[]]],"sb":[["motivated confirmation bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["social beliefs",[]]]},{"de":[["it frequently occurs when the beliefs at issue are about people and social structures (i.e., relationships between individuals, groups, and socio-political institutions)",[]]],"rt":[["reality-matching account",[]]]},{"de":[["By helping subjects make social reality match their beliefs about it no matter whether they favor these beliefs or the latter are sufficiently evidentially supported, confirmation bias is adaptive: when the bias targets positive social beliefs and trait ascriptions, it serves both the subject and the group by producing effects that (1) assist them in their development (to become, e.g., more communicative, cooperative, or knowledgeable) and (2) make social cognition more tractable (by increasing social conformity and predictability).",[]]],"sy":[["RM account",[]]],"rt":[["confirmation bias",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["positive than negative self-fulfilling effects",[]]]},{"sb":[["beliefs (a) about oneself",[]]]},{"sp":[["confirmation bias",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Recent research not least in Computer Science has therefore elaborated how bias is also entangled with social and historical prejudice and discrimination.",[]],["they approach bias not as a statistical error in the predictive performance of an algorithm, but as socio-technical, procedural and constitutive to algorithms",["Jaton, 2020","Ziewitz, 2016","Draude et al., 2019","Seaver, 2017"]],["understanding biases can even inform policy-making as it acts as a synecdoche for structural inequalities that persist in society.",["Miceli et al., 2022a"]],["These contributions have in common that they approach bias not as a statistical error in the predictive performance of an algorithm, but as socio-technical, procedural and constitutive to algorithms",["Jaton, 2020","Ziewitz, 2016","Draude et al., 2019","Seaver, 2017"]]],"sb":[["pre-existing bias",[]],["technical bias",[]],["emerging bias",[]]]},{"sy":[["discrimination discovery",[]],["fairness testing",[]]]},{"sb":[["data processing approaches (pre-processing)",[]],["specialized fair-AI algorithms (in-processing)",[]],["model sanitization (postprocessing)",[]]]},{"de":[["Biases tend to be propagated when fine-tuning the source models to the downstream tasks",["Salman et al., 2022"]],["Biases tend to be propagated when fine-tuning the source models to the downstream tasks (Salman et al., 2022).",["Salman et al., 2022"]]]},{"sb":[["total fairness",["Zhang & Bareinboim, 2018"]],["path-specific fairness",["Zhang et al., 2017"]],["counterfactual fairness",["Kusner et al., 2017"]]]},{"sb":[["negative legacy unfairness",["Kamishima et al., 2012"]],["selective label problem",["Lakkaraju et al., 2017"]]]},{"de":[["This is described as a limited approach as it fails to acknowledge potential harms caused by a myriad of other system design decisions, such as what is being optimized for or what attributes are being used to represent aspects of the real world.",[]]]},{"ex":[["the gender pay gap, which can be partially attributed to the wage penalty for motherhood (Budig & England, 2001), serves as an example. In this case, two attributes, namely \"being a woman\" and \"taking care of children\" are correlated and both can have detrimental effects on salary.",["2001"]]]},{"de":[["The area originally addressed discrimination and unfairness in ML, and it has been rapidly expanding to all sub-fields of AI and to any possible harm to individuals and collectivities.",[]]],"sy":[["Fairness in AI",[]]]},{"de":[["Fairness is essentially a contested concept as it is context-dependent and highly conflicts with different ethical, political, and cultural understandings.",[]],["Fairness, in essence, can be understood in different manners depending on its nature, formal or substantive; the context it applies to, legal or technical, or the actor it refers to, public or private.",[]]]},{"sy":[["fair-AI",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["annotator bias",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["selective label problem",["Lakkaraju et al., 2017"]]],"sp":[["data missingness",["Goel et al., 2021"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["negative legacy unfairness",["Kamishima et al., 2012"]]],"sp":[["data missingness",["Goel et al., 2021"]]]},{},{"de":[["In the historical disciplines and in the humanities more generally, the practice is considered as required for assessing the validity and reliability of findings based on the source, usually a document.",[]],["The adoption of source critical practices, applied to datasets, in fair-AI would allow us to give a better picture of the data being used and the individual instances it contains.",[]]]},{"de":[["Such practices include: human agency and oversight, accountability, explainability, robustness and safety, privacy, diversity, reproducibility, and societal and environmental well-being.",[]]]},{"de":[["Accountability has been explained as a positive quality in organisations, focusing on the assessment of the actual and active behaviour of public agents",[]]],"rt":[["digital responsibility",[]]]},{"de":[["In this respect, DA enshrines the principles of access and equity as surely as Article 1 of the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights (1948), ensuring that as we go forward as a global society, driven by digital and other technologies yet to be invented, the individual will always retain her and his ability to control and adapt to accelerating changes in society through the exercise of digital competence, digital confidence, and digital accountability.",[]],["DA as we have defined it is a way of empowering people to deal with new technologies so that they feel they have roles in how they adopt, adapt to and use them wisely and responsibly.",[]]],"rt":[["digital skills",[]],["digital literacy",[]],["digital competence",[]],["digital confidence",[]],["digital responsibility",[]],["digital autonomy",[]],["digital accountability",[]]],"sb":[["digital competence",[]],["digital confidence",[]],["digital accountability",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Variables included: argument quality, quality, strength.",[]]],"ex":[["An example of central route factors can be argument quality and valence, whereas source credibility and information rating are considered as peripheral route factors.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Variables included: attitude towards website, attitude towards platform.",[]]]},{"rt":[["ELM",[]]],"sp":[["Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)",[]]],"ex":[["An example of central route factors can be argument quality and valence, whereas source credibility and information rating are considered as peripheral route factors.",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["central route",[]],["peripheral route",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Individuals' emotional trust can be developed based on consumers' cognitive perceptions towards online retailers",["Sun 2010"]],["Variables included: emotional trust, affective trust.",[]]],"rt":[["emotional trust",[]],["affective trust",[]]]},{"sy":[["information credibility",[]],["credibility of the message",[]]]},{"de":[["Variables included: information usefulness, helpfulness, diagnosticity.",[]]],"rt":[["information usefulness",[]],["helpfulness",[]],["diagnosticity",[]]]},{"de":[["Variables included: existing eWOM, eWOM among tourists.",[]]],"rt":[["existing eWOM",[]],["eWOM among tourists",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Researchers have found that people who engage in eWOM communications have the following motivations: altruism (Tong et al. 2013;Zhang and Lee 2012), self-enhancement (Wang et al. 2014;Yap et al. 2013), venting feelings (Yen and Tang 2015), social benefits (Munzel et al. 2014), and economic incentives (Ahrens et al. 2013).",["Tong et al. 2013","Zhang and Lee 2012","Wang et al. 2014","Yap et al. 2013","Yen and Tang 2015","Munzel et al. 2014","Ahrens et al. 2013"]]]},{"de":[["Individuals with low involvement have low information need, while individuals with high involvement look for information which provides added value to their purchase decision",["Doh and Hwang 2009"]],["Variables included: involvement, involvement level.",[]]],"rt":[["involvement",[]],["involvement level",[]]]},{"rt":[["ELM",[]]],"sp":[["Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)",[]]],"ex":[["An example of central route factors can be argument quality and valence, whereas source credibility and information rating are considered as peripheral route factors.",[]]]},{"de":[["Source credibility is considered to be a basic factor, which helps individuals to judge eWOM communications",["Akyuz 2013"]],["The evaluation of a source is often made in terms of expertise, trustworthiness, credentials and attractiveness.",[]],["Source credibility is considered to be a basic factor, which helps individuals to judge eWOM communications (Akyuz 2013).",["Akyuz 2013"]]],"sy":[["information credibility",[]],["credibility of the message",[]]],"rt":[["expertise",[]],["trustworthiness",[]],["credentials",[]],["attractiveness",[]]]},{"de":[["Source expertise is considered as a main mechanism in reducing uncertainty of using eWOM communications in the decision making process",["Casalo et al. 2008"]]]},{"de":[["Source trustworthiness is considered an important predictor of the persuasiveness of eWOM communications (Cheung et al. 2009;Hu et al. 2008).",["Cheung et al. 2009","Hu et al. 2008"]]]},{},{"de":[["It is believed that information from strong ties tends to be perceived as more credible, in comparison with information from weak ties",["Brown et al. 2007"]]]},{"de":[["Variables included: trustworthiness, message trust, information-based trust.",[]]],"rt":[["trustworthiness",[]],["message trust",[]],["information-based trust",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Variables included: valence, tone.",[]]],"rt":[["valence",[]],["tone",[]]],"ex":[["positive evaluations are likely to include pleasant, vivid and romanticised descriptions of products or services, while negative eWOM communications usually include complaints and unpleasant descriptions (Sparks and Browning 2011).",["Sparks and Browning 2011"]]]},{"de":[["FN is increasingly affecting societal values, changing opinions on critical issues and topics as well as redefining facts, truths, and beliefs.",[]],["Majority of FN is targeted to a specific sample of the population with the aim of promoting a certain ideology by stimulating strong beliefs and polarizing society",["Chen & Sharma, 2015"]],["the spread of FN on SM determines how governments, organizations, and people respond to events in the society.",[]],["FN content, which is divided into individual opinions and scientific consensus on trending issues such as COVID-19, evolution, and climate change, has long existed",[]]],"rt":[["true news (TN)",[]],["social media (SM)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["SM provides an environment in which individuals can exchange personal, group, or popular interests to build relationships with people that have similar and/or diverging beliefs and values.",[]]]},{"de":[["Comparing multiple platforms, users; and FN; evaluating and analyzing data using specific analytic techniques to derive results",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["under-reporting bias",["Hu et al., 2007"]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["systematic processing",["Wang et al., 2021","Chaiken, 1980"]]]},{"sb":[["heuristic processing",[]],["systematic processing",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["heuristic processing",["Wang et al., 2021","Chaiken, 1980"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the investigation of arousal, which relies on quantitative measures of physiological correlates of emotional activation of signalers",[]]],"rt":[["valence",[]]],"sp":[["dimensional approach",[]]]},{"sb":[["arousal",[]],["valence",[]],["arousal (low/calm or high/excited)",[]],["valence (positive or negative)",[]]]},{"rt":[["arousal",[]]],"sp":[["dimensional approach",[]]]},{},{"de":[["For Rawls, by contrast, the need for assurance derives from a game-theoretic problem. Just institutions rely upon people's compliance, but if reasonable people are to comply with institutions that limit their liberty, they need to be assured that others will follow suit, so that in complying one is not making oneself easy prey to unscrupulous people (who may betray the institution for personal advantage).",[]],["assurance (in the sense of 'felt security')",[]]],"rt":[["felt security",[]]]},{"rt":[["hate speech",[]]]},{},{"de":[["A person's dignity is not just a matter of her being treated well or poorly; it is a matter of how she is treated in light of the attitudes that prevail in her community, including her own attitudes, about her worth, standing, or esteem, relative to others, and relative to the community as a whole.",[]],["the contemporary understanding of dignity demands that honour and esteem be portioned out to all in equal measure, insofar as we all occupy an equivalent rank, as members of a shared moral community.",[]],["An infringement of person A's dignity, for us, does not mean failing to treat A in accordance with the demands of a caste system. On the contrary, it means treating A as though she does belong in a caste system, and thus failing to treat her as a fully-entitled person or member of society.",[]]],"rt":[["honour",[]],["esteem",[]],["recognition",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The hate speaker's non-recognition, so Heyman argues, diminishes the targets' social standing and thereby harms them",[]]]},{"de":[["Hate speech thus includes things like identity-prejudicial abuse and harassment, certain uses of slurs and epithets, some extremist political and religious speech (e.g. statements to the effect that all Muslims are terrorists, or that gay people are secondclass human beings), and certain displays of 'hate symbols' (e.g. swastikas or burning crosses).",[]],["We classify such activities as hate speech if, and insofar as, they convey the idea that belonging to a particular social group warrants someone's being held in or treated with contempt.",[]],["acts of hate speech do not always directly harm specifiable individuals, but they all contribute, so one may argue, to the creation or sustenance of a social climate in which harms and disadvantages redound to members of vulnerable social groups.",[]],["hate speech is not just a peripheral causal component, or something that eventuates as a downstream consequence of identity-based social hierarchies, but that it is, rather, one of the contributing causal factors through which such hierarchies are created and sustained.",[]],["expressing intense antipathy towards gay people, indigenous national groups, immigrant communities, religious minority groups, and others",[]],["Waldron conceives of hate speech as a type of group defamation.",["26"]],["how hate speech affects its targets' perceptions of their own social status.",[]],["Waldron argues that hate speech infringes the dignity of its targets via this mechanism: not by degrading their equal status as it is enshrined in law or manifested in egalitarian attitudes and practices, but by undermining the targets' assurance regarding the security of their dignitarian status.",["26"]],["a display [in hate speech] that matters practically to individuals. It matters to them in their reliance on the principles of justice in the ordinary course of their lives, and in the security with which they enjoy that reliance.",[]],["Hate speech gets its potency, in real life cases, from the fact that it does reflect a deeper, sinister current of identity-oppressive intention.",[]],["where the groups in question are usually those distinguished by ethnicity, religion, or sexual orientation.",[]],["hate speech performed by private citizens can diminish people's status in the way we standardly associate with an abusive relationship between the state and the individual.",[]],["hate speech has a harmful effect on its targets' dignity",[]]],"rt":[["identity-based social hierarchies",[]],["harmful social hierarchies",[]],["identity-based hate speech",[]],["identity-based prejudice",[]],["group defamation",[]]],"sb":[["hate speech that is used to threaten",[]]],"sp":[["group defamation",[]]],"ex":[["identity-prejudicial abuse and harassment",[]],["certain uses of slurs and epithets",[]],["some extremist political and religious speech (e.g. statements to the effect that all Muslims are terrorists, or that gay people are secondclass human beings)",[]],["certain displays of 'hate symbols' (e.g. swastikas or burning crosses)",[]],["expressing intense antipathy towards gay people, indigenous national groups, immigrant communities, religious minority groups, and others",[]],["identity-prejudicial abuse and harassment, certain uses of slurs and epithets, some extremist political and religious speech (e.g. statements to the effect that all Muslims are terrorists, or that gay people are secondclass human beings), and certain displays of 'hate symbols' (e.g. swastikas or burning crosses).",[]]]},{"de":[["Hate speech regulation, he says, can be understood as the protection of a certain sort of precious public good: a visible assurance offered by society to all of its members that they will not be subject to abuse, defamation, humiliation, discrimination, and violence on grounds of race, ethnicity, religion, gender, and in some cases sexual orientation.",["32"]]]},{"de":[["harmful social hierarchies",[]]]},{"sp":[["acts that may be (simultaneously) performed in an utterance",[]]]},{"sp":[["acts that may be (simultaneously) performed in an utterance",[]]]},{"sp":[["acts that may be (simultaneously) performed in an utterance",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["a speech act that merely treats someone as though they are morally subordinate",["24"]]]},{},{"rt":[["relational metaphors",[]]]},{"ex":[["incitement to hatred laws",["6"]]]},{},{"de":[["an assumption that is explicit or implicit in the work of quite a number of writers on hate speech is that semantically the word 'hate' carries its ordinary or literal meaning",[]]]},{"de":[["the word 'hate' in 'hate speech' 'implies hostility, rejection, a wish to harm or destroy, a desire to get the target group out of one's way, a silent or vocal and a passive or active declaration of war against it'.",["70"]],["[s]ince the mid-1980s, 'hate' began to be used in a much more restricted sense to characterize an individual's negative beliefs and especially feelings about the members of some other category of people based on their ethnicity, race, gender, sexual orientation, religion, age, or physical or mental disability.",["117"]],["in more specialised contexts, such as in the terms 'hate speech' and 'hate crime', the word 'hate' can mean simply against members of groups or classes of persons identified by protected characteristics.",[]],["the word 'hate' in 'hate speech'",["70"]],["Its core or standard meaning is intense or extreme dislike, aversion, loathing, antipathy, enmity or hostility toward or against something or someone.",[]]],"rt":[["hate crime",[]],["hate speech",[]]],"ex":[["hate mail",[]],["haters gonna hate",[]]]},{"rt":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["an ordinary concept that is (a) used by people who are not legal professionals or writers about the law, and (b) has a panoply of uses not only within bodies of law and legal systems but also within a range of other social, cultural, political and economic domains.",[]],["a heterogeneous collection of expressive phenomena",[]],["coined by a group of legal scholars in the late 1980s in the United States (more on this in 'What is Hate Speech? Part 2: Family Resemblances', henceforth 'Family Resemblances') in response to what they saw as the way different legal systems tackled certain sorts of harmful racist speech",[]],["highlight and problematise speech that they view as racist, xenophobic, homophobic, Islamophobic, misogynistic, disablist, or in some other way targeted at minority groups in ways that supposedly violate ideals of respect, solidarity, tolerance, and so forth",[]],["crude attempts to close down meaningful debate on what they believe are the evils of open-border policies, the failures of multiculturalism as a social experiment, the lamentable decline of traditional moral values, political correctness gone made, and so on",[]],["speech on the part of liberal progressives and civil rights activists -speech which, in the eyes of those political or religious conservatives, picks them out and attacks them on the basis of their conservative beliefs",[]],["the term 'hate speech' is used because it is useful, and it will remain useful so long as it can be used to do more than merely signal disapproval.",[]],["the term 'hate speech' is only the latest in a succession of terms that historically have been used to refer to forms of speech that attack members of groups or classes people identified by certain protected characteristics",["16"]],["Some characterisations take hate speech literally to mean speech that expresses or communicates emotions, feelings, or attitudes of hate or hatred",["44"]],["others imply that the motive of hatred is almost all there is to hate speech",["45"]],["still others identify hate speech as that which promotes, incites, or stirs up hatred.",["46"]],["only some characterisations stress that hate speech, properly called, typically causes or has a substantial likelihood of causing harm of one kind or another.",["57"]],["most characterisations make it clear that hate speech is not simply speech but is also performative or can involve speech acts of various types.",[]],["can