[{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["unbiasedness",[]]]},{"rt":[["uncertainty",[]]]},{"sy":[["fairness",[]]]},{},{"de":[["What will the prediction be if seeing the main content of an input document only and had not seen the confounding dataset biases?",[]],["The counterfactual inference essentially gifts humans the imagination ability (i.e., had not done) to make decisions with a collaboration of the main content and the confounding biases (Tang et al., 2020), as well as to introspect whether our decision is deceived (Niu et al., 2021), i.e., counterfactual inference leads to debiased prediction.",["Tang et al., 2020","Niu et al., 2021"]]],"rt":[["factual inference",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["the distilled label bias provides a global (i.e., document-agnostic) offset",[]],["mitigating the two types of biases are consistently helpful for classification tasks.",[]]],"rt":[["keyword bias",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["fake news detection",[]]]},{"sb":[["explainable fake news detection",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["They have gained popularity rapidly in smartphone texts, emails and social media.",[]]],"rt":[["emoticons",[]]],"ex":[["smiling",[]],["thumbs up",[]],["vehicles",[]],["dancing",[]]]},{"de":[["They were first used by the computer scientist Scott Fahlman in 1982 as a \"joke marker\" (Fahlman, 2012).",["Fahlman, 2012"]]],"rt":[["emojis",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In other words, the news may not be able to create attitudes (what to think about an issue), but the news can tell people that an issue is something they should be thinking about (what is an important issue).",[]],["research \"tends to support a positive correlation-and often a causal relationship-between media agendas and public agenda^.\"",["^"]]],"rt":[["media agendas",[]],["public agenda",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["It also holds that candidate messages will address two topics, policy (issues) and character (image).",[]]]},{"sy":[["horse race",[]]],"sb":[["Strategy Events",[]],["Poll",[]],["Predict",[]],["Endorse",[]],["Vote",[]],["Fund Spend",[]],["Choice Raise",[]],["strategy",[]],["campaign events",[]],["polls",[]],["predictions",[]],["endorsements",[]],["vote choice",[]],["fund raising",[]],["spending",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["This theory elucidates diverse narratives constructed by global media regarding Saudi Vision 2030, explaining why specific elements receive favorable or negative coverage based on political dynamics and cultural viewpoints",["Scheufele & Tewksbury, 2020"]],["The theory's application to Vision 2030 coverage reveals how media outlets selectively emphasize certain aspects while de-emphasizing others based on their audience expectations, editorial policies, and geopolitical alignments.",[]]],"sb":[["Problem definition",[]],["causal interpretation",[]],["moral evaluation",[]],["treatment recommendation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This theory may explain why domestic audiences in countries with strong economic connections to Saudi Arabia encounter more favorable media portrayals, as these media systems reinforce mutual economic interdependencies",["Ball-Rokeach & DeFleur, 2020"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Cyberbullying incidents can occur via various modalities.",[]]],"sy":[["hate speech",[]],["cyberaggression",[]],["toxic speech",[]]],"ex":[["sharing/ posting offensive video content or uploading violent images or sharing the pictures without permission of the owner etc.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Kickers are an old media convention given new life and significance online.",[]],["News organisations use this blunt tool because Google is perceived to reward their use, leading to an arms race whereby the surfing public suffers.",[]]]},{"sy":[["link-bulding",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["participants who were shown a clear model may have been overwhelmed by the amount of detail in front of them-i.e., they may have experienced information overload",["8","2","46","50"]],["caused by the amount of detail in front of them",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In the context of our work, sensemaking relates to people's understandings of machine learning models, while situation awareness facilitates insight and enables people to make intelligent decisions.",[]]]},{"rt":[["cognitive load in working memory",[]],["interpretability",[]]]},{"de":[["an alternative way to measure the extent to which people follow a model's predictions",[]],["Weight of advice is equal to 1 if the participant's final prediction matches the model's prediction and equal to 0.5 if the participant averages their initial prediction and the model's prediction.",[]],["a measure commonly used in the literature on advice-taking",["36,70,114"]]],"rt":[["advice-taking",["36","70","114"]]],"ex":[["Weight of advice is equal to 1 if the participant's final prediction matches the model's prediction and equal to 0.5 if the participant averages their initial prediction and the model's prediction.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["extracted from the text content",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["extracted from user comments",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It leads to the destruction of social bonds and increased outgroup prejudice across all facets of social and political life",["Iyengar et al., 2018","A. H. Y. Lee, 2020","Somer & McCoy, 2019"]],["has serious interpersonal consequences",[]],["leads to the destruction of social bonds and increased outgroup prejudice across all facets of social and political life",["Iyengar et al., 2018","A. H. Y. Lee, 2020","Somer & McCoy, 2019"]]],"rt":[["dehumanization",[]]],"sp":[["polarization",[]]]},{},{"de":[["all contemporary recommendation systems score each item based on a number of criteria.",[]]]},{"de":[["A transformational approach recognizes that conflict is a normal and continuous dynamic within human relationships.",[]],["Moreover, conflict brings with it the potential for constructive change.",[]],["A transformational approach seeks to understand the particular episode of conflict not in isolation, but as embedded in the greater pattern.",[]],["Change is understood both at the level of immediate presenting issues and that of broader patterns and issues.