be associated with a wide range of different speaker motivations not exhausted by, and potentially not even including, hate or contempt or despisement, everything from fear or envy to the need to fit in or a simple desire for attention from others.",[]],["can also express or articulate a wide range of different speaker feelings or emotions or attitudes other than hate or contempt or despisement, such as anxiety, disgust or even a sense of alienation.",[]],["can be intended to cause or bring about a wide range of different emotional affects or cognitive states in the audience even in the absence of hate or contempt or despisement, including, for instance, shock, excitement, pleasure, or even a sense of camaraderie.",[]],["involves or is intimately connected with emotions, feelings, or attitudes of hate or hatred",[]],["partly composed of the concept historically oppressed or victimised groups or classes of persons",["83"]],["identify or flag up forms of speech that society as whole fears have the potential to be very socially divisive or destructive of social cohesion",[]],["something is hate speech only if it (1) is speech or expressive conduct, (2) concerns any members of groups or classes of persons identified by protected characteristics, and (3) involves or is intimately connected with emotions, feelings, or attitudes of hate or hatred.",[]],["conceptualising hate speech as the expression of hate or hatred",[]],["an adjective-noun compound noun meaning speech that is motivated by hatred.",[]],["To conceptualise hate speech as the act of people who harbour so much hatred or deep-seated animosity toward members of certain groups that they cannot help themselves but express their hatred outwardly through speech",[]],["the task of legislation that restricts hate speech is to try to change people's attitudes or control their thoughts",["106"]],["the broad category the effects of hate speech, which includes intended as well as negligently created effects.",[]],["conveys at least one relational structure that is common to both feelings or emotions or attitudes of hate or hatred and to the speech in question.",[]],["the term 'hate speech' is doubly figurative or metaphorical; which is to say, the term 'hate speech' is systematically ambiguous between its attributional and relational metaphor.",[]]],"sy":[["race hate",[]],["group libel",[]],["hate propaganda",[]],["insulting speech",[]],["hostile verbal abuse",["52"]],["malicious speech",["53"]],["speech that denigrates people",["54"]],["speech that puts people down",["55"]],["antisocial oratory",["56"]]],"rt":[["legal-technocratic meaning",[]],["hate",[]],["hatred",[]],["contempt",[]],["hostility",[]],["enmity",[]],["inferiority",[]],["racist propaganda",[]],["xenophobia",[]],["anti-Semitism",[]],["aggressive nationalism",[]],["homophobia",[]],["Islamophobia",[]],["antisemitism",[]],["group defamation",[]],["group vilification",[]],["insult",[]],["negative stereotyping",[]],["stigmatisation",[]],["humiliation",[]],["degradation",[]],["violation of dignity",[]],["discriminatory harassment",[]],["intolerance",[]],["speech attacks",[]],["verbal aggression",[]],["hate-fuelled speech",[]],["hateladen speech",[]],["hatred-inciting speech",[]],["incitement to hatred",[]],["hate crime",[]],["hate incident",[]],["hate stare",[]],["hate campaign",[]],["hate mail",[]],["hate group",[]],["hate literature",[]],["hate propaganda",[]],["hate movies",[]],["hate site",[]],["hate tweets",[]],["the politics of hate",[]],["haters gonna hate",[]]],"sp":[["speech",[]]],"ex":[["offending or advocating hatred",[]],["insulting or defaming",[]],["disparaging",[]],["degrading",[]],["ambushing, terrorising, wounding, humiliating or degrading",["64"]],["harming or inciting discrimination or violence",[]],["inciting persecution",[]],["insults 'retard', 'cripple', and 'freak'",["97"]],["a range of derogatory ideas and negative stereotypes about women (e.g., 'a woman's place is in the home', 'the man is in charge', 'women are no good at practical things around the house')",["98"]]],"sb":[["legal concept (or class of concepts) hate speech",[]],["ordinary concept hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["something is hate speech only if: (3c) it is motivated by the speaker's hatred for any members of groups or classes of persons identified by protected characteristics.",["104"]],["In the absence of this information, we may be left drawing inferences from what was said, the circumstances in which it was said, and the personal history of the speaker. In other words, we infer that the speaker would simply not have said what he said about members of certain groups unless he possessed, even if unconsciously, emotions, feelings, or attitudes of hate or hatred for them.",[]],["whereas the expressive content of hate-laden speech directly represents or articulates the hatred of the speaker, hate-fuelled speech is a function of the motivation (hatred) of the speaker.",[]]],"rt":[["hate speech",[]]],"ex":[["Holocaust denial is hate-fuelled speech. Such speech is motivated by hatred even if its expressive content does not directly represent or articulate that hatred.",[]]]},{"de":[["hate-laden speech can take implicit forms, such as when people express their hatred of certain groups in subtle, careful, tendentious, disguised or dissembling ways (without ever explicitly saying, 'I hate…').",[]]],"sy":[["hatefilled speech",[]]],"ex":[["an utterance that began, 'I hate…', as in 'I hate those damn Jews!'",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["hate speech",["88"]]],"rt":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["incitement to hatred involves the arousal of hatred in the audience or hearer. But whereas in the case of the first connection the hatred aroused rebounds back toward the speech itself or the speaker, in the case of incitement to hatred the hatred is aroused or stirred up in the audience or hearer toward members of some other group or class of persons.",[]],["we call something 'incitement to hatred' either when the speech is intended to cause emotions, feelings, or attitudes of hate or hatred or when emotions, feelings, or attitudes of hate or hatred are its likely effect even if the speaker does not set out to incite hatred but nevertheless does so through recklessness or negligence.",[]]],"sy":[["incitement to hatred",[]]]},{"de":[["some writers appear to suggest that something is hate speech if and only if it is incitement to hatred.",["67"]],["incitement to hatred involves the arousal of hatred in the audience or hearer. But whereas in the case of the first connection the hatred aroused rebounds back toward the speech itself or the speaker, in the case of incitement to hatred the hatred is aroused or stirred up in the audience or hearer toward members of some other group or class of persons.",[]],["we call something 'incitement to hatred' either when the speech is intended to cause emotions, feelings, or attitudes of hate or hatred or when emotions, feelings, or attitudes of hate or hatred are its likely effect even if the speaker does not set out to incite hatred but nevertheless does so through recklessness or negligence.",[]]],"sy":[["hatred-inciting speech",[]]]},{"rt":[["ordinary concept hate speech",[]]],"sp":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["anchored in a particular body of law and legal doctrine, such as an extreme free speech doctrine embraced by many American legal scholars and various United States Supreme Court Justices",[]],["the legal concept hate speech eschews any suggestion that hate speech is simply speech we hate because of legal sensibilities over what is regulatable speech",[]],["when the state takes on the role of deciding what may or may not be permissibly said, it in some sense produces legal categories, such as the legal category hate speech.",["18"]]],"rt":[["ordinary concept hate speech",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The ordinary concept is constituted by how ordinary people use the term 'hate speech' and this is likely to be influenced by how legal professionals and scholars of law use the term 'hate speech' and vice versa.",[]]],"rt":[["legal concept hate speech",[]]]},{"sy":[["group libel",["16"]],["hate propaganda",["16"]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["incitement to hatred laws in England and Wales",["6"]]]},{"ex":[["laws proscribing group libel",["6"]],["media regulations limiting negative stereotyping or stigmatization",["6"]],["laws disallowing insult or denigration",["6"]],["laws banning incitement to hatred",["6"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["non-autistic",[]]]},{"sp":[["vulnerability",[]]],"ex":[["healthcare workers are more frequently infected, because of their increased exposure.",[]],["several other groups are more at risk for different reasons: older people, persons with underlying conditions or compromised immune systems, socio-economically disadvantaged people, and racial and ethnic minorities.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["people underestimate the role of psychological coping processes (the psychological immune system) that typically kicks into help us cope with negative events.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["immune neglect",[]]]},{"de":[["Self-affirmation occurs when the selfconcept is bolstered by reminders of alternative self-resources that can be used to cope with a threat",["Sherman and Cohen 2006"]],["Self-affirmation is part of the psychological immune system (Steele 1988;Gilbert et al. 1998) that people draw on in order to maintain a positive sense of self when they experience threats.",["Steele 1988","Gilbert et al. 1998"]]],"rt":[["psychological immune system",[]]],"sp":[["psychological immune system",[]]]},{"de":[["every user is co-related in a graph like structure (not in isolation) to any social media platform like a community",[]],["exists in social media data",[]]]},{"de":[["False knowledge it carries (what type of false message you get from the content)",[]],["writing styles(different writing styles for creating fake news)",[]],["propagation patterns (when it is shared in a network, then which trends it follows)",[]],["the credibility of its creators and spreaders (the credibility score of a news creator and spreader)",[]]],"sy":[["counterfeit news",[]],["fake content",[]]]},{"sy":[["prank",[]],["jape",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["It might imply to an occurrence, article, and any social issue of open public concern. It might end up being a socially dangerous phenomenon in any human culture.",[]]]},{"de":[["It might imply to an occurrence, article, and any social issue of open public concern. It might end up being a socially dangerous phenomenon in any human culture.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["liars employed fewer \"exclusive\" words than truth-tellers, implying a lower level of cognitive complexity",[]]],"ex":[["but",[]],["unless",[]],["without",[]],["but, unless, and without",[]]]},{"ex":[["walk",[]],["go",[]],["carry",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This includes social context features such as the number of friends (followers), number of posts, replies [136,302], and others.",["136","302","136,302"]]],"sb":[["social context features",[]],["social context features such as the number of friends (followers), number of posts, replies",[]]]},{"de":[["Cyborg's account usually is registered by a human as camouflage and set automated programs to perform activities on social networks",["180"]]],"sp":[["malicious accounts",[]]]},{},{"de":[["or promote biased agenda",["265"]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["a disruptive new phenomenon in the news ecosystem has risen from OSNs: the so-called echo chambers",["1"]]],"rt":[["Social Credibility",[]],["Frequency Heuristic",[]]],"ex":[["users on Facebook are more likely to form polarised groups, i.e., echo chambers, and choose the information that follows their belief system",["53"]]]},{},{"de":[["purveyors of fake news deliberately engage in practices that they know, or can reasonably foresee, to lead to the likely formation of false beliefs on the part of their audience",["80, p. 107"]],["Fake news typically mimics trustworthy news in order to gain credibility where such falsified content derives its value by mimicking trustworthy content",["80"]],["fakes derive their value entirely from the originals they successfully mimic, specifically from the scarcity of the latter",[]],["fake news, as a growing issue affecting the world, exist and is typically disseminated via traditional media ecology over time, such as newspaper and television.",[]],["fake news is written deliberately to mislead readers",[]],["users are prone to countless disinformation and misinformation on OSNs, including fake news",[]],["fake news refers to any kind of content whose main purpose is to deliberately deceive and mislead the readers (by instilling false beliefs in them).",[]]],"sy":[["false news",["268"]],["(mis)disinformation",[]],["rumour",[]],["hoax",[]],["deceptive news",["12","139","235"]],["falsified information",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",["129","275"]],["disinformation websites",[]],["false news",["268"]],["disinformation",["128"]],["satire news",["218","119"]],["improper stories",["83"]],["rumours",[]],["spam",[]],["clickbait",["42"]],["hoaxes",[]],["gossip",[]],["deceptive news",["12","139","235","12,139,235"]],["rumor",["300"]],["Propaganda",[]],["conspiracy theories",[]],["biased or one-sided stories",[]]]},{"de":[["It involves the development of computational methods and techniques to automatically identify and classify news articles, headlines, or social media posts that contain deceptive, misleading, or fabricated information.",[]]]},{"rt":[["echo chamber effect",[]]]},{"rt":[["rumours",[]],["hoaxes",[]],["urban legends",["79"]]]},{"rt":[["fake news",[]],["gossip",[]],["urban legends",["79"]]]},{},{"de":[["that is unintentionally spread due to honest reporting mistakes or incorrect interpretations",["66","98"]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["This term has been used to overlap with the term fake news and other terms of disinformation recently.",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{"sy":[["rumours",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["gossip",[]],["hoaxes",[]],["urban legends",["79"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["echo chamber effect",[]]]},{"rt":[["fake news",[]],["rumours",[]]]},{"sb":[["satire",[]],["hoaxes",[]],["clickbait",[]],["propaganda",[]],["click baits",[]]]},{"de":[["The trolling effect sparks people's inner negative emotions (e.g., anger and fear), leading to mistrust and irrational behaviour",["235"]]],"sp":[["malicious accounts",[]]],"ex":[["1,000 paid Russian trolls were disseminating fake news on Hillary Clinton",["106"]]]},{},{"de":[["By exchanging uninformed knowledge over networks, vulnerable users are considered major contributors to the dissemination of such knowledge.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["his preferred conception (justice as fairness)",["1971"]]],"ex":[["conception (justice as fairness)",["1971"]]]},{"de":[["contextualism as a common background assumption in the current metaphysics of race",[]],["limited to relativized ontologies such as race folk-contemporary-US",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Many recent metaphysical debates have focused on whether races exist at all and whether they have a biological or social nature.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["race conception",[]]]},{"de":[["a richer conception of race involves many other aspects from social hierarchies to false essentialist assumptions.",[]]],"rt":[["concepts",[]],["race concepts",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["metaphysical alternatives",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["repackaging itself as 'colorblind,' nonracialist, and 'meritocratic'",["2004, xiii"]],["a theoretical object in its own right-a global social system comparable in current significance […] to Marx's class society and feminist thinkers' patriarchy",["2003,178"]],["the historic domination of white Europe over non-white non-Europe",["2003, 180"]]]},{"de":[["understanding why p involves bearing a special epistemic relation-\"grasping\"-to explanatory information regarding p, where the explanatory information is assumed to be causal information",[]]],"ex":[["to understand why the dinosaurs went extinct is to grasp the causes of their extinction, e.g. an asteroid impact plus some large-scale climate alterations.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["empathetic understanding",[]],["rational understanding",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It removes judgment. It removes fact. It tells us how things feel. Such a story permits those on both sides of the political spectrum to stand back and explore the subjective prism through which the party on the other side sees the world",["135"]],["Such a story permits those on both sides of the political spectrum to stand back and explore the subjective prism through which the party on the other side sees the world",["135"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["empathetic understanding is crucial for facilitating identification with others in one's political community, thereby promoting civic friendship.",[]]],"sp":[["political understanding",[]]]},{"de":[["Such understanding requires \"empathy\" as Coplan (2011) understands it-imaginative projection into other citizens' perspectives in a way that gives you a sense of how they feel, a sense that enables you to make their emotions intelligible to you.",["21"]],["Empathetic understanding involves more than merely sharing another's feelings (\"affective matching\").",[]],["empathetic understanding requires you to maintain a certain distance from the other, to grasp their feelings as their feelings (even if you happen to feel the same way).",[]],["aim of metaphor is to help you understand her subjects' feelings of unfairness towards Democratic policies and resentment towards progressive politicians",[]],["empathy tends to be selective-it favors those who resemble us and who are attractive, among other morally arbitrary characteristics.",[]]],"sy":[["experiential understanding",[]],["humane understanding",[]]],"rt":[["affective matching",[]],["experiential understanding",[]],["humane understanding",[]],["civic friendship",[]]],"ex":[["the depth of my empathetic understanding of a friend's sadness at his divorce depends on my degree of affect and how much I can project into his particular sadness regarding the end of this particular relationship.",[]]]},{"de":[["Coplan (2011) describes empathy as a \"complex imaginative process in which an observer simulates another person's physical states [both cognitive and affective] while maintaining clear self-other differentiation\" (4).",[]],["Empathy in this sense has three key features: affective matching, other-oriented perspectivetaking, and self-other differentiation.",[]]],"rt":[["affective matching",[]],["other-oriented perspectivetaking",[]],["self-other differentiation",[]]]},{"rt":[["rational support",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Rational understanding is crucial for ensuring that citizens' views are effectively taken into account in public deliberation",[]]],"sp":[["political understanding",[]]]},{"de":[["rational understanding does not require projecting or feeling ourselves into another's point of view",[]],["rational understanding does not require anything affective",[]],["it is \"internal\" in that it requires grasping a kind of structure that is privileged from the deliberative perspective of the agent.",[]],["It requires being able to \"make sense\" of those attitudes in the sense of grasping how they are rationally interconnected.",["12"]]],"rt":[["cognitive empathy",[]],["epistemic support",[]],["causal-explanation relations",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Misinformation often surrounds and buttresses conspiracy theories, but this is not a necessary condition.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["electoral fraud, COVID-19 vaccine safety, and Satanic pedophiles controlling the government",[]]]},{"de":[["has been found to condition the acceptance of conspiratorial information",["Uscinski et al., 2016"]],["Researchers across disciplines have simultaneously theorized that such a predisposition underwrites beliefs in specific conspiracy theories and misinformation",["Klofstad et al., 2019","Brotherton et al., 2013","Imhoff & Bruder, 2014","Atari et al, 2019","Lewandowsky et al, 2013a"]],["Rather, individuals must possess a belief system hospitable to conspiratorial information. The more likely one is to see conspiracies in all manner of cultural and political events, the stronger the relationship between social media use and beliefs in dubious ideas.",[]],["Those demonstrating the strongest proclivity toward conspiracy thinking exhibit the strongest relationship between frequency of social media use and number of beliefs in dubious ideas.",[]],["conspiracy thinking--the predisposition to interpret salient events as products of conspiracies",[]],["Researchers across disciplines have simultaneously theorized that such a predisposition underwrites beliefs in specific conspiracy theories and misinformation (Klofstad et al., 2019;Brotherton et al., 2013;Imhoff & Bruder, 2014;Atari et al, 2019;Lewandowsky et al, 2013a).",["Klofstad et al., 2019;Brotherton et al., 2013;Imhoff & Bruder, 2014;Atari et al, 2019;Lewandowsky et al, 2013a"]]],"rt":[["conspiratorial information",[]],["conspiracy theories",[]],["misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["several studies find that people who tend to employ conspiratorial explanations for salient events tend also to actively seek out such content online",["Bessi et al., 2015","Del Vicario et al., 2016"]]]},{"de":[["Misinformation often surrounds and buttresses conspiracy theories, but this is not a necessary condition.",[]],["classifying misinformation as such--i.e., determining what is true and what is false--is an inherently tricky endeavor",["Uscinski & Butler, 2013"]],["Given that expert knowledge is a primary epistemological mechanism by which \"truth\" is deciphered, our labeling of the ideas we probe as \"misinformation\" is appropriate.",[]]],"rt":[["conspiracy theories",[]]]},{"de":[["has frequently been touted as an example of how social media can encourage conspiracy beliefs",["Roose, 2020"]]]},{"de":[["the conditional marginal effect may indicate that people who exhibit higher levels of conspiracy thinking are more likely to use social media to seek out the conspiratorial ideas that reinforce their belief system",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["chem-trails",[]],["the moon landing",[]],["fluoridated water",[]],["Freemasons",[]],["lizard people",[]],["television mind control",[]]]},{"de":[["Empirical measures of conspiracy thinking are specifically designed to transcend the trappings of individual conspiracy theories; in other words, an examination of the relationship between political orientations and conspiracy thinking has the advantage of avoiding the complications of substantive interpretation inherently posed by the idiosyncrasies of beliefs in particular conspiracy theories.",[]],["While conspiracy thinking is conceived of as a largely stable predisposition (Uscinski & Parent, 2014), emerging scholarship suggests that conspiracy thinking can be temporarily heightened or diminished in some groups by situational political factors (Einstein & Glick, 2013;Farhart et al., 2020).",["Uscinski & Parent, 2014","Einstein & Glick, 2013","Farhart et al., 2020"]],["general conspiratorial sentiments in which abstract nefarious groups are subverting norms, rules, and laws by secretly engaging in harmful actions or by covering-up such actions",[]]],"sy":[["conspiracy ideation",[]],["conspiratorial predispositions",[]],["conspiracy mentality",[]],["conspiracy theorizing",[]],["conspiricism",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["oftentimes leads individuals to adopt accusatory perceptions (Zell et al., 2021), including conspiracy theories about political out-groups (Miller et al., 2016).",["Zell et al., 2021","Miller et al., 2016"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Some posit that these algorithmic biases, just like data curation biases, can arise due to personal biases from their creators (AI Now Institute, 2019).",["AI Now Institute, 2019"]]],"rt":[["data curation biases",[]]]},{"de":[["This typically includes support for progressive economic policies, such as higher taxes on the wealthy, expanded government programs to address inequality and protect workers, and social liberalism, such as support for abortion rights and LGBTQ+ rights",[]]]},{"de":[["This typically includes support for conservative economic policies, such as lower taxes and limited government intervention in the economy, as well as social conservatism, such as opposition to abortion and same-sex marriage",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["asking ChatGPT for answers as if it were an expert, for instance, \"What are the causes of inflation, as it might be explained by Nobel Laureate Milton Friedman?\"",[]],["simulating a type of person. Cowen and Tabarrok (2023) suggest formulating personas, like \"Midwest male Republican dentist,\" to obtain answers to experiments in economics.",[]]]},{"de":[["Therefore, the PC measures if a person is to the left or to the right on the economic spectrum. Socially, it measures if the person is authoritarian or libertarian. It results in four quadrants, which we list with a corresponding historical figure The PC frames the questions on a four-point scale, with response options \"(0) Strongly Disagree\", \"(1) Disagree\", \"(2) Agree\", and \"(3) Strongly Agree\". There is no middle option, so the respondent has to choose a non-neutral stance.",[]]]},{"de":[["This can include advocating for more radical policy proposals, such as defunding the police, increasing taxes on the wealthy even further, or implementing more aggressive measures to combat climate change. Radical Democrats may also be more willing to challenge traditional Democratic Party leaders and norms in order to advance their agenda",[]],["This can include advocating for more radical policy proposals, such as defunding the police, increasing taxes on the wealthy even further, or implementing more aggressive measures to combat climate change.",[]],["Radical Democrats may also be more willing to challenge traditional Democratic Party leaders and norms in order to advance their agenda",[]]]},{"de":[["This can include advocating for more radical policy proposals, such as eliminating certain government programs or departments, or taking a more confrontational approach to issues such as immigration or national security. Radical Republicans may also be more willing to challenge traditional Republican Party leaders and norms in order to advance their agenda",[]],["This can include advocating for more radical policy proposals, such as eliminating certain government programs or departments, or taking a more confrontational approach to issues such as immigration or national security.",[]],["Radical Republicans may also be more willing to challenge traditional Republican Party leaders and norms in order to advance their agenda",[]]]},{},{"de":[["A constructionist epistemology has particular implications with regard to thematic analysis, namely that in addition to the recurrence of perceptibly important information, meaningfulness is highly influential in the development and interpretation of codes and themes.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a critical perspective seeks to interrogate patterns and themes of meaning with a theoretical understanding that language can create, rather than merely reflect, a given social reality",["Terry et al. 2017"]]]},{"sp":[["essentialist versus constructionist epistemologies",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["availability",[]]],"rt":[["availability",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["accessibility",[]]],"rt":[["accessibility",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Pan and Kosicki (1993) proposed that news should be conceptualised as a form of discourse.",[]]]},{"de":[["Frames selectively emphasise certain aspects of an issue while omitting others, constructing particular narratives.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["As cognitive shortcuts, they enable efficient processing of complex information, often reinforcing existing predispositions.",[]],["Their salience and selection are shaped by political orientations, media logics, and audience expectations",[]],["Entman (1993) defined frames through the mechanisms of selection and salience, whereby communicators highlight specific problem definitions, causal interpretations, moral evaluations, and action recommendations",[]],["Entman (1993) defined frames through the mechanisms of selection and salience, whereby communicators highlight specific problem definitions, causal interpretations, moral evaluations, and action recommendations.",["Entman (1993)"]],["Frames serve to shape agendas, steer public opinion, and inform policy decisions, thereby functioning as powerful tools in political and institutional communication (Riker 1986).",[]],["Framing is inherently relational: it forges connections between narrative elements to create meaning, salience, and resonance.",[]],["It entails deliberately organising information into structured narratives that resonate with audiences and guide their understanding of the world.",[]],["Thus, frames function as semantic constructs that shape how events are framed, classified, and conveyed within a given discursive context.",[]]],"sp":[["narratives",[]]]},{"de":[["Framing remains a powerful mechanism in media communication, shaping public perception, policy debates, and collective memory.",[]],["reinforcing the centrality of framing in democratic communication processes.",[]],["Events can be conveyed to the public through framing, a technique that highlights selected aspects of an event to present a particular interpretation, akin to placing an image within a frame.",[]],["Frames selectively emphasise certain aspects of an issue while omitting others, constructing particular narratives.",[]]],"rt":[["framing theory",[]],["agenda-setting",[]],["priming",[]]],"ex":[["those foregrounding economic sustainability or social inclusion",[]]]},{"sb":[["syntactic",[]],["script",[]],["thematic",[]],["rhetorical",[]]]},{"de":[["Frames selectively emphasise certain aspects of an issue while omitting others, constructing particular narratives.",[]],["understanding how frames evolve in response to shifting socio-political and cultural contexts.",[]],["frames as closed fields of meaning",["Schütz (1971)"]]]},{},{"rt":[["multidimensional structure of framing devices",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["framing devices",[]]]},{"rt":[["multidimensional structure of framing devices",[]]],"sp":[["framing devices",[]]]},{"rt":[["multidimensional structure of framing devices",[]]],"sp":[["framing devices",[]]]},{"rt":[["socializing",[]],["socially distance",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a promising line of research is the exploration of effective counterspeech techniques which can vary according to hate speech targets, online platforms and haters characteristics.",[]]]},{"de":[["the targeting of a group, or an individual as a member of a group; the presence of a content that expresses hatred, causes a harm, incites bad actions beyond the speech itself, and has no redeeming purpose; the intention of harm or bad activity; the public nature of the speech; finally, a context that makes violent response possible.",[]]]},{"de":[["research should concentrate on how incorporate user-level features when scoring and automating the processing of online hate.",["Salminen et al. 2018","Salminen et al. 2019"]]]},{},{"sy":[["content neutrality",["Brettschneider 2013"]]],"rt":[["freedom of expression",[]]]},{"sb":[["Internally displaced people",[]],["refugees",[]],["asylum seekers",[]],["migrants",[]]]},{"rt":[["migrants",[]]]},{"de":[["It is one of the most important tools that are used by the elites and government to influence the masses attitudes and control them.",[]]]},{"de":[["Unlike refugees who cannot safely return home, migrants face no such impediment to return.",[]],["If they choose to return home, they will continue to receive the protection of their government",["3"]],["Unlike refugees who cannot safely return home, migrants face no such impediment to return. If they choose to return home, they will continue to receive the protection of their government",["3"]]],"rt":[["internally displaced persons (IDP)",[]],["refugees",[]],["internally displaced people",[]],["asylum seekers",[]]],"sb":[["refugees",[]],["Internally displaced people",[]],["asylum seekers",[]]],"sp":[["categories of migration",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Their situation is often so Table 1 Contrasting definitions of the investigated groups in this study perilous and intolerable that they cross national borders to seek safety in nearby countries, and thus become internationally recognized as \"refugees\" with access to assistance from states, UNHCR, and other organizations.",[]],["They are so recognized precisely because it is too dangerous for them to return home, and they need sanctuary elsewhere.",[]],["These are people for whom denial of asylum has potentially deadly consequences.",[]],["vulnerable and affected people fleeing from the conflict",[]],["refugees looking for safety and peace",[]],["In the context of Jordan, they are categorized as refugees due to giving them the refugee status.",[]],["They are so recognized precisely because it is too dangerous for them to return home, and they need sanctuary elsewhere. These are people for whom denial of asylum has potentially deadly consequences.",["3"]]],"rt":[["migrants",[]],["internally displaced people",[]],["asylum seekers",[]]],"sp":[["migrants",[]],["categories of migration",[]]]},{},{"de":[["objectifying other people is actually a rather common experience.",[]],["objectification by others is hypothesized to precede self-objectification and is thus the more primary or foundational causal agent.",[]],["thinking of one's partner as an object, whose purpose is sexual pleasure, rather than as a thinking, feeling person.",[]],["items were reworded so that all references to \"I,\" \"my body,\" or \"how I look\" instead referred to \"my partner,\" \"my partner's body,\" and \"how my partner looks.\"",[]],["perpetrating objectification",[]],["entails focusing on one's partner's physical appearance and sexual availability, which could preclude considering their needs and desires",[]],["it will be important to control for partner-objectification and the objectification of other people such as peers.",[]],["focusing on one's partner's physical appearance and sexual availability, which could preclude considering their needs and desires",[]],["It may be that partner-objectification entails focusing on one's partner's physical appearance and sexual availability, which could preclude considering their needs and desires",[]]],"sy":[["objectifying other people",[]]],"rt":[["self-objectification",[]]],"sp":[["objectification",[]]]},{"de":[["The theory predicts several consequences of self-objectification, including body shame, anxiety, eating disorders, depression, and sexual dysfunction.",[]],["Many of these predictions have been supported by subsequent empirical research, mostly on U.S. women (for a review, see Moradi and Huang 2008).",["Moradi and Huang 2008"]],["Experimental research suggests that self-objectification impairs women's cognitive performance (Fredrickson et al. 1998;Quinn et al. 2006) and increases negative affect (Gapinski et al. 2003) and appearance anxiety (Roberts and Gettman 2004).",["Fredrickson et al. 1998","Quinn et al. 2006","Gapinski et al. 2003","Roberts and Gettman 2004"]],["self-objectification is an internalization of the objectifying perspectives of other people",[]],["self-objectification might include a focus on serving one's partner (e.g., by maintaining an attractive physical appearance and being sexually available) to the exclusion of communicating one's own relationship needs.",[]],["internalization of the media's presentation of individuals as sexual objects",["1997"]],["assessed using the surveillance subscale of McKinley and Hyde's (1996) Objectified Body Consciousness Scale",[]],["self-objectifying thoughts might be unlikely to arise during sex with a committed partner-the relationship provides enough safety that the individuals can relax and enjoy what they are feeling, rather than worrying about how they look.",[]],["Self-objectification may be particularly likely to develop through exposure to direct actions of objectification",[]],["When self-objectification occurs, an individual focuses attention on how her body appears to others rather than on how her body feels and on how she can, using that body, perform actions in the world.",[]]],"sy":[["selfobjectification",[]]],"rt":[["partner-objectification",[]]],"sp":[["Objectification theory",[]],["objectification",[]]],"ex":[["catcalls",[]],["sexual harassment",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["any practicum, action project, or similar activity that involves social or public policy advocacy",["Ohio H.B. 322 Sec. 3313.6027.B.3"]]]},{"de":[["those who disagree with us are seen as adversaries, where we recognize that we share some common ground with them as citizens committed to principles of democracy who experience a shared fate.",[]],["within an agonistic view, those who disagree with us are seen as adversaries, where we recognize that we share some common ground with them as citizens committed to principles of democracy who experience a shared fate.",[]],["where we recognize that we share some common ground with them as citizens committed to principles of democracy",[]]],"rt":[["antagonism",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["agonism",[]]]},{"de":[["where students can be surprised by each other and come to see the world, our shared problems, and the divisive concepts related to them in new ways (Yacek, 2019).",["Yacek, 2019"]]]},{"de":[["form a closed system. It is a perspective that leaves no space for anyone, no matter how well-intentioned, to see the world differently. When presented as the singular valid worldview, it is not a productive way to engage with students, groups, or with one another.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Problematically categorized as concepts, they might be better understood as political, moral, and sociological beliefs about aspects of race, gender, sexual identity, and oppression.",[]]]},{"sy":[["civic friendship",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["inquiry can reveal the root causes of political, ideological, and sociological division and their implications in our lived experience, while also putting forward solutions than can move us forward",[]],["This should be a slow, deliberate, and outward-oriented process, rather than a rush to assert one's own stance, as is too often the tendency in discussions about controversial issues.",[]],["It is aimed at getting a rich and thorough understanding of the situation and the stakeholders.",[]],["inquiry engages collective effort to sort out the issues.",[]],["Inquiry, with its close pragmatist connection to the empirical method and scientific fallibilism, assumes (and sometimes even reveals) that any of us can be wrong about our opening stance on an issue.",[]],["Inquiry builds in assessment and revision as key steps, recognizing that the process is always ongoing.",[]],["Inquiry entails learning not just to speak out when one disagrees with others, but how to listen to and respond to the disagreeing views uttered by classmates.",[]],["inquiry intentionally opens spaces for minority views because they offer insight into problems and possible solutions, and foregrounds the democratic commitment to pluralism.",[]],["In inquiry, more so than discussion, students don't just learn how to live with disagreement, but figure out how to use it to arrive at better-informed solutions.",[]],["inquiry raises hypotheses about how to understand and act upon divisive concepts in ways that alleviate confusion and provide useful pathways forward for students and their communities.",[]],["In other words, inquiry enables us to do something about divisive concepts, rather than just learning about them, as some educators currently advocate in calls for discussion.",[]],["Inquiry and democracy are activities, where we face problematic situations and determine for ourselves our desires and our means for achieving them while providing mechanisms for citizens to identify problems with the status quo and to hold others accountable for harmful outcomes.",[]],["inquiry is a conjoint undertaking and is based in a community setting where students work together, drawing upon their shared experiences and relationships.",[]]],"rt":[["discussion",[]],["debate",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["offer learning opportunities where students engage with an array of differing perspectives on a topic and analyze the merits of competing positions.",["Hess, 2009"]]]},{},{"de":[["Inquiry begins when we find ourselves in, what Dewey calls, an \"indeterminate situation\" (Dewey, 1938, p. 108). These are moments when we struggle to make sense of the world around us and aren't sure how to proceed. They are genuine moments of puzzlement and uncertainty.",[]]]},{"de":[["does not homogenize or erase differing views as oneness does.",[]],["It does not homogenize or erase differing views as oneness does.",[]]],"rt":[["oneness",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["social roles",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["When emotionally charged words such as slurs are used repeatedly over time, they can acquire what we call an emotionally charged history.",[]]],"rt":[["history of usage",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["pragmatic",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This, then, is a very rich and complex content which is associated with the meaning of a slur term.",[]]]},{"rt":[["emotionally charged history",[]]]},{"de":[["This process involves an aggregate indexing of the word's usage across multiple, repeated contexts over time.",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["reclamation",[]]]},{"de":[["slurs, on our view, also bring a preexisting complex of historical facts and constructed attitudes (stereotypes) about the slurred group to attention, in addition to predicating group membership in the manner of a standard nominal.",[]],["They explain this strong invocational force as directly linked to the slur term itself, in particular its mere sound (phonology) rather than its semantic content.",[]]]},{"rt":[["Appraisal",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Every time a slur is used, it carries over not just the emotional charge of humiliation but also the power dynamics and unjust hierarchies of its time. This therefore enables slurs to function as powerful reminders of an oppressive history.",[]],["Slurs are used repeatedly over time, sometimes frequently, sometimes less so. Each use carries not only the emotional weight of humiliation specific to that instance but also reflects the power dynamics and unjust hierarchies of its time. As such, they serve as powerful reminders of a history of oppression and help perpetuate it by maintaining these harmful dynamics with every use.",[]],["The oppressive history thus captures not only the emotionally charged history associated with a slur word, but also the systemic patterns of humiliation associated with a power imbalance to the disadvantage of target group members.",[]]],"rt":[["history of use",[]],["emotionally charged history",[]]]},{"sp":[["reclamation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The speaker assigns a subordinate role to the target while assuming a dominant role for themselves.