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["affective polarization",[]]]},{"rt":[["conflict transformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sb":[["community moderation",[]],["algorithm-assisted moderation",[]]]},{"de":[["Polarization produces a feedback loop where diverging identities lead to less intergroup contact which in turn leads to increased polarization, culminating in a hardened us-vs-them mentality that can contribute to the deterioration of democratic norms.",[]],["Polarization has been studied through differences in legislative voting patterns (Hare & Poole, 2014) and the language used in U.S. Congressional speech (Gentzkow et al., 2017).",["Hare & Poole, 2014","Gentzkow et al., 2017"]],["At the population level it has been operationalized as the increasing correlation of policy preferences over multiple issues (Draca & Schwarz, 2018;Kiley, 2017) and as increasing animosity towards the political outgroup, known as affective polarization (Iyengar & Westwood, 2015).",["Draca & Schwarz, 2018","Kiley, 2017","Iyengar & Westwood, 2015"]]],"rt":[["affective polarization",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Modern recommender systems select content based on a variety of information sources such as the content of each item, a user's expressed preferences, their past consumption behavior, the behavior of similar users, user survey responses, fairness considerations, and more",["Aggarwal, 2016"]]]},{"sy":[["filter bubbles",[]],["echo chambers",[]]]},{"de":[["This latter category of commonsense knowledge has for decades been a holy grail of research in artificial intelligence and natural language understanding (McCarthy, 1959).",["McCarthy, 1959"]]],"rt":[["culture",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["commonsense knowledge",[]]]},{"de":[["Almost, approximately, about, quite etc. indicate that the case being described is close (but not similar) to the prototypic situation.",[]],["used as a shorthand device when exact figures are irrelevant or unavailable",[]]],"sy":[["adaptors",["Prince et al. 1982"]],["rounders",["Prince et al. 1982"]]],"ex":[["approximately",[]],["usually",[]],["about 5 hours",[]],["roughly the same as",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["grounds",[]],["warrant",[]],["modality",[]],["rebuttal",[]]],"sp":[["constituents of a scientific presentation",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["warrant",[]],["modality",[]],["claim",[]],["rebuttal",[]]],"sp":[["constituents of a scientific presentation",[]]]},{"de":[["understatements used to convey (purposive) vagueness and tentativeness, and to make sentences more acceptable to the hearer/reader, thus increasing their chance of ratification and reducing the risk of negation.",["Fand 1989"]],["strategies for minimizing the threat to face that lurks behind every act of communication",["Brown and Levinson (1978)"]],["modulating signals",[]],["an indication of a tentativeness on the part of the writers to commit themselves to absolute statements about their results",[]]],"sy":[["politeness strategies",["Myers (1988)","Myers 1988"]],["hedging",[]]],"sb":[["shields",[]],["approximators",[]],["compound hedges",[]],["compounds",[]]]},{"de":[["hedging is basic to academic discourse",["Rounds 1982"]],["hedging is a common technique of communicating information in scientific discourse",[]],["mitigate and modulate scientific discourse",[]],["vague expressions, of tentativeness and flexibility",[]],["signal early whether claims are to be taken as substantiated or not",[]]],"sb":[["Approximators",[]],["compound hedges",[]]],"ex":[["may be",[]]]},{"rt":[["grounds",[]],["warrant",[]],["claim",[]],["rebuttal",[]]],"sp":[["constituents of a scientific presentation",[]]]},{"ex":[["solidarity with readers",["Myers (1988)"]],["unspeakability of direct criticisms",["Myers (1988)"]],["deference towards the scientific community",["Myers (1988)"]]]},{"rt":[["grounds",[]],["warrant",[]],["modality",[]],["claim",[]]],"sp":[["constituents of a scientific presentation",[]]]},{"rt":[["grounds",[]],["modality",[]],["claim",[]],["rebuttal",[]]],"sp":[["constituents of a scientific presentation",[]]]},{"de":[["Twitter spammers have various objectives, such as spreading invalid information, fake news, rumors, and spontaneous messages.",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["vigilance, sensitisation, and monitoring",[]],["repression or blunting",[]]]},{"rt":[["information",[]]],"sp":[["information",[]]]},{"de":[["Thus, it includes faceto-face communication with others, as well as the passive reception of information as in, for example, watching TV advertisements, without any intention to act on the information given.",[]]]},{"de":[["It consists of all the interactions with the system, whether at the level of human computer interaction (for example, use of the mouse and clicks on links) or at the intellectual level (for example, adopting a Boolean search strategy or determining the criteria for deciding which of two books selected from adjacent places on a library shelf is most useful), which will also involve mental acts, such as judging the relevance of data or information retrieved.",[]]]},{"de":[["In the course of seeking, the individual may interact with manual information systems (such as a newspaper or a library), or with computer-based systems (such as the World Wide Web).",[]],["Wilson's experience of information seeking in this very practical context led him to develop a model of information seek-ing behavior that is prompted by the individual's physiological, cognitive and effective needs",[]]],"ex":[["In the course of seeking, the individual may interact with manual information systems (such as a newspaper or a library), or with computer-based systems (such as the World Wide Web).",[]]]},{"de":[["It may involve, therefore, physical acts such as marking sections in a text to note their importance or significance, as well as mental acts that involve, for example, comparison of new information with existing knowledge.",[]]],"ex":[["It may involve, therefore, physical acts such as marking sections in a text to note their importance or significance, as well as mental acts that involve, for example, comparison of new information with existing knowledge.",[]]]},{"sy":[["blunting",["Miller and Mangan"]]]},{},{"de":[["which is implemented in terms of four constituent elements -a situation in time and space, which defines the context in which information problems arise; a gap, which identifies the difference between the contextual situation and the desired situation (e.g. uncertainty); an outcome, that is, the consequences of the sense-making process, and a bridge, that is, some means of closing the gap between situation and outcome",[]]],"sb":[["situation",[]],["gap",[]],["outcome",[]],["bridge",[]]]},{"sy":[["sensitisation",["Miller & Mangan (1983)"]],["monitoring",["Miller & Mangan (1983)"]]]},{},{"de":[["emotions in clickbaits play a key role in deceiving the reader",[]]],"rt":[["false information",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]],["false information",[]]]},{"de":[["by exploiting the reader and convincing him/her that there is an unexpected thing with negative emotion",[]]]},{"sp":[["false information",[]]],"ex":[["hoax, propaganda, and clickbait",[]],["hoax",[]],["propaganda",[]],["clickbait",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["propagandas",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["false information",[]]],"ex":[["satire",[]]]},{"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["irony",[]],["sarcasm",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["online moderation tools",[]]],"ex":[["Perspective API",["1"]],["OpenAI Content Moderation API",["2"]],["Azure Content Safety API",["3"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["social media provide new locations through which people can express themselves and participate in publics and counterpublics that help them to feel that their views matter.",[]],["first, individuals feel like a part of the developing story by reading about it and following it, and second, they become a part of the story as they contribute emotive declarations online through words, photos, and videos on social media.",[]]],"rt":[["publics",[]],["counterpublics",[]]]},{"de":[["not only expressed who these young people saw themselves to be as individuals, but also enabled the formation of a counterpublic of people facing shared injustices.",[]],["that not only expressed who these young people saw themselves to be as individuals, but also enabled the formation of a counterpublic of people facing shared injustices.",[]]]},{"de":[["the logic of