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["grammatical",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Reclaimed uses of slurs are typically developed within the in-group community where target group members use the term to express positive affect, foster camaraderie, and ultimately regain control over its meaning.",[]],["However, this is a precarious process which often depends, for its success, on the success of social change.",[]],["Reclamation highlights the evolving nature of language, showing how it can transform alongside shifts in societal power relations.",[]],["reclamation serves as a powerful tool for dismantling that historical force and fostering empowerment.",[]]],"rt":[["polarity reversal",[]],["weapons control",[]],["identity ownership",[]]],"sb":[["polarity reversal",[]],["weapons control",[]],["identity ownership",[]]]},{"de":[["slurring speech, as a type of hate speech",[]],["linguistic tools not just for offence and derogation but also as tools for oppression",[]],["complex linguistic tools that do more than merely describe a member of a particular group; they also carry an expressive component that conveys contempt or derogation.",[]],["This is the essence of dual-content theories which hold that slurs have both a descriptive content (i.e. by identifying members of a target group), and an expressive content (i.e. expressing contempt or other derogatory attitudes towards that group).",[]]],"sy":[["slurring speech",[]]],"rt":[["racial epithets",[]],["history of oppression",[]],["magical invocation",[]],["taboo account",[]],["Humiliation act",[]],["power grab move",[]]]},{"ex":[["father, judge, enemy, etc.",[]],["e.g. father, judge, enemy, etc.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Simply mentioning a slur term is enough to evoke its oppressive history, where offensiveness is taken to arise not only from its immediate impact but also from its deep roots in historical practices of oppression.",[]]]},{"de":[["These topoi function as one type of conversational rule (defined in §3), which is part of the inferential toolkit that interlocutors use to interpret speaker's meaning.",[]]]},{"ex":[["Of two routes from A to B, one chooses the shorter route",[]],["If person A is ill, they have a temperature",[]]]},{"sp":[["reclamation",[]]]},{"de":[["However, the corresponding content is often disappointing, infuriating or even deceitful.",[]],["Instead of providing high-quality content, clickbait employs enticing headlines to persuade users to click.",[]],["the essence of clickbait is to construct a curiosity gap in the title that cannot be fulfilled by the corresponding content.",[]],["The aim of clickbait is to attract people's attention.",[]],["Instead of providing high-quality content, clickbait employs enticing headlines to persuade users to click. Usually, relatively low-quality content is observed after clicking, which makes users feel disappointed or fooled.",[]]],"rt":[["click induction",[]],["curiosity gap",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In this process, false or misleading information carried by the news is the key.",[]]]},{"de":[["Such a gap generates a \"feeling of deprivation labeled curiosity\" and motivates the user to acquire the missing information to alleviate the \"feeling of deprivation\" through clicking the headline (e.g., hyperlink) and reading the content.",[]]]},{"de":[["is also widely adopted by clickbait.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Der Unterschied zwischen dieser Navigationsleistung (Kuratieren; Bhaskar 2016; Gatewatching; Bruns 2018) sowie dem klassischen Gatekeeping besteht darin, dass extern (und nicht intern), nach der Veröffentlichung (und nicht vorher) sowie weich (und nicht hart) selektiert wird.",[]]],"sy":[["Kuratieren",[]],["Gatewatching",[]]],"rt":[["Gatekeeping",[]],["klassischen Gatekeeping",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Als Beispiele für eine vermittelnde Rolle werden in diesem Beitrag der Journalismus und digitale Plattformen diskutiert.",[]]]},{"de":[["Sie besitzt (ähnlich wie der Markt) nur schwache Strukturen und damit eine hohe Offenheit für die Dynamik von Themenkarrieren und Meinungsbildung.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The NPF posits that while the content of narratives may vary across contexts, structural elements are generalizable.",[]]],"rt":[["content",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["micro level",[]],["meso level",[]],["meso level of analysis",[]],["micro level of analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["an expression of cultural values and are embedded in institutional contexts",[]],["overarching macro narratives over long periods of time that are embedded in cultural contexts",[]]],"rt":[["macro-level narratives",[]]]},{"de":[["grand narratives that create socially constructed realities expressed, in turn, as institutions and cultural norms",["Shanahan et al. 2017, p. 195","Shanahan et al. (2017, p. 195)"]],["narratives used at the macro political institutional level",["Peterson (2021)"]],["Despite describing macro-level narratives as grand narratives that create socially constructed realities expressed, in turn, as institutions and cultural norms",["Shanahan et al. 2017, p. 195"]],["the NPF describes macro narratives as stable over large periods of time, forming the boundaries around which meso and micro narratives emerge.",[]]],"sy":[["macro narratives",[]]],"rt":[["macro narratives",[]]]},{"rt":[["micro level",[]],["macro level",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["policy narratives",[]]]},{"rt":[["meso level",[]],["macro level",[]]]},{"rt":[["meso level of analysis",[]],["macro level",[]]]},{"de":[["a valuable theoretical framework for advancing knowledge of the policy process",[]],["a relatively new framework, and core concepts continue to be further clarified as the NPF is applied to new fields and contexts",[]],["the structural approach of the NPF was designed for this sort of adaptability and for the incorporation of new variations of narrative elements",[]],["the NPF's approach of operationalizing narratives",[]]],"rt":[["Multiple Streams Framework",[]],["Institutional Analysis and Development Framework",[]],["policy process framework",[]]]},{},{"de":[["For the study of public policy, it is important to examine how individuals and groups construct social reality.",[]]]},{"de":[["However, people assign different meanings to the world around them. For the study of public policy, it is important to examine how individuals and groups construct social reality.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Typologie zu Fehlinformationen",["Hameleers et al. (2020)"]]]},{},{"de":[["der Ausdruck Fehlinformation als Überbegriff, um allgemein falsche bzw. irreführende Inhalte zu bezeichnen -losgelöst von der Diskussion um eine Täuschungsabsicht",[]],["wird hingegen eine falsche bzw. irreführende Botschaft irrtümlich für wahr gehalten und ohne Täuschungsabsicht verbreitet, sprechen bisherige Publikationen zumeist von Fehlinformation",[]],["profitieren Fehlinformationen davon, dass sie sich (4) in sozialen Medien viral verbreiten.",[]],["Eine erste Schlüsseleigenschaft von Fehlinformationen ist (1) ihre negative Valenz",["Konkes und Lester 2017, S. 833"]],["Neutrale und faktisch korrekte Inhalte erzielen nicht nur weniger Aufmerksamkeit, sondern verbreiten sich auch langsamer und schlechter als solche, die negativ und empörend sind",["Brady et al. 2020, S. 746","Meffert et al. 2006, S. 27","Sommariva et al. 2018, S. 246"]],["sensationalistische Stilmittel",[]],["Negative Valenz",[]],["Einfache Erklärung komplexer Phänomene",[]],["Visuelle Beweisführung",[]],["Virale Verbreitung in sozialen Medien",[]]],"ex":[["Die Behauptung, dass Hillary Clinton ein Sexgeschäft für Pädophile betreibe und dafür Kinder in einem Restaurantkeller gefangen halte",["Ammann 2016","Pham 2015"]],["die These, Barack Obama sei außerhalb der USA geboren und erfülle somit nicht die Voraussetzungen für die Wahl zum Präsidenten",["Ammann 2016","Pham 2015"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Typologie zu Fehlinformationen",["Hameleers et al. (2020)"]]]},{"de":[["Bei der Konzeption von Richtigstellungen stellt im Vergleich zu Fehlinformationen Neutralität ein hohes Gut dar.",[]],["In der Praxis führt dieses Gebot zur Gestaltung nüchterner und komplexer Botschaften anstelle einer leichtverständlichen Geschichte, in welcher der Irrglaube aufgeklärt wird",["Young et al. 2017"]],["zumeist rein textbasiert",["Vivion et al. 2020","Young et al. 2017"]],["beinhalten Richtigstellungen in der Regel keine kulturellen Bezüge bzw. identitätsstiftenden Elemente",[]],["schließlich versuchen Richtigstellungen neutral und objektiv zu informieren",[]],["Richtigstellungen (2) ebenso einfach zu verstehen sind wie die Fehlinformation selbst",[]],["Richtigstellungen (3) die richtiggestellte Erklärung visuell unterstützen (z. B. durch Grafiken)",[]]],"sb":[["simple rebuttal",[]],["factual elaboration",["Eslick et al. 2011","van der Meer und Jin 2020"]]]},{"rt":[["Realism Heuristic",[]],["Truthiness Effect",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["COVID-19 anxiety",[]]]},{"sp":[["intolerance of uncertainty",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["intolerance of uncertainty",[]]]},{"sp":[["intrinsic motivation",[]]]},{"sp":[["social capital",[]]]},{"de":[["preventive measure to curtail the spread of fake news",[]],["the ability to differentiate real news from false news is related to critical reasoning that makes people aware of fake news and its grave implications in society",[]]]},{"sp":[["extrinsic motivation",[]]]},{"rt":[["digital literacy",[]]]},{"sp":[["intrinsic motivation",[]]]},{"sp":[["extrinsic motivation",[]]]},{"sp":[["social capital",[]]]},{"de":[["The social capital has three dimensions that include relational, cognitive, and structural aspects",["Nahapiet & Ghoshal, 1998"]]],"sb":[["relational dimension",["Nahapiet & Ghoshal, 1998"]],["cognitive dimension",["Chang & Chuang, 2011"]],["structural dimension",["Nahapiet & Ghoshal, 1998"]]]},{"de":[["the theory asserts that knowledge and resources are exchanged leading to the creation of value via social relationship",["Tóth et al., 2022"]]]},{"sp":[["intrinsic motivation",[]]]},{"sp":[["intrinsic motivation",[]]]},{"sp":[["social capital",[]]]},{"sp":[["extrinsic motivation",[]]]},{"de":[["the theory reasons what individuals do with the media rather than what the media does to individuals",[]]]},{},{"de":[["cognitive empathy relates to the detection of how someone is feeling",[]],["Recognition of emotional states is what the cognitive empathy component focuses on.",[]],["cognitive empathy can be artificially created by only taking into account the individual from whom the emotional states are to be recognized.",[]],["cognitive empathy is easier to incorporate in affective computing and social signal processing than the other empathy components that do require dyadic processes.",[]],["In other words, cognitive empathy relates to the detection of how someone is feeling.",[]]],"sy":[["internal state empathy",["138","182"]],["mentalizing",["163"]],["theory of mind",["155"]]],"rt":[["Empathic accuracy",["92"]]],"sp":[["Empathy",[]]],"ex":[["a successful cognitive empathic inference entails an observer recognizing a person's feeling as sad when that person is in fact sad",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In other words, emotional contagion is a low level automatic process constituted by mimicry and feedback.",[]]],"rt":[["motor mimicry",["50,51,88","50","51","88"]],["facial empathy",["75"]],["imitation",["119","165","119, 165"]],["motor empathy",["23,24","23","24"]],["emotion catching",["82"]],["emotional convergence",[]]]},{"de":[["emotional convergence could be understood as an interplay between bottom-up and top-down processes.",[]],["Because emotional convergence is also influenced by cognitive factors, it can be seen as (partly) building on the cognitive empathy component.",[]],["environmental factors can influence emotional convergence as emotional convergence can emerge because two persons are in the same emotion-eliciting context.",[]],["emotional convergence can be stronger in persons that are more familiar with each other",[]],["Understanding emotional convergence requires integration of measurements of at least two interacting agents",["186"]],["Because of the role of mimicry, emotional convergence is directly related to changes like postural, vocal, facial expressions, or physiological changes",["82","83"]],["emotional convergence, as this is the basis for empathic interaction and depends on automatic processes that use low-level information that is often absent in mediated communication.",[]],["emotional convergence can potentially be assessed by analyzing the similarity between the facial expressions, physiology, and speech parameters of two or more interacting individuals.",[]],["Hence, similarity of emotions also leads to similarity in emotional expression. Therefore, emotional convergence can potentially be assessed by analyzing the similarity between the facial expressions, physiology, and speech parameters of two or more interacting individuals.",[]],["it is most important to see how a communication medium supports emotional convergence, as this is the basis for empathic interaction and depends on automatic processes that use low-level information that is often absent in mediated communication.",[]]],"rt":[["empathic interaction",[]],["facial expressions",[]],["physiology",[]],["speech",[]],["emotional contagion",[]]],"sp":[["Empathy",[]]]},{"sy":[["empathic skill",[]]]},{"de":[["it is an indication of how accurate our inferences about others' feelings are",[]],["In other words, it is an indication of how accurate our inferences about others' feelings are.",[]]],"rt":[["cognitive empathy",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a notion of empathy that only includes emotions and feelings",[]],["empathy is treated as a property of an interaction and not as a property of an individual",[]]],"rt":[["sympathy",[]]],"sb":[["cognitive empathy",[]],["emotional convergence",[]],["empathic responding",[]]]},{},{"de":[["As such, personal distress is focused on the self",["54"]],["personal distress is negatively related to prosocial behavior",[]]],"rt":[["sympathy",[]],["empathic responding",[]]],"sp":[["empathic responding",[]]],"ex":[["Behaviors related to personal distress are fearful or anxious expressions. Typical examples of such expressions are lip-biting [56], negative facial expressions, sobs, and cries.",["56"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Sympathy is generally positively related to prosocial behavior",[]]],"rt":[["personal distress",[]],["empathic responding",[]]],"sp":[["empathic response",[]],["empathic responding",[]]],"ex":[["Typical examples of such behaviors are eyebrows pulled down and inward over the nose, head forward leans, reassuring tone of voice and sad looks.",[]]]},{"sy":[["System 2",[]],["Type 2",[]]]},{"sy":[["System 1",[]],["Type 1",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["reflective stage",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["human decision-making involves the interplay of two types of mental processes",[]],["The idea that System 2 (Type 2) would otherwise make rational decisions were it not for System 1 (Type 1) allows economists to retain the neoclassical ideal of rationality while accounting for deviations from this ideal.",[]]],"sy":[["dual process narrative",[]]],"sb":[["System 1",[]],["System 2",[]]]},{"de":[["DPT has provided behavioral economists and neuroeconomists with psychologically plausible foundations to represent the internal dynamics of decision-making",[]]],"sy":[["received view",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["System 1 (Type 1) is either irrational or non-rational",[]],["system 1 quickly proposes intuitive answers to judgment problems as they arise",[]],["fast, reactive, automatic, intuitive, heuristic, associative, and preconscious",[]]],"sy":[["Type 1",[]]],"rt":[["System 2",[]],["automatic processes",[]]],"sp":[["DPT",[]]]},{"de":[["System 2 (Type 2) is necessary for, or synonymous with, rational decision-making",[]],["system 2 monitors the quality of these proposals, which it may endorse, correct, or override",[]],["supports higher cognitive functionings, like hypothetical and counter-factual thinking, but also because it is associated with the detection and inhibition of biased judgments and impulsive behaviors",[]],["slow, controlled, reflective, serial, rule-based, and conscious",[]]],"sy":[["Type 2",[]],["rational system",[]]],"rt":[["System 1",[]],["inner rational agent",[]],["critical thinking",[]]],"sb":[["algorithmic stage",[]],["reflective stage",[]]],"sp":[["DPT",[]]]},{"de":[["Stance Detection (StD) represents a wellestablished task in natural language processing and is often described by having two inputs; (1) a topic of a discussion and (2) a comment made by an author. Given these two inputs, the aim is to find out whether the author is in favor or against the topic.",[]],["Given these two inputs, the aim is to find out whether the author is in favor or against the topic.",[]]],"rt":[["fake news detection",[]],["claim validation",[]],["argument search",[]],["Sentiment Analysis",[]]],"ex":[["Topic: Climate Change is a Real Concern Tweet: Gone are the days where we would get temperatures of Min -2 and Max 5 in Cape Town #SemST Stance: FAVOR",[]]]},{"de":[["To label some accounts or sources of information as trolls, a clear intent to deceive or create conflict has to be present.",[]]],"sy":[["trolls",[]],["Internet trolls",[]]]},{},{"de":[["to affect the directions of online conversations",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["troll farms",[]]],"rt":[["social bots",[]]]},{"de":[["hired to massively spread fake news or any other harmful content.",[]]]},{"de":[["the goal behind using clickbait is to increase the traffic to a website (Zannettou et al. 2019).",["Zannettou et al. 2019"]],["However, the goal behind using clickbait is to increase the traffic to a website (Zannettou et al. 2019).",["Zannettou et al. 2019"]]],"sp":[["intent-based fake news",[]]]},{"sp":[["Conspiracy theories",[]]]},{"de":[["Conspiracy belief refers to people's adoption and belief of conspiracy theories, and it is associated with psychological, political and social factors (Douglas et al. 2019).",["Douglas et al. 2019"]]],"sp":[["intent-based fake news",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["including text and multimedia-based fake news",[]]],"sb":[["multimedia-based fake news",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["social context-based approaches",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["lack of user awareness",[]],["social bots spreaders",[]],["dynamic nature of online social platforms",[]],["fast propagation of fake news",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Human-based techniques",[]]]},{"de":[["Deception relies on peoples' trust, doubt and strong emotions that may prevent them from thinking and acting clearly",["Aïmeur et al. 2018"]],["In other words, deception gets people to do things they would not otherwise do.",[]],["In the context of online deception, several factors need to be considered: the deceiver, the purpose or aim of the deception, the social media service, the deception technique and the potential target",["Aïmeur et al. 2018","Hage et al. 2021"]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]],"sb":[["online deception",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["content-based fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["The fact-checking task is commonly manually performed by journalists",[]]]},{"sp":[["Human-based techniques",[]]]},{"de":[["the content is designed in a way to closely resemble the truth",[]],["the content is designed to closely resemble the truth in order to deceive users",[]],["the term has evolved over time and has become synonymous with the spread of false information",[]],["the term fake news started to mean different things to different people, and for some politicians, it even means \"news that I do not like.\"",[]],["Some consider fake news as a type of misinformation",[]],["others consider it as a type of disinformation",[]],["others associate the term with both disinformation and misinformation",[]],["some prefer to differentiate fake news from both terms",[]],["fake news is diverse and dynamic in terms of content, topics, publishing methods and media platforms, and sophisticated linguistic styles geared to emulate true news.",[]],["various typologies and existing categorizations of fake news such as intent-based fake news including clickbait, hoax, rumor, satire, propaganda, conspiracy theories, framing as well as content-based fake news including text and multimedia-based fake news",[]],["Fake news may refer to the manipulation of information that can be carried out through the production of false information, or the distortion of true information.",[]]],"sy":[["false information",["Cooke 2017"]],["spread of false information",["Cooke 2017"]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]],["information warfare",[]],["information pollution",[]],["information disorder",[]],["satire, rumors, conspiracy theories, misinformation and hoaxes",[]],["malinformation",[]],["false information",[]]],"sb":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["false information",[]],["intent-based fake news",[]],["content-based fake news",[]],["hoaxes",[]],["irony",[]],["propaganda",[]],["satire",[]],["physical news content",[]],["non-physical news content",[]]],"sp":[["online deception",[]],["general terms",[]],["information disorder",[]],["false information",[]]]},{"sb":[["Propaganda",[]]],"sp":[["intent-based fake news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Popular examples of hoaxes are stories that report the false death of celebrities (Zannettou et al. 2019) and public figures (Collins et al. 2020).",["Zannettou et al. 2019","Collins et al. 2020"]]],"sy":[["half-truth",["Zannettou et al. 2019"]],["factoid stories",["Zannettou et al. 2019"]]],"sp":[["intent-based fake news",[]]],"ex":[["stories that report the false death of celebrities (Zannettou et al. 2019)",["Zannettou et al. 2019"]],["public figures (Collins et al. 2020)",["Collins et al. 2020"]],["hoaxes about the COVID-19",[]],["stories that report the false death of celebrities (Zannettou et al. 2019) and public figures (Collins et al. 2020).",["Zannettou et al. 2019","Collins et al. 2020"]]]},{"sb":[["crowdsourcing",[]],["fact-checking",[]],["Crowdsourcing approaches",[]],["fact-checking task",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["including clickbait, hoax, rumor, satire, propaganda, conspiracy theories, framing",[]]],"sb":[["clickbait",[]],["hoax",[]],["rumor",[]],["satire",[]],["propaganda",[]],["conspiracy theories",[]],["framing",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["deepfake videos",[]],["GAN-generated fake images",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["contextual aspects",[]],["social context-based approaches",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["propaganda",[]]],"sb":[["political astroturfing",[]],["corporate astroturfing",[]],["astroturfing in e-commerce or online services",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It is a special instance of fabricated stories that aim to harm the interests of a particular party and, typically, has a political context",["Zannettou et al. 2019"]],["It is a special instance of fabricated stories that aim to harm the interests of a particular party and, typically, has a political context (Zannettou et al. 2019).",["Zannettou et al. 2019"]],["States are the main actors of propaganda.",[]]],"rt":[["online astroturfing",[]]],"sp":[["fabricated stories",["Zannettou et al. 2019"]],["Framing",[]],["intent-based fake news",[]]],"ex":[["Online astroturfing can be an example of the tools used for the dissemination of propaganda.",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["dislike, negative review/comment",[]]]},{"de":[["they are not necessarily false and may turn out to be true (Zubiaga et al. 2018).",["Zubiaga et al. 2018"]],["Rumors originate from unverified sources but may be true or false or remain unresolved (Zubiaga et al. 2018).",["Zubiaga et al. 2018"]]],"sp":[["intent-based fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["The difference with a satirical form of fake news is that the authors or the host present themselves as a comedian or as an entertainer rather than a journalist informing the public",["Collins et al. 2020"]],["The difference with a satirical form of fake news is that the authors or the host present themselves as a comedian or as an entertainer rather than a journalist informing the public (Collins et al. 2020).",["Collins et al. 2020"]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]],["intent-based fake news",[]]]},{"sp":[["Bots (short for software robots)",[]]]},{"sb":[["User-based aspects",[]],["network-based aspects",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["contextual aspects",[]],["social context-based approaches",[]]]},{},{"de":[["filtering neutral opinions and ambivalent opinions",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["polarization",[]]]},{"rt":[["opinion polarization",[]]]},{"de":[["These \"prosumers\", by highly engaging in these activities, have a higher probability of trying to change other users' minds about a specific candidate and political causes and persuade them to vote for the candidates they believe to be the \"right party.\"",[]]]},{"de":[["According to the algorithm applied to the model, this type of analysis will analyze and retrieve the percentage of positive/negative/neutral sentiment present in a text",["Medhat et al. 2014"]],["This analysis is often applied to social media content to measure opinion and satisfaction with a particular topic, person, or product",["Cambria 2016"]]],"rt":[["Text Mining",[]]]},{"de":[["It can be seen as a pedagogical tool that stimulates the discovery and sharing of information, supporting the connection between users who share common goals and interests",[]]]},{"de":[["Vader uses a set of qualitative and quantitative methods, including a list of lexical features usually found in Social Network contexts. Vader combines lexical features with grammatical and syntactical conventions to express and empathize with sentiment intensity.",[]]],"rt":[["SentiWordNet",[]],["Support Vector Machine",[]],["Naïve Bayes",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["DV and cyber-bullying are conceptually similar, as both are forms of online persecution.",[]]],"rt":[["DV",[]],["online persecution",[]]],"sp":[["online persecution",[]]]},{"de":[["The offending acts range from mild breaches of social protocol to terrorist acts and participation in riots.",[]],["The visibility produced through DV is unwanted (the target is typically not soliciting publicity), intense (content like blog posts, photos and video evidence can circulate to hundreds of thousands or even millions of users within a few days) and enduring (the vigilantism campaign may be the first item to appear when searching the individual's name, and may become a cultural reference in its own right).",[]],["DV is distinguished from conventional vigilantism through its primary reliance on weaponised visibility for social change as well as social harm.",[]]],"sy":[["DV",[]]],"rt":[["conventional vigilantism",[]],["surveillance",[]],["sousveillance",[]],["surveillant assemblages",[]]],"sp":[["conventional vigilantism",[]]],"ex":[["In 2013, Gary Cleary hanged himself in Leicestershire, UK after being pursued by Letzgo Hunting, an online group that exposes suspected paedophiles.",[]],["in 2015, Walter James Palmer faced global outrage including numerous death threats after being identified as the killer of a beloved lion in Zimbabwe.",[]],["DV constitutes a severe violation of the targeted individual's privacy and data protection rights, as their personal details are publicly transmitted without their consent.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["DV and cyber-bullying are conceptually similar, as both are forms of online persecution.",[]],["DV can come as a response to cyber-bullying.",[]],["Both phenomena are related to media education, in that awareness of risks and guidelines are key to managing these problems.",[]]],"rt":[["cyber-bullying",[]],["online persecution",[]]],"sp":[["online persecution",[]]]},{"sp":[["Surveillance",[]]]},{"sp":[["Surveillance",[]]]},{"de":[["cultural value that is redefined and performed through everyday social interactions, for example, by managing secrecy and evading unwanted exposure in everyday mediated and embodied contexts",["Nippert-Eng 2010"]],["Privacy is also as a cultural value that is redefined and performed through everyday social interactions, for example, by managing secrecy and evading unwanted exposure in everyday mediated and embodied contexts (Nippert-Eng 2010).",["Nippert-Eng 2010"]],["A common feature to both legally and culturally bound definitions of privacy is the implication of control over personal information flows, a quality that has been greatly complicated with the advent of digital media.",[]]],"rt":[["control over personal information flows",[]]]},{"sy":[["social media",[]]]},{"sp":[["Surveillance",[]]]},{"de":[["Surveillance processes can be broken up into discrete steps: the collection of personal data, the interpretation of that data and social consequences stemming from that assessment.",[]],["These contextually disparate practices share a tendency to collect and repurpose information about social actors.",[]]],"sb":[["participatory surveillance",[]],["sousveillance",[]],["Lateral surveillance",[]]],"ex":[["emerging technologies such as CCTV cameras and national identity card regimes",["Norris and Armstrong 1999;Lyon 2009"]]]},{},{"de":[["Vigilantism more generally is typically fuelled by lowered public confidence in police and criminal justice (Haas et al. 2014), and in particular tends to follow a rhetoric that openly exhibits a 'disdain for due process' (Martin 2009, p. 147) notably in the wake of high-profile crimes.",["Haas et al. 2014","Martin 2009"]],["as police and state power assert greater control over digital media. This is seen through the publishing of guidelines and strategies, as well as legal clarifications and technical enhancement of police practice on digital platforms.",[]],["Vigilantism is framed as a kind of 'private violence' (Culberson 1990) or everyday policing (Burr and Jensen 2004) whereby citizens seek to assert their own form of criminal justice.",[]],["typically fuelled by lowered public confidence in police and criminal justice (Haas et al. 2014), and in particular tends to follow a rhetoric that openly exhibits a 'disdain for due process' (Martin 2009, p. 147) notably in the wake of high-profile crimes.",["Haas et al. 2014","Martin 2009, p. 147"]],["yet it takes on 'state-like performances such as security enforcement' along with 'a perpetual renegotiation of the boundaries between state and society' (Burr and Jensen 2004, p. 144).",["Burr and Jensen 2004, p. 144"]],["Vigilantism is commonly understood as a challenge to monopolisation of state power, but also as a reproduction of that power, as police and state power assert greater control over digital media.",[]]],"rt":[["conventional vigilantism",[]],["DV",[]]],"sb":[["Digital vigilantism",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Ad hoc groups lack both collective identity and agency.",[]],["They are assembled by algorithmic classification systems as types of individuals with common characteristics (Floridi 2014) as opposed to common intentions, which suggests a lack of selfawareness, collective interests or agency.",["Floridi 2014"]],["An identity can be imposed on members unaware that they belong to the group.",[]],["The third party interests in the formation of ad hoc groups also need not be long term: ad hoc groups need last only long enough to answer a question posed by a data processor.",[]],["Ad hoc groups are thus unique insofar as they are externally crafted and lack the intentionality and self-awareness of legally protected groups.",[]],["ad hoc groups cannot act to protect their interests due to a lack of collective agency and self-awareness.",[]],["the group does not exist prior to the lawsuit; the lawsuit provides a purpose around which the group is assembled.",[]],["the defining features of an ad hoc group are algorithmically determined and, thus, not necessarily observable or interpretable to humans.",[]],["Ad hoc groups are not similarly intuitive, defined instead by machine interpretable correlations (cf. Burrell 2016; Lisboa 2013).",["Burrell 2016","Lisboa 2013"]]],"rt":[["groups and interests protected in class action and anti-discrimination law",[]]],"sb":[["ad hoc groups formed by algorithmic classification",[]]],"ex":[["market segments, profiling groups",[]],["market segments",[]],["profiling groups",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["ethnic groups, patient cohorts",[]],["ethnic groups",[]],["patient cohorts",[]]]},{"de":[["Similar to some shared offline identifiers (e.g. culture, ethnicity, post code), ownership of behavioural identity tokens is distributed across members of the group (see Fig. 3).",[]],["ownership of behavioural identity tokens is distributed across members of the group",[]],["It is these tokens, as opposed to information about a unique individual, that mediate the individual's treatment within a given analytics system.",[]]],"ex":[["shared ownership of behavioural identity tokens",[]]]},{"de":[["Needs and interests are shared between members insofar as Bwhat benefits or harms any member must benefit or harm all^ (Jones 2016).",["Jones 2016"]],["Agency requires selfawareness: groups cannot act in their best interests without first being aware that the group exists.",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["patient advocacy group, labour unions",[]],["patient advocacy group",[]],["labour unions",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Group privacy as conceived in the following sections is based on Luciano Floridi's concept of an informational identity (Floridi 2011) understood within his broader philosophy of information (Floridi 2013b)",["Floridi 2011","Floridi 2013b"]],["based on Luciano Floridi's concept of an informational identity (Floridi 2011) understood within his broader philosophy of information (Floridi 2013b).",[]],["A strong interpretation would allow for rights-holders to make claims over any data processing that generates identity-constitutive information via algorithmic classification",[]],["A weakened but practically feasible interpretation recognises the claims of rightsholders over identity-constitutive data processing as valid but limits them to oversight, not control.",[]],["A weak interpretation denies the rights-holders any claim to control how third parties form views about her.",[]],["Group privacy is closely related to protection of equality through anti-discrimination law insofar individuals are protected in both cases from unfair treatment on the basis of actual or inferred attributes.",[]]],"rt":[["individual privacy",[]],["protection of equality through anti-discrimination law",[]]]},{"sy":[["group right",[]]]},{"de":[["If these interactions constitute the group's identity (as is the case for individuals), then groups can be recognised as possessing an interest in controlling that identity.",[]]]},{"de":[["For the former, data subjects must always be considered along a limited set of dimensions. Classifications are defined along these dimensions.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["moral rights",[]]]},{"de":[["Passive breaches describe potential future effects on identity.",[]]]},{"de":[["Personalisation systems create self-fulfilling behaviours and limit the opportunities available to users according to their classification within the system",["Macnish 2012","Leese 2014"]]]},{},{"de":[["Such protections address the problem of information overload, the overwhelming effort required to control one's data in the information age, by setting particular data types and questions off limits.",[]],["Proactive protections may be preferable due to ad hoc groups lacking self-awareness and collective agency.",[]]]},{"de":[["Reactive protections can (1) provide recourse or compensation to groups when invasive classifications are detected or (2) correct classification systems that subject groups to disproportionate adverse impact (e.g. targeted risk profiling).",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["political friendship",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["data colonialism",[]]]},{"ex":[["the labelling is done by prisoners (Hao, 2019) and the economically vulnerable (Yuan, 2018), in geographies with limited labour laws.",["Hao, 2019","Yuan, 2018"]],["the deployment of predictive algorithms for child welfare interventions by the New Zealand government initially targeted Māori, the indigenous people of New Zealand, who have long experienced institutional racism (Vaithianathan et al., 2013;Gavighan et al., 2019).",["Vaithianathan et al., 2013","Gavighan et al., 2019"]],["the data analytics firm Palantir was found to have experimentally deployed predictive algorithms in the city of New Orleans (in concert with the police department) without public approval. These tools were used to target specific individuals and neighbourhoods for police surveillance, and disproportionately impacted African-Americans (Bullington and Lane, 2018).",["Bullington and Lane, 2018"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Coloniality therefore seeks to explain the continuation of power dynamics between those advantaged and disadvantaged by \"the historical processes of dispossession, enslavement, appropriation and extraction [] central to the emergence of the modern world\"",["Bhambra et al., 2018"]],["Coloniality names the continuity of established patterns of power between coloniser and colonised-and the contemporary remnants of these relationships-and how that power shapes our understanding of culture, labour, intersubjectivity, and knowledge production; what Quijano (2000) refers to as the coloniality of power.",["Quijano, 2000","Quijano (2000)"]],["coloniality is the reproduction of hierarchies of race, gender and geopolitics, which were invented or instrumentalised as tools of colonial control.",["Maldonado-Torres (2007)"]],["for Maldonado-Torres (2007), coloniality is the reproduction of hierarchies of race, gender and geopolitics, which were invented or instrumentalised as tools of colonial control.",["Maldonado-Torres, 2007"]]],"rt":[["historical colonialism",[]],["coloniality of power",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Scholarship in this domain (Winner, 1980;Nissenbaum, 2001;Greene et al., 2019) aims not only to explain sociotechnical phenomena, but to also examine issues of values, culture and power at play between stakeholders and technological artefacts.",[]]]},{"rt":[["data colonialism",[]]]},{"rt":[["data capitalism",["Zuboff, 2019"]]]},{},{"de":[["decolonial theories will expand the practitioner's ability, including ourselves, to ask critical questions of technology research and design, to imagine alternative realities, to question who is developing AI and where, and to examine the roles of culture and power embedded in AI systems",[]],["decolonial theories will provide key resources-whether these be through heterogeneous practice, intercultural dialogue, creole AIs, reverse tutelage, or a politics of friendship and love.",[]]],"rt":[["heterogeneous practice",[]],["intercultural dialogue",[]],["creole AIs",[]],["reverse tutelage",[]],["politics of friendship and love",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["ethics shirking",["Floridi, 2019"]]]},{"rt":[["ethics dumping",["Schroeder et al., 2018"]]]},{"de":[["explanation and transparency",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["three core ethical values or rights that should serve as a minimum standard for human subject research",[]]]},{},{"de":[["do no harm",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["aimance",[]],["politics of friendship",[]]],"sb":[["affective communities",["Gandhi, 2006"]]]},{"de":[["three core ethical values or rights that should serve as a minimum standard for human subject research",[]]]},{"de":[["wherein affected users exposed the system's limitations that led to documented improvements in its subsequent releases.",["Mitchell et al. (2019)"]]]},{"ex":[["algorithmic decision systems, ghost work, beta-testing, national policies, and international social development",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["technical AI safety",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Such a journalist passes along information that they know is false or perhaps is literally true but implies something false.",[]],["Disinformation can include deception regarding both content and authorial status.",[]],["That is, a purveyor of disinformation can deceive an audience about the veracity of a news item as well as deceiving an audience about their own status as a journalist.",[]],["Distinguishing disinformation from content that is not intended to mislead requires understanding the author's intentions.",[]],["Such a journalist passes along information that they know is false or perhaps is literally true but implies something false. Disinformation can include deception regarding both content and authorial status.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["misleading content",[]]],"ex":[["present content as though it were the product of genuine journalistic practices when, in fact, it was not",["Fallis and Mathiesen 2019","Pepp et al. 2019"]]]},{"de":[["When an author includes phrases such as \"I think,\" \"perhaps,\" or \"maybe,\" they alert their readers that they themselves are not certain of the information that they are sharing and thus that readers should not take the content as certainly true.",[]]]},{"de":[["This locates the \"fakeness\" of content in its status as a news article.",[]]]},{"rt":[["Easy problems",[]]]},{"de":[["Distinguishing information from misinformation requires identifying the veracity of the content.",[]]]},{"sb":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["authorial intent",[]]]},{"rt":[["policy challenge",[]]]},{"de":[["This may happen because of an honest journalistic mistake or because they simply don't care about accuracy, as in the case of those who write fake news content for a living.",[]],["Misinformation is characterized by a lack of veracity, that is, the message does not accurately convey information about the target system.",[]],["Distinguishing information from misinformation requires identifying the veracity of the content.