connective action is based on personalized content sharing across media networks that enables people to personalize their connection with issues, choosing what kinds of information to share with people in their networks and how they will share it",[]]],"rt":[["collective action",[]],["connective journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["connective journalism practices are proto-political (Dahlgren 2009) in that they are precursors to connective action (Bennett and Segerberg 2013).",[]],["As these young people participated in connective journalism practices, they were laying claim to a political subject position: one in which their voices and views had value.",[]],["What differentiates connective journalism from tradition journalism is that the latter usually focuses on storytelling as the final step in a communicative process, whereas the former often presumes a solutions-oriented outcome to news and information sharing.",[]],["in connective journalism, \"news\" is not exclusively defined, explained, or spread by the industries or professionals historically associated with journalism, but rather by everyday people linked together online by their relationship to unfolding events or concerns.",["Clark and Marchi (2017)"]]],"rt":[["journalism",[]],["political activism",[]],["youth citizenship",[]],["connective action",[]],["tradition journalism",[]],["traditional journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["individuals do not \"join\" counterpublics so much as they are hailed into them by finding their own emotions and viewpoints validated by others.",["Papacharissi (2014)"]],["counterpublics exist not out of intentional creation on the part of would-be members, but by virtue of being addressed",[]]]},{"de":[["take \"the political\" beyond the realm of traditional institutionalized contexts for political discussion and policymaking",[]],["individuals do not \"join\" counterpublics so much as they are hailed into them by finding their own emotions and viewpoints validated by others.",["Papacharissi (2014)"]],["a counterpublic of people facing shared injustices",[]]],"rt":[["publics",[]]],"ex":[["a counterpublic(Couldry 2010;Warner 2002) of people upset about the situation began to form.",["Couldry 2010","Warner 2002"]]]},{},{"sp":[["participatory politics",["Kahne et al. 2014"]]]},{},{"sb":[["Investigating/analyzing political information about issues of public concern",["Kahne and colleagues (2014)"]],["Dialogue and feedback in which people voice their perspectives on and offline",["Kahne and colleagues (2014)"]],["Circulation of information on and offline",["Kahne and colleagues (2014)"]],["Production of new information introducing different perspectives than those produced by mainstream powers",["Kahne and colleagues (2014)"]],["Recruiting others in and beyond one's network to join in collective actions for political change",["Kahne and colleagues (2014)"]]],"ex":[["circulating funny videos or cartoons related to a political issue or candidate",[]],["forwarding someone else's political commentary",[]],["posting their own comments about a political news story, candidate or campaign",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["connective journalism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["treating a prior turn as non-serious involves responding with laughter or some other orientation to it in terms other than its serious sequential implications.",[]],["non-serious turns (for instance, turns that have playful elements, occur in certain sequential positions [e.g. at topic termination (Holt, 2010)] and have turn-final laughter) may invite laughter or some other orientation to their non-seriousness (Holt, 2011).",["Holt, 2010","Holt, 2011"]]],"rt":[["playful",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the model exhibits a behavior which we call the copying effect.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Social media build on many of the same concepts and technologies of Web 2.0, most basically, the creation and exchange of user generated content (O'Reilly, 2007).",["O'Reilly, 2007"]]],"rt":[["Web 2.0",[]],["social software",[]],["user-generated content",[]]],"ex":[["blogs, wikis, ratings, and recommender systems; websites to share videos, music, pictures and podcasts; and social networking sites such as Facebook and MySpace.",[]]]},{"sy":[["Web 2.0",[]]]},{"de":[["positive and negative messaging",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["communicate leadership versus consensus",[]]]},{"de":[["combine narrative and network maneuvers to achieve interlocking strategic objectives",[]],["we classify the major information maneuvers according to previously well-studied strategic categories of: boosting influencers, building communities, producing dismaying negative messages, producing enhancing positive messages, and distracting publics with irrelevant or misleading content",[]]],"sb":[["narrative maneuvers",[]],["network maneuvers",[]],["boosting influencers",[]],["building communities",[]],["producing dismaying negative messages",[]],["producing enhancing positive messages",[]],["distracting publics with irrelevant or misleading content",[]]]},{},{"de":[["combine narrative and network maneuvers to achieve interlocking strategic objectives",[]],["concerted state-backed efforts to shift public opinion",[]],["even for arguably rehabilitative rather than regressive purposes",[]]]},{"de":[["employing hateful and negative language against critics in contrast to communitarian and positive language to bolster national solidarity",[]],["may speak to strategic intent",[]]],"rt":[["information maneuvers",[]],["network maneuvers",[]]],"ex":[["may include constructive procedures such as explaining or enhancing messaging around a topic, or destructive procedures such as dismaying opposed groups or distracting the public conversation from salient aspects of a given topic.",[]]]},{"de":[["act as balanced operators, organized masqueraders, and egalitarian echo-chambers",[]],["may speak to strategic intent",[]]],"rt":[["information maneuvers",[]],["narrative maneuvers",[]]],"ex":[["are likewise divided into constructive actions that build a group or boost an influencer, and destructive tactics aiming to nuke groups to diminish their size and influence or neglect others from the conversation.",[]]]},{"ex":[["pop culture",[]],["health groups",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["trolling",[]],["griefing",[]]]},{"rt":[["self-report methods",[]]]},{"de":[["a troll is an online user that can be uncooperative, that seeks to confuse and deceive, and can be a 'flamer' by using insults.",["Herring et al."]]],"rt":[["flaming",[]],["cyberbullying",[]],["flamer",[]]],"sb":[["griefers",[]],["griefing",[]]],"sp":[["cyberbullying",[]]],"ex":[["messages from a sender who appears outwardly sincere",[]],["messages designed to attract predictable responses or flames",[]],["messages that waste a group's time by provoking futile argument",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Dowlings argued that the story of Cinderella amplified the psychological and physical differences between women and men and implied that women depend on men in the pursuit of a happy, fulfilling life.",[]],["assumes that women depend on men in the pursuit of a happy, fulfilling life",[]]],"ex":[["in the story Cinderella, Ella is kindhearted, beautiful, attractive, and independent, yet cannot decide her own life and has to rely on the support from others (e.g., the fairy godmother), especially the male characters (e.g., Kit the Prince).",[]]]},{"de":[["It could be a set of stereotypes working as cognitive \"filters\" for making complex social realities easy to interpret.",[]],["Framing involves four key steps: \"define problems, diagnose causes, make moral judgments, and suggest remedies\"",["45"]]],"sy":[["Framing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["reflect the general expectations about the social roles of males and females.",[]]],"ex":[["females are communal, kind, family-oriented, warm, and sociable, whereas men should be agentic, skilled, workoriented, competent, and assertive",["19","25"]]]},{"de":[["There are both causes and consequences of stereotypical narratives. Stereotypes reduce the complexity of stories and make them more relatable and memorable; however, the flat characters may project into reality.