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["misleading content",[]]]},{"de":[["Content can mislead an audience for a number of reasons.",[]],["An audience may misunderstand an article if it is too vague or leaves out key information.",[]],["Alternatively, an audience may misunderstand an article if they fail to properly understand the author's intentions.",[]],["distinguishing misleading content from non-misleading content requires determining the truth value of the content and whether a typical person is likely to believe something other than the truth after reading the article.",[]],["Content can mislead an audience for a number of reasons. An audience may misunderstand an article if it is too vague or leaves out key information. Alternatively, an audience may misunderstand an article if they fail to properly understand the author's intentions.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]],"ex":[["Satirical writing, for example, often misleads readers who fail to understand that the intent was to entertain rather than inform",["Garrett et al. 2019"]],["content can mislead when people treat it as though it were news produced through traditional journalistic methods when, in fact, it was not",["Pepp et al. 2019"]]]},{"rt":[["labeling challenge",[]]]},{"de":[["Words like \"cruel,\" \"brave,\" \"just,\" or, in our examples, \"oppress\" and \"ahead of the times\" have such entangled uses.",[]]],"ex":[["\"cruel,\" \"brave,\" \"just,\" or, in our examples, \"oppress\" and \"ahead of the times\"",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["care ethics is concerned about its effects on interpersonal relations",[]],["undermines interpersonal relations and fundamental social values such as trust and mutual respect",[]]]},{},{"de":[["deception and misrepresentation do not require the sophisticated means provided by machine learning.",[]]],"sy":[["shallow fakes",[]]],"rt":[["deepfakes",[]]]},{"de":[["Consequentialism considers outcomes decisive in determining moral rightness and wrongness",[]],["has significant adverse consequences that outweigh its positive effects",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Mahon (2016) notes that \"deceive\" is \"an achievement or success verb\" which entails that \"[a]n act of deceiving is not an act of deceiving unless a particular result is achieved.\"",["Mahon (2016)","Ryle (1949: 130)"]]]},{"de":[["The term itself indicates that it is closely related to deception.",[]]],"rt":[["cheap fakes",[]],["shallow fakes",[]]],"ex":[["face swaps can be used to create deepfake material of virtually anyone.",[]],["deepfakes that make use of the image and voice of real persons",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["revenge porn",[]]]},{},{"de":[["whereas the original author is not credited in plagiarism, in deepfakes credits are falsely attributed to the subject portrayed in the deepfake rather than to its creator",["Diakopoulos & Johnson, 2020: 11","2020: 11"]],["The idea here is that whereas the original author is not credited in plagiarism, in deepfakes credits are falsely attributed to the subject portrayed in the deepfake rather than to its creator",["2020: 11"]]],"rt":[["libel",[]],["slander",[]],["digital impersonation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["virtue ethics focuses on the ways in which the object under study shapes the character of persons",[]],["weakens virtue and/or promotes vice",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["news media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["This goes beyond the development of technical skills and competences, or personal response to texts, to promote engagement with social, cultural, political and economic perspectives, values and ideas, including a critique of how these are created, circulated, used and consumed via media.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["news media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["Rather, news media literacy should promote civic reasoning and a lifelong engagement with social, cultural, political and economic perspectives, values and ideas, including knowledge about how to critique how news is created, circulated, used and consumed and the ability to think through issues of power, ownership and control.",[]],["news media literacy encompasses far more than a set of technical, digital skills that aim to identify misinformation",[]]],"sy":[["news literacy",[]]],"rt":[["critical literacy skills",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["motivation",[]],["means of dissemination",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["propaganda",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["distort factual information to reach wildly different ends than those suggested by a good-faith and truthful reading",[]],["the term is mainly associated nowadays with the concept of war and war-time efforts at changing the hearts and minds of people at home and abroad",[]],["The debasing of faith in information can also force those targeted by fake news to cede the power of truth in its own right.",[]],["the suspension of disbelief along with the spread of false information can be both willing and unwilling as well as intended and unintended.",[]],["fake news is a double-edged sword, capable of helping or harming established power structures while also being applied to both aggressor and victim.",[]],["fake news needs to be understood from multiple perspectives",[]],["Political Science focus on the actors and the power structures that perpetuate fake news",[]],["English faculty appear to focus more on the users or readers and the motivations behind creating fake news",[]],["faculty in Health Sciences were concerned with the means of how information was disseminated and the message or content within it",[]],["The College of Humanities emphasized the types of sources and their origins far more than in depth research",[]],["The definition of fake news itself is not standardized and is conceptualized differently by the various disciplines, resulting in a hodge-podge of approaches and understandings.",[]],["Some of the faculty we surveyed define fake news in incomplete ways, perhaps taking it as the result of poorly educated users, or of malicious actors, but not as a unified and intertwined series of complex phenomena.",[]],["it must be seen as a combination of currently existing definitions, ranging from misinformation, disinformation, satire and parody, and so on",[]]],"rt":[["political propaganda and disinformation",[]],["rumor and the spread of misinformation",[]],["parody",[]],["satire",[]],["political kayfabe",[]],["propaganda",[]],["rumor",[]],["misinformation",[]],["conspiracy theory",[]],["disinformation",[]],["kayfabe",[]],["mimicry",[]],["imitation",[]]],"sb":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["satire",[]],["parody",[]],["propaganda",[]],["rumor",[]]],"ex":[["stories in The Onion satirical magazine",[]],["Russian disinformation campaigns",[]]]},{"de":[["Essentially people reach a 'point of noreturn' where their ability to process information becomes less efficient and decisionmaking becomes less-accurate.",[]]]},{"de":[["the more obscure kayfabe, which we believe are essential aspects to the concept of fake news",[]]],"sy":[["make-believe",[]]],"rt":[["Parody / satire",[]],["political theater",[]]]},{},{"de":[["faculty attitudes toward fake news generally fall within the more negative sub-topics of misinformation, propaganda, and rumor",[]]],"sy":[["rumor",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["rumor",[]]]},{},{"de":[["concepts of mimicry, imitation, and parody play fundamental roles in how fake news itself is generated, how it is spread, further perpetuated, and how it may be counteracted.",[]]],"rt":[["mimicry",[]],["imitation",[]]],"ex":[["The Onion",[]],["the Daily Show",[]],["SNL",[]]]},{"sy":[["make-believe",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["post-fact",["Mihailidis and Viotty 2017"]]]},{},{"de":[["faculty attitudes toward fake news generally fall within the more negative sub-topics of misinformation, propaganda, and rumor",[]]],"sy":[["Disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["faculty attitudes toward fake news generally fall within the more negative sub-topics of misinformation, propaganda, and rumor",[]]],"sy":[["misinformation",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["parody, satire, and the more obscure kayfabe, which we believe are essential aspects to the concept of fake news",[]]]},{"sy":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["homophily",[]]]},{"de":[["nodes of the same label are likely to link together regardless of their features or position in the original graph",[]]],"rt":[["mixing",[]],["heterophily",[]]]},{"de":[["identifizieren wir auf Basis des sozialpsychologischen Bystander-Ansatzes Faktoren, die potenziell die Interventionsentscheidungen von Menschen in Notfallsituationen erklären",[]],["geeignet ist, um nicht nur zivilcouragiertes Eingreifen in unmittelbare Notfallsituation zu erklären, sondern auch die Intervention in weniger offensichtliche Situationen, in denen im Internet gesellschaftliche Normen und Werte verletzt oder Gruppen ausgegrenzt und stigmatisiert werden",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Häufig K werden interpersonale Umgangsformen (Höflichkeit) missachtet, indem andere Diskussionsteilnehmer*innen beleidigt werden oder sich die Verfasser*innen vulgärer Sprache bedienen. Außerdem werden soziale und demokratische Normen (Zivilität) verletzt, wenn soziale Gruppen bspw. rassistisch und sexistisch abgewertet werden oder andere Diskussionsteilnehmer*innen der Lüge bezichtigt oder gar bedroht werden",["Papacharissi 2004","Coe et al. 2014"]],["Unzivile Kommentare konterkarieren das deliberative Ideal eines freien, respektvollen und konstruktiven Austausches (Habermas 1992;z. B. Friess und Eilders 2015), können die wahrgenommene journalistische Qualität von Medienbeiträgen verringern (Prochazka et al. 2018), Vorurteile gegenüber bestimmten Gruppen verstärken (Hsueh et al. 2015), prosoziales Verhalten gegenüber sozial benachteiligten Gruppen reduzieren (Ziegele et al. 2018b) und andere Nutzer*innen von der aktiven Beteiligung an Diskussionen abschrecken (Springer et al. 2015).",["Habermas 1992","Friess und Eilders 2015","Prochazka et al. 2018","Hsueh et al. 2015","Ziegele et al. 2018b","Springer et al. 2015"]],["Inzivilität wird entsprechend von Nutzer*innen auch als Normverletzung auf gesellschaftlicher Ebene wahrgenommen",["Muddiman 2017"]]],"rt":[["prosoziales Verhalten",[]]]},{"sy":[["passiver Leser",[]]]},{"sy":[["internal efficacy",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Im Unterschied zu allgemeinem Hilfeverhalten (z. B. jemandem die Türe aufhalten) spricht man von Zivilcourage, wenn eine Person in eine für Dritte bedrohliche Situation eingreift, obwohl sie mit physischen, psychischen oder sozialen Konsequenzen für das Eingreifen rechnen muss",["Fischer et al. 2004"]]],"ex":[["das öffentliche Widersprechen gegen rassistische Aussagen in einer konkreten Situation dadurch motiviert sein, dass man nicht in einer Gesellschaft le-K ben möchte, in der solche Äußerungen unwidersprochen bleiben oder gar akzeptiert werden",["Fischer et al. 2013"]],["So kann beispielsweise das öffentliche Widersprechen gegen rassistische Aussagen in einer konkreten Situation dadurch motiviert sein, dass man nicht in einer Gesellschaft le-K ben möchte, in der solche Äußerungen unwidersprochen bleiben oder gar akzeptiert werden (Fischer et al. 2013).",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Echo chambers can also emerge from cognitive mechanisms, such as confirmation bias, when information propagates through centralized channels reaching a large portion of the population",["39"]]],"rt":[["homophily",[]]]},{},{"de":[["two different algorithmic pathways to opinion fragmentation, both related to the way algorithms filter and rank information",[]]]},{"de":[["The first refers to search engines",["34"]]],"rt":[["echo chamber",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The average opinion is therefore not conserved, unlike in the model proposed by Deffuant [25].",["25"]]]},{"rt":[["opinion polarization",[]]]},{"rt":[["network segregation",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["facilitating repeated exposure to the same opinion",[]]]},{"de":[["the model, which is equipped with four elements: problem definition, causal interpretation, moral evaluation, and treatment recommendation.",[]]],"sp":[["framing theory",[]],["framing",[]],["Frame Elements",[]]]},{"de":[["The way facts are communicated can significantly influence an individual's perception and interpretation of the information.",[]],["Framing theory illuminates the process by which communicators strategically highlight specific facets of a perceived reality within a communication text",["7"]]]},{"de":[["A frame is generally composed of four elements, and they constitute how information should be displayed in front of the readers and how the readers would perceive the content.",[]],["exploring the individual contribution of distinct frame elements is vital to help us understand how frame elements influence the model's capability to grasp the veracity of information.",[]],["This highlights the significance of elements of framing theory in the detection process and underscores their potential to enhance detection accuracy.",[]]],"sb":[["problem definition",["7"]],["causal interpretation",["7"]],["moral evaluation",["7"]],["treatment recommendations",[]],["treatment recommendation",["7"]]],"sp":[["Frame",[]]]},{"de":[["It is about selecting and deciding which parts of a situation or event to make salient to an audience.",[]],["The framing of accurate information by selectively highlighting certain aspects while omitting others can lead to the communication of a different message than the original, accurate narrative intended",["6"]]],"rt":[["narrative frames",[]],["framing theory",[]]],"sb":[["problem definition",[]],["causal interpretation",[]],["moral evaluation",[]],["treatment recommendation",[]]]},{"de":[["Additionally, framing theory suggests that four frame elements contribute to how information is presented: problem definition, causal interpretation, moral evaluation, and treatment recommendation",["7"]],["Frame elements contribute to a deeper semantic understanding of the content by narrowing it down to the core theme, thereby reducing distracting noise.",[]]],"sb":[["problem definition",["7"]],["causal interpretation",["7"]],["moral evaluation",["7"]],["treatment recommendation",["7"]]]},{},{"de":[["The narrative of the information is constructed to reflect its true nature and implications without distorting or omitting key elements.",[]]]},{"de":[["Misinformation in today's media landscape is growing substantively, where fake news and false or misleading information are disseminated through various media channels, e.g., news websites and online social media platforms that most people frequently use and consume information",["1"]],["The key aspect of misinformation in this work is not the distorted facts themselves, but rather how they are presented in a misleading narrative.",[]],["fake news and false or misleading information are disseminated through various media channels, e.g., news websites and online social media platforms that most people frequently use and consume information",["1"]],["fake news and false or misleading information are disseminated through various media channels",["1"]]],"rt":[["narrative manipulation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the model, which is equipped with four elements: problem definition, causal interpretation, moral evaluation, and treatment recommendation.",[]],["It appears to be an important factor in the framing of information, indicating that it is often manipulated in the context of misinformation to elicit emotional biases or influence ethical stances.",[]],["the absence of certain framing elements, particularly Problem Definition and Moral Evaluation, leads to a significant decrease in the model's accuracy and precision.",[]]],"sp":[["framing theory",[]],["framing",[]],["Frame Elements",[]]]},{"de":[["In the current context, the narrative indicates the news stories and articles being disseminated online.",[]]]},{"de":[["how information is presented and communicated in a narrative -the story that communicates the facts in a meaningful way -can influence an individual's perception and interpretation of that information",["6","7","8","9","10"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["specific function, however, is to highlight the \"main issue\" (Piazza 2020), precisely, to which they are linked.",[]]],"sy":[["main theme",[]]],"ex":[["the at-issue content is conveyed by: \"Yesterday Maria danced all night.\"",[]]]},{"de":[["These reasons, based on stereotypes, prejudices and unreasonable beliefs, have the specificity of being impervious to the evidence, even if the evidence is contrary to what is believed.",[]]]},{"de":[["Normative language in general, and legal language in particular, is a language known, written and spoken only in very small circles of those in power.",[]]],"sy":[["legal language",[]]]},{"de":[["Finally, the language of propaganda leads us to believe that culture and critical thinking dissenting from that expressed by those in power is the social problem to be remedied questions on different subjects.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["evidence element",["Murray 2014"]]]},{"de":[["They are often perceived as negligible clarifications, placed against the background of the discourse of \"at-issue content\", whose specific function, however, is to highlight the \"main issue\" (Piazza 2020), precisely, to which they are linked. They have the effect of concealing that, with their use, one casts a shadow of discredit or, conversely, one wants to exalt the main theme (at-issue content).",["Piazza 2020"]],["The \"not at-issue contents\" are therefore apparently irrelevant; in substance, however, they highlight, without explicitly stating it, an aspect, a profile, an element proper to what is to be accepted, uncontroversial, preferable or, what is to be described as objectionable, to be rejected, not accepted, blameworthy etc.",[]]],"sy":[["evidence element",["Murray 2014"]]],"ex":[["\"I was told that\", on the other hand, it is a statement that is exempt from a form of verification or control, at least of a direct kind.",[]],["\"Everyone knows that\", however, is related to what we can represent in sunsets: it alludes, in the specific context proposed, to certain elements, which are no longer only proposed as natural phenomena, but are qualified in a positive, praiseworthy way, so much so that in the message sunsets become \"source of inspiration.\"",[]]]},{"de":[["The characteristic of this type of language is the targeted use of fake news, of fake stories, characteristic even more highlighted by the articulated distortion made of the reality provided in the narratives (Brunner 1991, pp.1-21, Di Donato 2011;Mittica 2011).",["Brunner 1991, pp.1-21","Di Donato 2011","Mittica 2011"]],["It is also characterised by a degree of concealment and manipulation, selectivity of the facts of reality. Messages can involve different degrees of coercion or threat, can leverage fear or appeal to positive aspirations (Piazza 2020).",["Piazza 2020"]],["The language of propaganda does not use overtly denigrating expressions, or an overtly racist, offensive or discriminatory language; instead, it uses apparently neutral expressions, which act as keywords, capable of opening up a universe of unconscious, underlying, unspoken meanings.",[]],["In the language of propaganda, exalted or depreciated values are a distorted expression, as they are manipulated and based on misleading, lying, irrational elements, even if they are deliberately promoted as expressions of a common feeling.",[]],["What is communicated is a short, superficial, trivial, if not distorted and unstructured oral content.",[]],["it is a language that makes us understand how important narratives are, in the legal, political and social context.",[]],["distorting the perception of reality.",[]],["manipulative and deceptive language is used by, or concerns, institutions and individuals who have the power to institute, process and introduce norms, to affect, condition, and transform the lives of citizens.",[]]],"rt":[["language of power",[]],["fake news",[]],["fake stories",[]]],"sb":[["supporting propaganda",["Stanley 2020, pp. 125-222"]],["undermining propaganda",["Stanley 2020, pp. 125-222"]],["Propaganda speeches, real or literary",[]]],"ex":[["Russian propaganda",[]],["Ukrainian propaganda news",[]]]},{"de":[["This linguistic, political and institutional operation is carried out with the aim of distracting both individuals and large masses of people from problems or issues (political, legal, social) that concern them and which, on the contrary, are removed from public debate.