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["thinking disposition",[]]]},{"de":[["It is understood by everyone in a bull session that the statements people make do not necessarily reveal what they really believe or how they really feel",["p. 9"]]]},{"de":[["the content is being communicated absent a concern for the truth",[]],["the bullshitter oft has the intention of implying greater meaning than is literally contained in the message",[]],["bullshitting is something that we likely all engage in to some degree",["Frankfurt (2005)"]],["This distinguishes bullshit from lying, which entails a deliberate manipulation and subversion of truth (as understood by the liar).",[]]],"rt":[["lying",[]],["nonsense",[]],["pseudo-profound bullshit",[]]],"sb":[["pseudo-profound bullshit",[]]]},{},{"de":[["conflict monitoring failures are nonetheless an important source of bias in reasoning and decision making",["Pennycook, Fugelsang & Koehler, 2015"]]]},{},{"de":[["once formed, are often accompanied by an unwillingness to critically reflect on such beliefs.",[]],["Epistemically suspect beliefs, once formed, are often accompanied by an unwillingness to critically reflect on such beliefs.",[]]],"rt":[["ontological confusions",[]]],"ex":[["the belief in angels (and the corresponding belief that they can move through walls) conflicts with the common folk-mechanical belief that things cannot pass through solid objects",["Pennycook et al., 2014"]],["the belief in angels (and the corresponding belief that they can move through walls)",["Pennycook et al., 2014"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["conflation of mental phenomenon, which are subjective and immaterial, and physical phenomenon, which are objective and material",["Lindeman, Svedholm-Hakkinen & Lipsanen, 2015"]],["Those who rate the statements as more literal are considered more ontologically confused.",[]],["On a dual-process view, ontological confusions constitute a failure to reflect on and inhibit such intuitive ontological confusions",["Svedholm & Lindeman, 2013","2013"]]],"ex":[["the belief that prayers have the capacity to heal (i.e., spiritual healing)",[]],["A rock lives for a long time",[]],["Flowing water is a liquid",[]],["property differences between animate and inanimate or mental and physical",[]]]},{"de":[["pseudo-profound bullshit betrays a concern for verisimilitude or truthiness",[]],["Using vagueness or ambiguity to mask a lack of meaningfulness",["Sokal, 2008"]],["pseudo-profound bullshit -may be one of many different types. We focus on pseudo-profound bullshit because it represents a rather extreme point on what could be considered a spectrum of bullshit.",[]]],"sy":[["woo-woo nonsense",[]]],"rt":[["bullshit",[]]],"sp":[["bullshit",[]]],"ex":[["Wholeness quiets infinite phenomena",[]],["Attention and intention are the mechanics of manifestation",[]],["statements containing a random collection of buzzwords",[]],["\"Wholeness quiets infinite phenomena\"",[]],["\"Attention and intention are the mechanics of manifestation.\"",[]]]},{"sy":[["active open-mindedness",["2014"]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["form",[]],["stance",[]]]},{"sy":[["teasing",[]],["banter",[]],["putdowns",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a joint activity requiring active participation from two or more people, and as such is dependent on the lives and knowledge of two or more people as well as the situation of the communication itself",["Bloor & Bloor (2013)"]]]},{"de":[["This literary device originated in Greek tragedy and often leads to tragic outcomes. There are three stages of dramatic irony: installation, exploitation, and resolution.",[]]],"sp":[["irony",[]]]},{"de":[["There is no direction of fit; it reflects a variety of psychological states",[]]]},{"rt":[["content",[]],["stance",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the subject matter of humour is subjective. This is because people laugh at different things and their backgrounds may make them perceive humour differently.",[]],["Its purpose is to break the monotony, boredom, and tedium, and make the audience's nerves relax.",[]],["humour's rhetorical and linguistic design",["Simpson & Mayr (2010)"]],["these manifestations (both verbal and non-verbal) include but are not limited to puns, satire/sarcasms, witty remarks, slogans, captions etc.",["Simpson and Mayr (2010)"]]],"sb":[["pun",[]],["satire/sarcasms",[]],["witty remarks",[]],["slogans",[]],["captions",[]],["parody",[]],["irony",[]],["satire",[]],["witticism",[]],["sarcasm",[]],["conversational humour",[]]],"ex":[["puns, satire/sarcasms, witty remarks, slogans, captions etc.",["Simpson and Mayr (2010)"]]]},{"de":[["The incongruity may operate at any level of language, which means that it can be found in the narrower features of vocabulary and grammar, or, in the wider context, in the broader units of discourse organization and social interaction",["Simpson & Mayr 2010"]]],"ex":[["Puns and related forms of verbal play are good illustrations of the type of incongruity that operates in the narrower linguistic context.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a hijacking of the original idea, the very idea of a meme having mutated and evolved in this new direction",[]],["internet-based entertainment contents principally propagated through social networking and micro-blogging sites which come in varied forms like pictures and written texts, written texts that may or may not be conversational in nature, videos, animations and GIFs",[]]],"sy":[["meme",[]]],"sb":[["simple image macros with text",[]],["challenges, GIFs and viral sensations",["Encyclopaedia Britannica 2014"]]],"sp":[["meme",[]],["Memes",[]]],"ex":[["An internet meme can be anything from a single word to a graphic, from a song to a video.",[]]]},{"de":[["That may be the result of the literal, ostensible meaning of words contradicting their actual meaning (verbal irony) or of a structural incongruity between what is expected and what occurs. It can also be a difference between the surface meaning of something that is sad and the underlying meaning.",[]],["This study prefers the idea of a paradox in the definitions, rather than oppositeness, in order to accommodate as many distinctions of the concept as possible.",[]],["The idea of irony being conceived as a 'perception' is also apt as irony cannot work without some perception of it, and while much irony undoubtedly passes us by in everyday interaction, we also perceive irony which was not planned or intended.",[]],["Irony is a perceived conceptual space between what is asserted and what is meant.",["Simpson (2008)"]],["Irony is a perceived mismatch between aspects of encyclopaedic knowledge and situational context (with respect to a particular discursive event)",["Simpson (2008)"]]],"rt":[["cosmic irony",[]],["historical",[]],["Socratic irony",[]]],"sb":[["verbal irony",[]],["dramatic irony",[]],["situational irony",[]],["cosmic irony",[]],["historical",[]],["Socratic irony",[]],["Verbal irony: this takes place when the speaker says something in sharp contrast to his or her actual meaning.",["Karoui, Benamara & Moriceau 2019"]],["Dramatic irony: it occurs when the audience has more information than one or more characters in a work of literature.",[]],["Situational irony: situational irony consists of a situation in which the outcome is very different from what was expected.",[]]]},{"de":[["Just as genes propagate in the gene pool, ideas also propagate.",[]],["A meme in the meme pool (much like a gene in the gene pool) can only survive if the represented knowledge evolves.",[]]],"sy":[["internet meme",[]]],"sb":[["internet meme",[]],["Internet (social media) memes",[]]],"ex":[["Examples of memes are tunes, ideas, catchphrases, fashion trends, tool making or architectural techniques.