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["Generally, we use a language inspired by values loaded with positive values, or by good ideals promoted by a certain purpose.",[]]],"sp":[["propaganda",["Stanley 2020, pp. 125-222"]]]},{"de":[["Persuasion is accomplished by showing what it wants to oppose, despise, demonize. It is mostly carried out by hitting certain subjects directly, if they carry out certain behaviours that are deemed not to be approved. Indirectly, however, a wider audience is also affected: much importance is given to the blame and disapproval associated with sanctioned conduct, precisely to highlight the values to be deprecated. Undermining propaganda can be perpetrated with increasing levels of disapproval, up to actual censorship (Pintore 2021). It is often induced by arousing feelings of fear, evoking danger, or threatening serious repercussions in the personal sphere of the interlocutors. This happens if the recipient and / or the audience are resistant to rejecting certain values or ideals, which a certain authority wants no longer to be considered either positive or approachable (Piazza 2020).",["Pintore 2021","Piazza 2020"]],["the \"not at-issue contents\" of [underminig] propaganda are, specifically, mostly expressions of discredit, or manifestations of prejudices. We can find disparaging, irrational phrases or assessments added to the discursive universe of the meanings in question, which presuppose and imply that these are matters commonly accepted, or considered harmless, and as such merit little attention and not subject to debate.",[]]],"sp":[["propaganda",["Stanley 2020, pp. 125-222"]]],"ex":[["Through undermining propaganda, one is literally deceived, because the recipients of the message conveyed are led to believe that they are promoting an end that they are contributing to compromise, or because they are so strongly conditioned that they believe they are living in a society that pursues values, or positive purposes, when these values are systematically trampled and disqualified (Piazza 2020).",["Piazza 2020"]]]},{"de":[["This is the mode of reliance and rational expectations.",[]],["Instrumental rationality is what allows humans to survive in the Hobbesian state of nature.",[]],["the instrumental rationality gathers data to produce knowledge (which can be an end itself for the individual) or to make better decisions against others",[]]],"rt":[["social rationality",[]],["social rationality of trust",[]],["reliance",[]],["rational expectations",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Its cognitive process does not vary with the degree of information available, so that a lack of information would automatically make it switch to another decision mode, that of trust.",[]]]},{"rt":[["rational choice theory",[]]]},{"de":[["The reliance is here based on perfectly rational information (white blouse, people in the waiting room, doctor listed on the official register, etc.), so here again we are facing rational expectations made on limited information.",[]],["considered as a weak degree of trust",["8"]]],"rt":[["trust",[]]]},{"de":[["social rationality is to be satisfied by the sole existence of trust relationships, id est by the simple fact to be relating to others in a certain way, conceiving social integration as an end itself.",[]],["Social rationality is what enables them to flourish in society.",[]],["While the instrumental rationality gathers data to produce knowledge (which can be an end itself for the individual) or to make better decisions against others, the social rationality is to be satisfied by the sole existence of trust relationships",[]]],"rt":[["instrumental rationality",[]],["trust",[]]]},{"rt":[["instrumental rationality",[]]]},{"rt":[["trust",[]]]},{"de":[["its complexity is testament of a rich evolution in its theory and manifestation across societies",[]],["mechanism to control risks and uncertainty",[]],["trust would be entirely finalised, characterising relationships between rational agent who only trust each other when they have an interest to, expect some benefits for themselves [16], and anticipate a rational interest from others to be trustworthy in the right way, at the right moment [21].",["16","21"]],["trust is beyond reason, or more precisely beyond this rationality.",[]],["trust is not a matter of reason and is even most spectacularly exhibited when one puts someone else's words above all other contradictory information they may have, to make a decision against all rational expectations.",[]],["it is a choice which necessarily implies putting oneself in a situation of voluntary vulnerability for the purpose of social integration.",[]],["trust cannot be captured by rational decision theory, and it is most strongly experienced precisely when it dictates a behaviour opposed to the recommendation of the decision-making process, based on rational expectations.",[]],["trust derives from social rationality and is necessarily associated to the possibility of betrayal, implying intentionality",[]]],"rt":[["social trust",[]],["instrumental rationality",[]],["social rationality",[]]]},{"de":[["dominating narrative, influencing the collective understanding of societies worldwide.",[]],["We argue that the mechanisms of AI hype stretches far beyond the actual capabilities and presumed transformative power of AI technologies and that it is rather a result of complex sociotechnical forces.",[]],["the AI hype is manifested into technodeterminist rethorics, where nations build imaginaries of AI as both inevitable and necessary for the nations flourishing and survival.",[]],["we recognise AI hype as a socio-technical narrative which is spun through a multitude of mechanisms globally and affect societies, and our planet, worldwide.",[]]],"sy":[["global AI enthusiasm",[]]],"rt":[["AI winters",[]],["AI winter",[]]]},{"rt":[["AI hype",[]]],"ex":[["(such as in the 1970s)",[]]]},{"de":[["Anthropomorphism as a phenomenon makes itself present as a shared narrative among users, technologies, designers, innovators and regulators alike, with significant epistemological and ethical consequences",["38"]],["anthropomorphization of AI technologies often is a deliberate design choice made by innovators, developers and deployers alike",["45"]]],"rt":[["Personification of AI",[]],["mystification",[]]]},{"de":[["Similar to psychological hallucination, which is hard to tell apart from other 'real' perceptions, hallucinated text is also hard to capture",["ibid."]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["which are also affected by psychopathological symptoms and online state-FoMO.",[]]],"rt":[["Internet-use expectancies",[]]],"sp":[["Internet-use expectancies",[]]]},{"de":[["Therefore, we may assume that FoMO is not a unitary phenomenon, but rather a more complex construct that could reflect a certain personal predisposition, but also a specific cognition regarding the fear of missing out on something that occurs online.",[]],["reflects people's fears and worries about being out of touch with experiences across their extended social environment.",[]]],"sb":[["trait-FoMO",[]],["state-FoMO",[]]]},{"ex":[["Facebook",[]],["WhatsApp",[]],["Twitter",[]]]},{},{"de":[["One scale reflects positive expectancies (e.g. \"I use Internetcommunication applications to experience pleasure\"; six items). The other reflects avoidance expectancies (e.g. \"I use Internet-communication applications to distract myself from problems\", six items).",[]]],"sb":[["positive expectancies",[]],["avoidance expectancies",[]]],"sp":[["Internet-related cognitive biases",[]]]},{},{"de":[["state-FoMO as a mediator between psychopathological symptoms and avoidance expectancies as well as ICD",[]],["online-specific FoMO is a relevant mediating variable for the addictive use of Internet-communication applications",[]],["this type of FoMO considered important in the context of using Internet-communication applications.",[]],["is the more relevant link between the person's core characteristics (psychopathological symptoms) and the ICD.",[]]],"sy":[["online-specific FoMO",[]]],"rt":[["FoMO",[]]],"sp":[["FoMO",[]],["Fear of Missing Out (FoMO)",[]],["Internet-related cognitive biases",[]]],"ex":[["the fear of missing out on what friends are doing could be part of these social functions and could influence users' motives for participating",[]]]},{"de":[["not just for women but also now for men",["Tantleff-Dunn, Barnes, & Larose, 2014"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["This model characterizes weight stigma not as a static construct but rather a \"vicious cycle\" -a positive feedback loop wherein weight stigma begets weight gain through increased eating and other biobehavioral mechanisms.",[]],["weight stigma is linked to exercise avoidance",[]],["obesity stigma begets increased eating and fat deposition, and is therefore a hurdle to weight loss.",[]],["weight stigma may even be \"salt in the wound\" contributing to the pathophysiology of obesity (Tomiyama et al., 2014).",["Tomiyama et al., 2014"]]],"rt":[["weight-stigmatizing task",[]]],"sp":[["social stigma",[]]],"ex":[["Children as young as 3 years describe overweight children as \"mean,\" \"stupid,\" \"lazy,\" and \"ugly\" (Cramer & Steinwert, 1998)",[]],["Overweight individuals are negatively stereotyped, and commonly perceived as lazy, lacking in willpower and control, and unattractive (Brochu & Esses, 2011).",["2011"]]]},{"de":[["Drawing an analogy to medical immunization, inoculation-based interventions encompass two fundamental components: warning about the existence of false and potentially harmful information and exposing people to small doses of misinformation that replicate common manipulation strategies effectively deployed in social networks.",[]]]},{"de":[["information whose veracity is often uncertain, as anyone globally can produce it",["49"]]]},{},{"rt":[["social news",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["This can include disclosing information such as name, age, gender, profession, location, and also information that portrays users in certain ways.",[]]],"rt":[["self-disclosure",[]]],"ex":[["Many individuals who participate in online activities use their real names (e.g., Guy Kawasaki, a leading blogger and managing director of Garage Technology Ventures), while other influential social media mavens are known by their nicknames, or 'handles' (e.g., hummingbird604 is Raul Pacheco, a blogger and educator on environmental issues).",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["It includes knowing where others are, in the virtual world and/or in the real world, and whether they are available.",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["Jeremiah Owyang's 70,000 and Guy Kawasaki's 292,000 followers on Twitter attest their reputations as social media maven and emerging technology expert, respectively.",[]],["LinkedIn, which builds the reputation of one individual based on endorsements from others.",[]],["On YouTube, the reputation of videos might be based on 'view counts' or 'ratings,' while on Facebook this could be 'likes,' and so forth.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["bookmarking sites",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["Voice-swapping",[]],["Text to Speech",[]]],"sp":[["deepfakes",[]]],"ex":[["The voice of an audio book narration can sound younger, older, male, or female and with different dialects or accents to take on different characters.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The phenomenon gained its name from an anonymous user of the platform Reddit, who went by the name \"deepfakes\" (deep learning + fakes)",[]],["content manipulation",[]],["the potential for dark, malicious, deceptive and destructive potential of deepfakes for individuals, organizations (and brands) and governments outweighs the bright opportunities for thoughtful, sincere and constructive applications today",[]],["Novel and publicly available tools now enable the semi-automated creation of much improved and more convincing fakes.",[]]],"sy":[["deep learning + fakes",[]]],"rt":[["content manipulation",[]]],"sb":[["photo (face-and body-swapping)",[]],["audio (voice-swapping, text to speech)",[]],["video (face-swapping, face-morphing, full body puppetry)",[]],["audio & video (lipsynching)",[]],["face-swapping",[]],["voice dubbing",[]],["Photo deepfakes",[]],["Audio deepfakes",[]],["video deepfakes",[]],["image, audio, video, and audio/video deepfakes",[]]],"ex":[["Brie/Carrey face-swap",[]],["deepfakes featuring Nicolas Cage in various Hollywood scenes",[]],["transplant the face of Scarlett Johansson and many of her famous colleagues onto the bodies of actors in adult videos",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Hollywood will be an early adopter. Certainly, face-swapping (aka face-leasing) and voice dubbing will be popular, so that movie or advertising producers can fix misspoken lines or make script changes without re-recording footage, and create seamless dubs of actors speaking different languages.",[]]],"sy":[["face-leasing",[]]],"rt":[["voice dubbing",[]]],"sp":[["deepfakes",[]],["Video deepfakes",[]]],"ex":[["Jim Carrey's face replaces Alison Brie's in \"Late Night with Seth Meyers\" interview.",[]]]},{"sp":[["deepfakes",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["alternative news sources",[]]],"ex":[["conspiracy theories, link between vaccines and autism etc",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["one of the most popular memes that explicitly spread a false rumor (in text form) reads: Italian Senate voted and accepted (257 in favor and 165 abstentions) a law proposed by Senator Cirenga aimed at funding with 134 billion Euros the policy-makers to find a job in case of defeat in the political competition.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["deficits in psychological needs may increase people's sensitivity to fear missing out",[]],["Individuals who fear to miss out on social opportunities want to stay continually connected with others and updated about what others are doing",["Przybylski et al., 2013"]],["deficits in psychological need satisfaction may predict a fear of missing out.",["Przybylski et al., 2013"]],["Adolescents' fear to miss out on events, in turn, likely drives their Facebook use, as Facebook enables adolescents to stay continually connected with their peers",["Shapiro & Margolin, 2013"]],["FoMO was the mechanism linking adults' need satisfaction with social media engagement.",["Przybylski et al., 2013"]],["FoMO in the relationship between college students' academic motivations and social media engagement.",["Alt, 2015"]]]},{"sp":[["social needs",[]]]},{"sp":[["social needs",[]]]},{"de":[["the lack of civility drives people away from engaging in political discussions",["Johnson & Johnson, 2000","Papacharissi, 2004"]],["Civility is often perceived as the appropriate behavior to exhibit in political communication",["Johnson & Johnson, 2000","Papacharissi, 2004"]]]},{"de":[["These features have been dubbed \"click speech\" (p. 393), because opinion expressions happen with simple clicks, and do not require users to produce their own content (Sklan, 2013).",["Sklan, 2013"]],["Click speech provides different measures and indicators of the opinion climate through the number of \"likes\" or \"shares\" that a post receives.",[]],["Not all click speech is the same, as we found different effects for liking as well as commenting.",[]],["click speech as a form of opinion expression",[]]],"rt":[["opinion expressions",[]]],"sp":[["opinion expression",[]]],"ex":[["liking",[]],["commenting",[]],["sharing",[]],["Sharing a post surfaces as a distinct form of click speech",[]]]},{},{"de":[["is less harmful than incivility as it is a common phenomenon in debates and occurs spontaneously.",[]]],"sy":[["rudeness",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This implies that there is much self-selection and selective exposure, information may be selected subjectively and interpretations may be narrow",["Schulz & Roessler, 2012"]]]},{},{"de":[["If individuals perceive that their opinion is congruent with the opinion climatein other words, they hold a majority-held opinionthey are more likely to express them. If they perceive their opinions to be incongruent with the opinion climate, they are likely to remain silent.",[]]]},{"rt":[["opinion expressions",[]],["opinion climate",[]]]},{"sp":[["Big Five",[]]]},{"de":[["People who score low on conscientiousness are more likely to engage in antisocial behavior",["38"]]],"sp":[["Big Five",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Big Five",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In both echo chambers, we find positive levels of openness, indicating a tendency to have unconventional interests and a preference for the complex and ambiguous over the plain and the straightforward.",[]]],"sp":[["Big Five",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Issue framing goes hand in hand with political persuasion and both are key catalysts of opinion change",["Nelson & Oxley, 2012"]]],"rt":[["persuasion",[]],["issue framing",[]],["framing effects",[]]],"sb":[["issue framing",[]]]},{"de":[["Successful persuasion via issue framing leads to framing effects that in turn impact public attitudes.",[]],["Politicians and activists have to deploy a variety of frames alongside such persuasion tactics as analogies and metaphors in order to attain",[]]],"rt":[["issue framing",[]]],"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{"de":[["framing policy issues one way or another does make a difference as far as persuasion is concerned",[]],["Narrowly focused, issue framing as a persuasion tactic involves the use of \"alternative definitions, constructs, or depictions of a policy problem\"",["Nelson & Oxley, 2012, p. 1041"]]],"rt":[["persuasion",[]],["framing",[]]],"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{"de":[["Persuasion normally takes the form of campaigns that \"are systematic, organized efforts to mold health or social attitudes through the use of communication\" (Perloff, 2003, p. 304).",["Perloff, 2003, p. 304"]],["One way to attain this inducement is by portraying issues and considerations in a way that makes them more salient to audiences, thus framing.",[]]],"rt":[["framing",[]]],"ex":[["YouTube anti-smoking PSAs have been shown to positively influence viewers",["Shi, Messaris, & Capella, 2014"]],["a simple Twitter handle in changing dietary habits",[]],["firm-generated social media content uniquely influences consumer buying and spending decisions",["Kumar, Bezawada, Rishika, Janikiraman, & Kannan, 2016"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Trustworthiness and perceived competence of the source are accompanying factors",["O' Keefe, 1990"]],["source credibility, which is based on a set of five factors: Source, message, recipient, channel and persistence.",["Smith, Lasswell & Casey, 1946"]],["Trustworthiness and perceived competence of the source are accompanying factors (O' Keefe, 1990).",["O' Keefe, 1990"]]],"rt":[["persuasion",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["out-group",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["in-group",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["trolling in the subcultural sense is predicated on aspects of media culture, with which it forms a symbiotic relationship",["Phillips, 2013"]],["covert tactics such as digression from the discussion topic at hand and the criticism of spelling or grammatical errors made by others, to overt ones such as the use of insensitive, inflammatory and threatening language",[]],["the motivation underlying the latter being what distinguishes trolling from the making of belligerent comments when engaged in a hostile debate",["Leaver, 2013","Phillips, 2011"]],["identifying its four primary characteristics to be those of aggression, disruption, success and deception",["Hardaker (2010)"]]],"ex":[["continuously spamming discussion threads with nonsensical statements to attempting to engage others in a game of transgressive one-upmanship and, in their most extreme form the use of vitriolic language and the distribution of offensive memes.",[]]]},{"de":[["Diakopoulos (2015) identified the algorithmic power as something worthy of scrutiny by computational journalists interested in accountability reporting.",["Diakopoulos (2015)"]]]},{},{"sy":[["robot journalism",["Clerwall, 2014","Dawson, 2010","Van Dalen, 2012"]],["automated content",["Anderson, 2013","Bunz, 2010","Levy, 2012"]],["algorithmic news",["Anderson, 2013","Bunz, 2010","Levy, 2012"]]]},{},{"sy":[["computational journalism",[]],["automated content",[]],["algorithmic news",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["robot journalism",[]]]},{"rt":[["ingroup favoritism",[]],["outgroup negativity",[]],["ingroup-outgroup distinction",[]]]},{"de":[["We use congruence to differentiate with consistency by addressing the message uniformity across communication actors during a similar timeframe.",[]]],"rt":[["consistency",[]]]},{"de":[["We use this metric to stress the reinforcement of similar messages and attitudes over time.",[]]],"rt":[["congruence",[]]]},{"de":[["crisis communication is event centered.",[]],["crisis communication is event centered",[]]],"rt":[["public relations",[]],["communication management",[]],["risk communication",[]]],"ex":[["business/corporate",[]],["organizational hazards",[]],["food safety",[]],["organizations",[]],["community",[]],["social amplification",[]],["government",[]]]},{"de":[["regarded as a global public-health threat as false information and affects people's preventive behaviors and increases the epidemic and pandemic risk",["Larson, 2018"]]]},{"de":[["Given that two recent coronavirus epidemics (e.g. SARS COV-1 and MERS) did not have a widespread impact on U.S. health and mortality this construct may help to explain this in the early beliefs about COVID-19 disease risk and associated response of U.S. health agencies.",[]]]},{"de":[["risk communication focuses on the projection of some harm that may happen in the future (i.e. risk centered)",[]]],"rt":[["crisis communication",[]]]},{"de":[["fake news is simply \"bullshit\" (Pennycook & Rand, 2020)",["Pennycook & Rand, 2020"]]]},{},{"de":[["In order to avoid or reduce cognitive dissonance, new and dissonant information may get dismissed as biased, untrustworthy or simply false, whereas consonant information may be accepted and integrated in the pre-existing knowledge",["McGrath, 2017","Weeks et al., 2017"]]],"rt":[["confirmation bias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Conceptual change has been extensively researched in the last decades, although it has hardly ever been related to fake news.",[]]]},{"de":[["Cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957) is a prominent way of explaining the confirmation bias.",["Festinger, 1957"]],["Cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957) is a prominent way of explaining the confirmation bias. In order to avoid or reduce cognitive dissonance, new and dissonant information may get dismissed as biased, untrustworthy or simply false, whereas consonant information may be accepted and integrated in the pre-existing knowledge (McGrath, 2017;Weeks et al., 2017).",["Festinger, 1957","McGrath, 2017","Weeks et al., 2017"]]],"rt":[["Cognitive dissonance",["Festinger, 1957"]]]},{"de":[["Filter bubbles, at their extreme, can turn to echo chambers",[]]],"rt":[["filter bubbles",["Pariser, 2016"]]]},{"rt":[["framing",[]]],"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{"de":[["the latter the sharing of fake news",[]]],"rt":[["inoculation",[]]]},{"de":[["features a variety of different content from many aspects of life, from which conspiracy theories are a prominent recurring topic and therefore dangerous",["Lewandowsky et al., 2017"]]],"sy":[["bullshit",["Pennycook & Rand, 2020"]]],"rt":[["fake news illiteracy",[]]]},{"de":[["fake news illiteracy fuels flawed evaluation of news and misinformation processing, and results in change resistant misconceptions.",[]]],"rt":[["media literacy",["Potter, 2018"]],["fake news",[]]]},{"rt":[["information literacy",[]]]},{"rt":[["echo chambers",[]]]},{"rt":[["value framing",[]],["emotional framing",[]],["semantic framing",[]]],"sb":[["value framing",[]],["emotional framing",[]],["semantic framing",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the former mainly addressing the reception, acceptance and sharing levels",[]]],"rt":[["fact checking",[]]]},{"de":[["Due to confirmation bias, these misconceptions can be consolidated by selective exposure to information, i.e., by actively searching for new pieces of information conforming to existing misconceptions, assimilating these and thus building larger flawed knowledge structures",["Weeks et al., 2017"]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["framing",[]]],"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Humans are not very good at identifying deception (DePaulo et al., 1997;Rubin & Conroy, 2012), i.e., we tend to believe others and perceive information we receive from them as reliable",["DePaulo et al., 1997","Rubin & Conroy, 2012"]]]},{"rt":[["framing",[]]],"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{"sp":[["Empathy",[]]]},{"sp":[["moral disengagement",[]]]},{"sp":[["Empathy",[]]]},{"sp":[["moral disengagement",[]]]},{"rt":[["cyberperpetrator",[]],["cybervictim",[]]]},{"de":[["An act of cyberaggression can remain online for a long time",["Slonje & Smith, 2008","Sugarman & Willoughby, 2013","Wolak, Mitchell, & Finkelhor, 2007"]],["which implies that the harmful content can be shared, replayed or even saved on an electronic device or in a cloud, making the suffering of the cybervictim continue.",[]],["Other specific characteristics of cyberbullying are the possible anonymity of the cyberperpetrator, the lack of importance of physical strength",["Nocentini et al., 2010"]],["and that it can occur at any time any day or night",["Kowalski, Limber, & McCord, 2019"]]],"rt":[["cyberaggression",[]]],"sp":[["interpersonal violence",[]]]},{"sb":[["Cognitive empathy",[]],["Affective empathy",[]],["cognitive and affective empathy",[]]]},{"sp":[["moral disengagement",[]]]},{"sp":[["moral disengagement",[]]]},{"de":[["This process includes four moral disengagement strategies that are compound by a total of eight mechanisms",[]],["This process includes four moral disengagement strategies that are compound by a total of eight mechanisms such as cognitive restructuring includes mechanisms such as euphemistic labelling, advantageous comparison, and moral justification.",[]]],"sb":[["cognitive restructuring",[]],["Minimization of one's own role",[]],["Ignorance or distortion of the consequences",[]],["blaming or dehumanization of the victim",[]]]},{"rt":[["traditional moral disengagement",[]]]},{"de":[["NPF characters may be either persons or abstractions (e.g., \"the economy\", \"the environment\", \"the city\" or \"the territory\").",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["While the NPF has been widely applied to a variety of public policy domainsclimate change (Jones & Song, 2014), education (Ertas, 2015), disaster management (Crow et al., 2017) finance campaign regulation (Gray & Jones, 2016), public administration reforms (Weiss, 2020), to mention but a few",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Plots describe how the villain harms its victims, but they are also instrumental in explaining \"how blame is assigned to the villain, what actions are needed from the hero and what moral is to be gleaned from the story.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["conspiracy theories tend to be characterized by attitudinal aversion to (allegedly) powerful groups.",[]],["they are more prevalent at its extremes, and likely contribute to ideological polarization, prejudice, and grievance.",[]]],"rt":[["conspiracy mindset",[]]],"sb":[["Antisemitic [6]",[]],["Islamophobic conspiracy theories [7]",[]]],"ex":[["climate change-free-market conservatives in the US perceive an alarmist hoax cooked up by governments and scientists, while environmentalists perceive a motivated effort to discredit the science, cooked up by the oil industry and its stooges",["8"]]]},{"de":[["characterizes the ideological significance of conspiracy belief, and is associated with measuring conspiracy belief by means of abstract propositions associated with aversion and distrust of powerful groups.",[]],["They argue that this mindset is a \"generalised political attitude\"",[]],["its empirical contribution is essentially psychometric insofar as it introduces a new more abstract measure of conspiracy belief.",[]],["they have the advantage of applicability across time and contexts.",[]],["one recent study found that a measure of conspiracy mindset, but not an aggregate measure of conspiracy beliefs, was negatively related to education and rational thinking [48].",["48"]],["The \"conspiracy mindset\" characterizes the ideological significance of conspiracy belief, and is associated with measuring conspiracy belief by means of abstract propositions associated with aversion and distrust of powerful groups.",[]],["They argue that this mindset is a \"generalised political attitude\" (p. 39), related to but distinct from other generalized political attitudes such as right-wing authoritarianism.",["26"]],["Goertzel [10] argued that each conspiracy belief adopted by an individual reinforces other conspiracy beliefs, and makes the individual more receptive to conspiracy theories that they may encounter later.",["10"]],["In contrast, other scholars have proposed that a conspiracy mindset comprises a set of specific beliefs held together by a general, \"nuclear idea\" [12, p.771].",["12, p.771"]],["Therefore, while the conspiracy mindset is defined as a political attitude, it could also be defined as comprising a general susceptibility to implausible beliefs [47].",["47"]]],"sy":[["generalized political attitude",[]]],"rt":[["right-wing authoritarianism",[]],["conspiracy belief",[]],["misinformation",[]],["fake news",[]]],"sp":[["generalised political attitude",["p. 39"]],["political attitude",[]]]},{"de":[["the causes and consequences of belief in one conspiracy theory are likely to generalize to others.",[]],["They imply that small, elite groups are malign, powerful, and unaccountable, and are responsible for shaping world events and political systems",["26","27"]],["Specific conspiracy theories have clearly had distinct political implications, and have resonated with distinct political ideologies.",[]]],"rt":[["conspiracy mindset",[]]]},{"ex":[["Thus, the Nazi regime believed that the defeat and humiliation of Germany had been orchestrated by Jews and Bolsheviks. In turn they believed that by following the will of their leader, they could not only reverse their fortunes but install a new and enduring utopia-effectively countering one grand conspiracy with their own.",[]]]},{"rt":[["Bayesian approaches to belief revision",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a continued belief in the (misinformation) hypothesis remains (i.e., a CIE).",[]],["A prediction of CIE was defined as a posterior probability for the hypothesis after both reports that remained above the level of the prior.",[]]]},{"de":[["Eliciting conditional probability estimates in this way is necessary because there is no general normative function that captures the dependency relationship between the misinformer and the retractor.",[]]]},{"de":[["This phenomenon is known as the Continued Influence Effect (CIE) of misinformation",[]],["This phenomenon is known as the Continued Influence Effect (CIE) of misinformation (Ecker et al., 2010;Johnson & Seifert, 1994).",["Ecker et al., 2010","Johnson & Seifert, 1994"]]]},{"sy":[["CIE",[]]]},{"de":[["Misinformation is therefore maintained because people prefer a coherent (incorrect) to an incomplete (correct) mental model.",["Connor Desai & Reimers, 2019","Ecker, Lewandowsky, & Apai, 2011","Ecker et al., 2010","Johnson & Seifert, 1994","Rich & Zaragoza, 2016"]],["The selective-retrieval and model-updating accounts tacitly assume that the CIE is an error, or that normatively, a correction should reduce reliance on misinformation to the same level as would be observed if there was no misinformation at all.",[]]],"rt":[["CIE",[]]],"sp":[["cognitive explanations for the CIE",["Gordon, Brooks, Quadflieg, Ecker, & Lewandowsky, 2017","Lewandowsky et al., 2012"]]]},{"ex":[["How likely are police officers to be reliable in their reporting?",[]]]},{"sy":[["correction",[]]]},{"de":[["The quality of the source of information is critical to evaluating the suggested content",[]],["empirical studies suggest that people incorporate subjectively perceived source credibility into evaluations of testimony",["Harris & Hahn, 2009","Harris et al., 2016","Madsen, 2016"]],["adjusting a source's reliability is prudent if new information, additional contradictory or corroborative reports, or insight into the relationship between sources becomes available",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This account would predict the same effect of repetition on any type of judgment, with repetition increasing judgments of truth, falsehood or fakeness",[]],["the amplification account, has been proposed by Albrecht and Carbon (2014; see also Mandler et al., 1987). These authors argued that fluency might amplify judgments on any dimension (see also Landwehr & Eckmann, 2020; for a comparison of these types of fluency effects).",[]],["fluency may increase the probability of agreeing with any kind of judgment at hand",[]],["repetition may induce both higher feelings of truth and higher amplification tendencies.",[]]]},{"de":[["people judge repeated information more frequently as \"fake news\" compared to new information",[]]]},{"sy":[["repetition-induced truth effect",[]],["truth-by-repetition effect",[]]]},{"de":[["this results in assimilative judgments on positively-connotated dimensions such as \"truth\"",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["aggregation",[]],["stigmergy",[]]]},{"de":[["Society is too complex, has too many variables, local and ephemeral, to offer a predictive science of politics and economics.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["emergence",[]]]},{"rt":[["theory of collaboration via selfinterest",[]]]},{"de":[["has the formation, acquisition, mediation, transmission and dissemination of (for the most part third party) knowledge in complex communities of knowers as its subject matter",[]]]},{"rt":[["extended mind thesis",[]],["stigmergic",[]]]},{"de":[["Understood thus, social epistemology is essentially stigmergic.",[]]],"rt":[["stigmergic",[]]]},{},{"de":[["SSE, for instance Marxist-inspired explanations of human behavior, tends to be primarily immergent",[]]]},{},{"de":[["stigmergy addresses the epidemiological character of knowledge that informs the degree of expertise, the degree of trust and the degree of authority that animates social nodes and social networks",[]],["Specifically, stigmergy addresses the epidemiological character of knowledge that informs the degree of expertise, the degree of trust and the degree of authority that animates social nodes and social networks.",[]]]},{"de":[["These results depict anxiety sensitivity as a potential risk factors for the development of CYB.",[]],["Individuals with elevated anxiety sensitivity may interpret anxiety-related bodily sensations as harmful, making it more likely for them to engage in online health searches in an attempt to reduce concerns about the cause of these sensations.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["CYB is not specifically mentioned in the DSM-5 but is obliquely referred to in the description of the diagnostic features of Illness Anxiety Disorder",[]],["CYB is difficult to stop because it produces a temporary reduction in anxiety, and over time may become a habitual response.",[]],["CYB is not an activity that people engage in because it is directly rewarding (in contrast to people who search on the Internet for health-related information and feel relieved after it). On the contrary, CYB is associated with negative emotional states, often in the form of heightened anxiety or distress persisting after searching.",[]],["additional criteria for CYB that involve impaired control over online health searches, increasing priority given to this behaviour over other activities to the extent that online health searches take precedence over other interests and daily activities, and continuation or escalation of online health searches despite their negative consequences.",[]],["CYB appears to be a particularly compulsive form of PUI focused on health concerns",["50","51"]],["One interpretation is that CYB represents a reassurance-seeking behaviour integral to health anxiety and may therefore be unlikely to be a distinct construct",["18"]],["the underlying psychological mechanisms identified so far mostly include transdiagnostic factors linked to these disorders, such as low self-esteem, anxiety sensitivity, intolerance of uncertainty, pain catastrophizing and certain meta-cognitive beliefs.",[]]],"rt":[["Compulsive or repetitive behaviour",[]],["reassurance-seeking behaviour",[]],["time-consuming activity",[]],["inability to be reassured",[]],["trans-diagnostic syndrome",[]],["anxiety disorders",[]],["OCRDs",[]],["digital disorders of behavioural addiction",[]]],"sp":[["trans-diagnostic syndrome",[]]],"ex":[["health anxiety",[]],["hypochondriasis",[]],["OCD",[]],["gaming disorder",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Intolerance of uncertainty has been found to be associated with various anxiety-related disorders, including OCD",["100","101","102","103","104"]],["Moreover, Intolerance of uncertainty acts as a significant predictor of elevated health anxiety",["105"]]],"rt":[["anxiety-related disorders",[]],["OCD",[]],["elevated health anxiety",[]]]},{"de":[["A link between metacognitive beliefs and PUI has been demonstrated",["109"]]],"sb":[["biased thinking",[]],["thought-illness fusion",[]],["beliefs about uncontrollability of thoughts",[]]]},{"rt":[["dysfunctional beliefs related to health anxiety",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["fake news can be seen as a highly politicized topic. This is due to the fact that fake news often covers political topics, either supporting or denouncing particular political opinions.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["analytical thinking",[]]]},{"sy":[["sentiment analysis",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["naturally belonging to data mining",[]],["one of the fastest growing research areas of the previous years",[]],["sentiment analysis had used multiple data sources related to or coming from newspapers, tweets, photos, chats for example.",[]]],"sy":[["opinion mining",[]]],"rt":[["opinion mining",[]],["machine learning",[]],["natural language processing",[]],["sentiment analysis specific methods",[]]],"sp":[["data mining",[]]],"ex":[["movies, travel, health, argumentation, interaction with audience, elections, expertise, sarcasm, spam, dialects and so on",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["crowdturf",["145","84"]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["automated fact-checking provides powerful tools that can process large amounts of data with responsiveness.",[]],["automated fact-checking models need to disprove a false claim by producing a correction.",[]]],"rt":[["Professional fact-checking",[]],["Crowdsourced fact-checking",[]]]},{"de":[["automated fact-checking models need to disprove a false claim by producing a correction.",[]]]},{"de":[["so called backfire effect, i.e., correction may actually increase misperception and ideological biases.",[]]]},{"de":[["the bandwagon effect [194], for instance, is the tendency to align to the opinion of what is perceived as a big mass of other individuals",["194"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["state-of-the-art bot detection models still need to deal with generalisation and computational efficiency challenges, that could greatly limit their applications.",[]]]},{"sy":[["automated accounts",[]]]},{"de":[["In such scenario, is a representation of mind broadness of the agent, or also the quantification of the agent's confirmation bias.",[]]],"sb":[["Unbounded Confidence Model (UCM)",[]]]},{"sp":[["malinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["Repeated exposure to others' behaviours is also a key element of the so called 'complex contagion' effect (see the Supplementary Material).",[]],["whose dynamics are not fully captured by the basic models described above; in fact, in many realistic settings, there is a fundamental difference between the spreading of rumours or jokes, and the diffusion of a valuable information, the adoption of a new behaviour or innovation, or social mobilisation: individuals usually need social reinforcement, i.e., they must be exposed to the same idea or product more than once, before changing their habits, or opinions.",[]]],"rt":[["social reinforcement",[]]]},{"sy":[["selective exposure",["92"]]]},{},{"rt":[["polarisation",[]]]},{"de":[["known as conspiracy propagators",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Crowdsourced fact-checking is based on the assumption that a non-expert fact-checker may be less reliable than an expert journalist trained in fact-checking, but the overall sum of hundreds or thousands of non-experts signals eventually leads to the same ratings of professionals.",[]],["This approach can lead to demonstrably good results in identifying false news",["261","245"]]],"rt":[["Professional fact-checking",[]],["Automated fact-checking",[]]]},{"sp":[["astroturf",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["rumour",[]],["hate speech",[]]]},{"sy":[["fake news",[]]],"sb":[["hoax",["243"]],["astroturf",["154","288"]],["troll",["260"]],["manipulated content",["28","122"]],["fabricated content",["8"]],["Impostor content",[]],["social bot",[]]],"sp":[["information disorders",[]],["information disorder",[]]],"ex":[["information falsely credited to authoritative newspapers",[]],["manipulated content, such as true facts distorted to serve a false narration [28,122]",["28","122"]],["fabricated content, i.e., proper fake news in the definition of Allcott et al. [8]",["8"]],["true news framed in a narrative they do not belong (in this case it is the context to be false, rather than the content)",[]],["fake news",["264","59"]],["hoax",["243"]],["astroturf",["154","288"]],["troll",["260"]]]},{"de":[["echo chambers, as a particular instance of polarisation",[]]],"rt":[["polarisation",[]]],"sp":[["polarisation",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["a new group of social media users appeared who aim on raising awareness regarding the factuality of news.",[]]]},{"de":[["The role of fact-checkers is not just to debunk false information, but also to provide context and clarification for statements that may be partially true or open to interpretation.",[]],["Fact-checking involves a variety of tasks, including checking sources, verifying claims and statistics, and consulting experts.",[]],["fact-checking may be understood as a democracy-building tool that emerges where democratic institutions are perceived to be weak or are under threat",["12"]]],"rt":[["computational fact-checking",[]]],"sb":[["Professional fact-checking",[]],["Crowdsourced fact-checking",[]],["Automated fact-checking",[]],["Human-in-the-loop",[]]]},{"rt":[["intentionality",[]]]},{"de":[["This pseudo-definition is however broad and unclear, as it contains several shades of disinformation practices, while at the same time it excludes bad practices that indeed contribute to the diffusion of misleading news.",[]],["the popular term \"fake news\" is now considered insufficient to represent a broader range of malicious activities.",[]],["prevalence of fake news in social media",[]],["The phrase 'by design' here refers to systemic features of the design of the sources and channels by which fake news propagates and, thereby, manipulates the audience's cognitive processes.",["99"]],["Intuitively, it reminds of some kind of false information broadcasted by one or more news outlets, and generally speaking to the manipulation of the information systems in order to deceive someone's opinion.",[]]],"sy":[["disinformation",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]]],"sb":[["serious fabrications",["227"]],["large-scale hoaxes",["227"]],["humorous fakes",["227"]],["satire",[]],["news parody",[]],["fabricated news",[]],["manipulated pictures",[]],["advertising",[]],["political propaganda",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]],["information disorder",[]]]},{},{},{}]