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Humorous effects created by puns depend upon the ambiguities the words entail. These ambiguities arise mostly in homophones and homonyms (literarydevices.net 2020).",["literarydevices.net 2020"]],["Humorous effects created by puns depend upon the ambiguities the words entail.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["satire",[]]]},{"sy":[["sarcasms",[]]]},{"de":[["There are contradictions and contrasts present in the cases of situational irony.",[]]],"sp":[["irony",[]]]},{"sb":[["declaratives",[]],["directives",[]],["expressives",[]],["commissives",[]],["representatives",[]]]},{"rt":[["content",[]],["form",[]]]},{"de":[["the presence of the target in humour implies that humour can be considered as the expression of an aggressive intention.",[]]]},{"de":[["The speaker often makes a statement that seems very direct, yet indicates that the opposite is in fact true, or what the speaker really means. So, the speaker feigns ignorance in order to highlight gaps in the listener's knowledge (Karoui, Benamara & Moriceau 2019). Unlike dramatic and situational irony, verbal irony is always intentional on the part of the speaker",["Karoui, Benamara & Moriceau 2019"]]],"sp":[["irony",[]]]},{"de":[["It is a message whose ingenuity or verbal skill or incongruity has the power to evoke laughter.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["como en las cifras de homicidio",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["el sesgo hacia una u otra facción refleje los desequilibrios de poder y la naturaleza accidentada de los acontecimientos de campaña",[]],["que muestran a los actores en una luz positiva, negativa o neutra.",[]]]},{"de":[["With respect to networks, non-market collaborative participation within digital spaces enabled by the internet and the goodwill of technical communities is the best way to secure citizen interests.",[]]],"sp":[["social imaginary",[]]]},{"de":[["The narrative is that growth in the quantity of (digital) information and advances in information processing capabilities fuels economic growth in the knowledge economy",[]],["Unhindered markets are said to foster the growth of the digital platforms operated by Twitter, Google, Facebook, Amazon and others.",[]]],"sp":[["social imaginary",[]]]},{},{"de":[["safeguarding equal and non-discriminatory treatment of internet access services and related end-users' rights",["EC, 2015: 1"]],["regulatory state's interventions to preserve a neutral conduit for the flow of information, in line with the internet's end-to-end principle",[]],["measures to preserve the internet's neutrality as a strategy for enabling civil society to exercise its generative power in society",[]]],"sy":[["the end-to-end principle",[]]],"rt":[["end-to-end principle",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["In this narrative, it is legitimate for a state to intervene in the market to foster market efficiency and, thereby, to secure the public interest by owning or regulating the means for the production and the distribution of goods and services.",[]],["In relation to information and communication networks, this becomes a narrative about the legitimacy of the state to uphold the principle of 'common' or 'public' carriage to ensure the unhindered flow of information",[]]],"sp":[["social imaginary",[]]]},{},{"de":[["in this respect, the following should be read as a simplified account of several ideals which inform imaginaries about social ordering in Western societies.",[]]],"rt":[["set of ideas",[]]]},{"de":[["Social imaginaries are abstractions from the messy reality of the everyday experience and practices of individuals",[]]],"sb":[["Free and unfettered markets",[]],["Public interest state intervention",[]],["Civil society generative power",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["these experts included unique achievers in a particular field; people holding important roles in business, government, or society, including elected and appointed officials; and commentators used to verify or endorse a story.",[]]]},{"de":[["One is that women are perceived less favourably than men as potential occupants of leadership roles, and the other is that woman leaders are evaluated less favourably than men when they behave according to the prescriptions of these roles.",[]]]},{"de":[["in newsroom terms",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Based on a profile of user interests and preferences, systems recommend items that may be of interest or value to the user.",[]],["Information filtering plays a central role in recommender systems, as it is able to recommend information that has not been rated before and accommodates the individual differences between users [3,8].",["3","8"]],["Information filtering plays a central role in recommender systems, as it is able to recommend information that has not been rated before and accommodates the individual differences between users",["3","8","3,8"]]],"rt":[["recommender systems",[]]]},{"sp":[["user interest in news reading",[]]]},{"sp":[["user interest in news reading",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Moral Foundations Theory",[]]]},{"de":[["The theory has been criticised by some for its claim of innateness and its choice of factors, which has been described as \"contrived\" (Suhler and Churchland, 2011).",["Suhler and Churchland, 2011"]]],"rt":[["Moral Foundations Dictionary",[]],["Moral Foundations Questionnaire",["Graham et al., 2011"]]],"sb":[["Care/Harm",["Graham et al., 2009"]],["Fairness/Reciprocity",["Graham et al., 2009"]],["Authority/Respect",["Graham et al., 2009"]],["Ingroup/Loyalty",["Graham et al., 2009"]],["Purity/Sanctity",["Graham et al., 2009"]]]},{"sp":[["misinformation detection",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["content-based misinformation detection",[]],["social context-aware misinformation detection",[]],["knowledge guided misinformation detection",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["having knowledge of cultural norms",[]],["recognizing cultural norms in context",[]],["making culturalspecific inferences",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Due to the culture-contingent nature of the inference, the entailment relationship is inherently an implicature that is always cancellable, i.e., true in some cultural context but false in others.",[]]],"rt":[["commonsense reasoning",[]],["pragmatic inferences",[]]]},{"sp":[["Semantic categories",[]]]},{"sb":[["lexical ambiguity",[]],["context-dependent definitions",[]],["referring expressions",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["pragmatic categories",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["trust plays a crucial role not only by supporting the security of contracts between agents, but also because agents rely on the expertise of other trusted agents in their decision-making.",[]]]},{"de":[["From the perspective of network security (where transitivity would, for example, imply accepting a key with no further verication based on trust) or formal logics (where transitivity would, for example, imply updating a belief store with incorrect, impossible, or inconsistent statements) it may make sense to assume that trust is not transitive",["11","20","22"]]],"rt":[["trust propagation",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Limited social involvement",[]]],"sp":[["social involvement",[]]]},{"de":[["Deindividuation has in turn been found to be conducive to disinhibition and lack of restraint",["49"]]],"rt":[["disinhibition",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["can provoke emotional and behavioral responses with relevant economic and political consequences.",[]]],"sp":[["incivility",[]]],"ex":[["aggressive commenting in threads",[]],["incensed discussion",[]],["rude critiques",[]],["outrageous claims",[]],["hate speech",[]],["harassment",[]]]},{"ex":[["individuals choosing social isolation tend to watch a movie alone through a home theatre system instead of going to the cinema with friends. They may even prefer to renounce their leisure activities to devote all of the available time to work.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["every emotional language/phrase, such as \"clueless, \" \"liar, \" \"hopeless, \" \"unfair, \" and \"slow reaction, \" amongst others used by both presses",[]]],"ex":[["\"clueless, \"",[]],["\"liar, \"",[]],["\"hopeless, \"",[]],["\"unfair, \"",[]],["\"slow reaction, \"",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["selection and filtering",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Words, such as \"clueless, \" \"lies, \" \"pled, \" \"slow\" and \"hopeless\" were used to framed the state.",[]]],"ex":[["the Guardian newspaper carried news stories titled \"Only 14 of 129 abducted girls found\" on April 18, 2014, and \"Search for 99 Abducted School Girls Fruitless\" on April 19, 2014.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["We focus on this measure of centrality because RTs are the main mechanism to diffuse information on the platform and reach a wider audience, and the most straightforward measure of the broadcasting potential of the different accounts covering the events.",[]]]},{"de":[["The scores range from -1 (extremely negative sentiment) to +1 (extremely positive sentiment), with 0 values representing neutral messages.",["32"]]]},{"de":[["The scores range from -1 (extremely negative sentiment) to +1 (extremely positive sentiment), with 0 values representing neutral messages.",[]]]},{"rt":[["conspirators",["Franks et al., 2017"]]]},{"rt":[["conspiracy mentality",[]],["paranoid tendencies towards outgroups",[]],["paranoia",[]],["interpersonal distrust",[]]]},{"rt":[["conspiracy mentality",[]],["perceived instrumentalization of the pandemic",[]]]},{"de":[["individuals' generic susceptibility to believe in CTs",[]],["conspiracy mentality can still be viewed as a measurement of individuals' general susceptibility to endorse CTs",["Frenken & Imhoff, 2021"]],["conspiracy mentality was associated with reduced trust in scientific and medical institutions.",[]],["conspiracy mentality was more strongly associated with trust in political institutions than with trust in scientific and medical institutions.",[]],["conspiracy mentality is structured by representations of concealed realities and forbidden knowledge -as conspirators actively seek to maintain the population in ignorance.",["Moscovici (1987Moscovici ( , 2020) )"]],["individuals' generic propensity to believe in CTs",[]],["conspiracy mentality (i.e., generic propensity to endorse CTs, Bruder et al., 2013) was a robust negative predictor of trust in political institutions.",[]]],"rt":[["paranoid tendencies towards outgroups",[]],["paranoia",[]],["interpersonal distrust",[]],["CT beliefs",[]],["Generic Conspiracist Beliefs",[]]],"ex":[["Many very important things happen in the world, which the public is never informed about",[]],["politicians usually do not tell us the true motives for their decisions",[]],["government agencies closely monitor all citizens",[]],["events which superficially seem to lack a connection are often the result of secret activities",[]],["there are secret organizations that greatly influence political decisions",[]]]},{},{"de":[["One of the defining features of CTs is that they are based on the rejection of official narratives",["Guillon, 2018","Keeley, 1999","Lantian et al., 2016"]]],"rt":[["conspiracy mentality",[]]]},{"de":[["Accepting to put oneself in such a state of vulnerability carries the risk of being deceived by those who are endowed with one's trust",["Evans & Krueger, 2009","Warren, 2018"]]]},{"de":[["Category is the primary product of analytical process, has a descriptive identity and is mainly used at the beginning of the theme development process to classify findings.",[]],["Researchers develop category at the beginning of data analysis process to enter the abstraction process.",[]],["Category development helps with the provision of details for analytical theme development.",[]],["Categories are descriptors of themes.",["11","27"]],["Categories are descriptors of themes. [11,27]",["11","27"]]],"rt":[["theme",[]]]},{"sp":[["Coding",[]]]},{"de":[["Sub-theme shares the same central organising concept as the theme, but focuses on one notable specific element.",[]]],"rt":[["theme",[]]],"sp":[["theme",[]]]},{"de":[["the purpose of theme is to elicit the essence of the participant's experiences.",["25"]],["The former is more general and abstract and has intellectual and affective content depending on the interpretation of the researcher.",[]]],"rt":[["category",[]]],"sb":[["subtheme",[]],["subthemes",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["it directs attention to the ways in which connections between masculinity and male football form part of an established-outsider interplay within newspaper discourses.",[]]],"rt":[["the social mechanisms that enabled a locally \"established group\" to create a power relationship over a newly arrived \"outsider group\"",["Duemmler, 2015: 381"]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["divide and rule",["Lever and Milbourne 2014: 216"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Such organised exclusion has rendered women invisible (Meân, 2001) and football is reproduced as a primary tool of socialisation for hegemonic masculine identity which serves to delegitimise the history of women's football experience (Woodward, 2016).",["Meân, 2001","Woodward, 2016"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["one important dynamic within the relations between established and outsider groups is that power inequalities result in outsider groups internalizing established standards.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["rather than reifying 'power', power can be interdependently recognised in, and, viewed as a formative part of, human relationships.",["1"]]],"sy":[["relationships of power",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Instead, the dehumanized is regarded as the antithesis of such qualities: coarse, immoral, impulsive, child-like, uncultured and governed by the satisfaction of basic needs.",["17"]]],"sp":[["dehumanization",[]]]},{},{"de":[["clearly articulates the difference between us and them: we are human; they are not.",[]],["it does not necessitate action, but rather allows for a space of possibility.",["48"]],["dehumanization plays a role in grooming perpetrators into believing discrimination, violence and killing particular individuals is permissible because they are no longer human",[]],["Dehumanization is thus an estranging and othering process: it is the \"activity of repressing, subjugating, annihilating the similarities between the self and others, and the ways in which the other is known and understood.\" 22",["22"]],["It is the \"psychological-symbolic removal of others from the classification of human\" 12 wherein the other is expelled from what Helen Fein termed the \"human universe of moral obligation.\" 13",["12","13"]]],"rt":[["toxification",[]]],"sb":[["animalistic dehumanization",[]],["mechanistic dehumanization",[]],["dehumanization of women by men, wherein women are often seen as instruments or tools, lacking agency, self-determination, and subjectivity: women are thus regarded as fungible, controllable and/or synonymous to animals.",["34"]]],"ex":[["extreme out groups, such as poor people, the homeless, and drug addicts, were dehumanized to such an extent that they did not register in the participants' medial frontal cortex (the region of the brain responsible for recognizing and attributing a mental presence to others) as social beings.",["35"]],["people with physical and mental disabilities are frequently dehumanised in contemporary societies",["37"]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Dehumanization",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Once the meaningful difference between the self and the other disintegrates, and the self is no longer recognizable as distinct against that which its own identity is forged, Kristeva states that the human reaction is typically of horror, exile, and disgust.",["53"]]],"rt":[["horror, exile, and disgust",["53"]]]},{"sp":[["toxification",[]]]},{"sp":[["toxification",[]]]},{"de":[["While toxification and dehumanization co-morbid, the former is distinct insofar that victims are perceived to be not only outside the perpetrators' human universe of moral obligation, but as irreconcilably lethal and therefore (in the eyes of the perpetrators) unavoidably exterminable.",[]],["The observation that perpetrators regard the victims as toxic or fatal prior to extermination is not an anomaly in genocide research: indeed, kill or be killed rhetoric is largely cited.",[]],["This noxiousness is regarded as irreconcilable, immutable and inextricable, and so cannot be remedied by any means other than extermination: essentially, toxicity incarnate.",["60"]],["Toxification flags that the perpetrators see genocide as a logical and just method of guaranteeing survival undertaken \"by an innocent and injured party.\"",["63"]],["signals the stimulation of two of the most fundamental and entwined human emotions among would-be perpetrators: fear, and the survival instinct.",[]],["points to the more sinister process specific to genocide-that is, the necessity to kill.",[]],["the former is distinct insofar that victims are perceived to be not only outside the perpetrators' human universe of moral obligation, but as irreconcilably lethal and therefore (in the eyes of the perpetrators) unavoidably exterminable.",[]]],"rt":[["dehumanization",[]],["fear",[]],["survival instinct",[]]],"sb":[["toxic to the ideal",[]],["toxic to the self",[]]],"ex":[["slaughter is necessarily extended to women and children: \"Kill and scalp all, little and big… Nits make lice.\"",["61"]],["the goal of the Khmer Rouge was, as one Khmer saying held, 'to completely annihilate diseases of consciousness'",[]]]},{"de":[["Hashtags can be viewed as keywords for Instagram posts.",[]],["Hashtags have no white space between consecutive words.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["allows users to include multimodal content in their posts, including images, captions, and hashtags",[]],["These multimodal elements in an Instagram post largely encompass (1) visual elements (e.g., photographs and posters), and (2) textual elements (captions, words in images, and hashtags).",[]]],"rt":[["visual elements (e.g., photographs and posters)",[]],["textual elements (captions, words in images, and hashtags)",[]]]},{"de":[["hate incidents that include online communication will be addressed under the umbrella term 'cyber-victimisation' in this paper.",[]]],"sb":[["online offences (cyber dependent)",[]],["pure online offences (cyber dependent)",[]],["continuation of traditional crimes using electronic communication (cyber-enabled)",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Hate crimes",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The medical model focuses on impairments, and the medical diagnoses lead to a legitimised 'sick role' in society [38].",["38"]]]},{},{"de":[["the social model was introduced with the argument of separating the impairment from the disability, i.e. people with impairments are disabled by their surrounding societies.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It is a sensational headline that encourages clicks to a separate webpage by providing some information",["Chua et al., 2021"]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Internally created disinformation will cause distrust in public",[]]],"sy":[["hoax news",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["Fake news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["any low-quality or incomplete news can be fake",["Ozbay and Alatas (2020)"]],["The intention behind creating fake news, whether it is to harm an individual, group or entity, is also an important aspect.",[]],["Fake news spreads on advertisingsupported social media",[]],["The text body of fake news displays much more negative feelings than positive ones.",[]],["Fake news titles include more negative concepts than accurate news titles",[]],["meaning that emotions and personal beliefs play a greater role in shaping public opinion than objective facts",["Koro-Ljungberg et al., 2019"]],["Fake news is also referred to as \"post-truth,\" meaning that emotions and personal beliefs play a greater role in shaping public opinion than objective facts (Koro-Ljungberg et al., 2019).",["Koro-Ljungberg et al., 2019"]]],"sy":[["hoax news",[]],["disinformation",[]],["post-truth",["Koro-Ljungberg et al., 2019"]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]],["hoax news",[]],["satire",[]],["rumors",[]],["pictures",[]],["videos",[]]],"sb":[["fabricated news",[]],["clickbait",[]],["satire",[]],["propaganda",[]],["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["rumors",[]],["pictures",[]],["videos",[]],["deepfake",[]],["Externally constructed news",[]],["Internally created disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["intentional deception",[]]]},{},{"de":[["identified various types of misinformation, such as false claims about treatments, disease origins and conspiracy theories.",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["disinformation",[]]],"sb":[["false claims about treatments",[]],["disease origins",[]],["conspiracy theories",[]]],"sp":[["Fake news",[]]]},{"sy":[["Fake news",[]]]},{"sp":[["Fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["Kahneman (2011) proposed that humans are not always rational in decision-making and have two types of cognition: System 1 and System 2.",["Kahneman (2011)"]]],"rt":[["System 2",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["equalized odds",[]]]},{"rt":[["equal opportunity",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Attractiveness is another rumor-causing variable.",[]]]},{"de":[["has a dominant role in social media misinformation related to politics.",[]]],"ex":[["in the 2016 USA election, Pro-Trump fake news was accepted by Republicans",["19"]]]},{"rt":[["literary approach",[]]]},{"de":[["Diffusion theory has also been used in IS research to discern the adoption of technological innovation.",[]]]},{"de":[["Disinformation campaigns are often seen in a political context where state actors create them for political gains.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"ex":[["misinformation was widely shared on social media, which claimed that children 'died on the spot' after the mass COVID-19 vaccination program in Senegal, West Africa",["61"]],["in the wake of COVID-19, misinformation was widely shared on social media, which claimed that children 'died on the spot' after the mass COVID-19 vaccination program in Senegal, West Africa [61]",["61"]],["Dread rumor was the cause of violence against a minority group in India during COVID-19",["7"]]]},{"de":[["User feeds provide users with similar content that matches their existing beliefs, thus contributing to the echo chamber effect.",[]]],"rt":[["confirmation bias",[]]]},{"de":[["are the type of users who accelerate the spread of misinformation on platforms",[]]]},{"rt":[["Rumors",[]],["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["Hence, people tend to believe that the headlines which do not have warning tags are true and the idea of warning tags will thus not serve any purpose [39]. Furthermore, it could increase the reader's belief in warning tags and lead to misperception [39]. Readers tend to believe that all information is verified and consider untagged false information as more accurate.",["39"]]]},{"de":[["referring to the faster spread of COVID-19 misinformation than the virus",["50"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Both approaches have limitations; the literary approach attracted criticism as it transfers responsibility for the spread of misinformation to citizens.",[]]],"rt":[["corrective approach",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["The issue of misinformation has become dominant with the rise of social media, attracting scholarly attention, particularly after the 2016 USA Presidential election, when misinformation apparently influenced the election results",["5"]],["During unforeseen circumstances, the affected individual or community experiences nervousness or anxiety.",[]],["Anxiety is one of the primary reasons behind the spread of misinformation.",[]],["Furthermore, in an emergency context, misinformation helps community members to reach a common understanding of the uncertain situation.",[]],["misinformation can cause severe harm, often leading to casualties or even irreversible effects.",[]]],"sy":[["rumor",[]],["rumors",[]]],"rt":[["Rumors",[]],["fake news",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["The anti-vaccination movement on Twitter is one of the examples of pseudoscience",["61"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["misinformation",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["fake news",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The individual is consequently motivated to react out of concern for others",["28"]]]},{"ex":[["rumor on free medicine distribution",["62"]],["e.g.,: rumor on free medicine distribution",["62"]]]},{"de":[["may be related to the spread of misinformation",["18"]],["Hence, users are more likely to connect to peers sharing similar opinions, which fosters information exchange among likely-minded individuals.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["While the agents with similar opinions interact frequently and form a metastable phase, agents with strongly diverging opinions hardly communicate.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["political leaning score",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["For sufficiently high values of the parameters K, α and β (here K = 3, α = 3, β = 1, r = 0.65) the model enters a polarized state characterized by bimodal opinion distributions, which are in qualitative agreement with the investigated Twitter data.",[]]]},{"de":[["the political leaning score, or opinion, of each user i is reconstructed by considering all tweets posted by user i that contain a link to an online news organization with a known political leaning.",[]]],"sy":[["opinion",[]]]},{"sy":[["opinion",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["group polarization",["31","32","31,32"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The semantic axis is the vector connecting the mean of the left-hand pole toward the mean of the righthand pole.",[]]],"rt":[["cosine distance",[]],["cosine similarity",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["attribute value",[]]],"ex":[["hair color",[]],["gender",[]],["age",[]]]},{"de":[["Alternative facts, as a term, has been used as a political weapon and a form of defence",["Barrera et al. 2020"]],["alternative facts understood as part of politics",[]],["often driven by ideological interpretations",[]],["mainly used as a way of defending policy and attacking opposition policy in the UK, perhaps obviously as they relate to ideological spin",[]]],"rt":[["lies",[]]]},{"rt":[["lying",[]]],"sp":[["lying",[]]]},{"de":[["the term has entered academic discourse.",[]],["The term is now recognised as a means of describing a host of political statements, be they slogans, pronouncements or even statements of fact, but which have no supporting evidence",["Gligorić, Feddes, and Doosje 2022"]],["Hence, we propose bullshit as a category of falsehood which involves making unverifiable claims with a total \"indifference to how things really are\" (Belfiore 2009).",["(Belfiore 2009)"]],["Bullshit has become endemic, according to some, alongside the notion of post-truth, as politicians can make a claim which is then repeated across media but will go either unchecked or not publicly exposed as being empty (Ball 2017).",["(Ball 2017)"]],["The term is now recognised as a means of describing a host of political statements, be they slogans, pronouncements or even statements of fact, but which have no supporting evidence (Gligorić, Feddes, and Doosje 2022).",["Gligorić, Feddes, and Doosje 2022"]]],"rt":[["post-truth",[]]],"sp":[["falsehood",[]]]},{"de":[["an important phenomenon when considering how post-truth fits within polarised political environments",["Lilleker 2018"]]],"rt":[["post-truth",[]]],"ex":[["After the 2020 presidential elections, Donald Trump repeated false claims of electoral fraud, stating he had won the \"legal vote.\" This conspiracy theory was accepted by many fervent supporters driving the most extreme to undertake a violent invasion of the Capitol building to force legislators to reject the election of Joe Biden.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Debates around the definitions and understandings of fake news, beyond its weaponisation to discredit media outlets",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["bullshit",[]],["lies",[]]],"sb":[["misinformation",[]],["alternative facts",[]],["bullshit",[]],["lies",[]]]},{"sp":[["falsehood",[]]]},{"de":[["Despite being wholly inappropriate within a democratic society, studies have boldly claimed blatant lies have been employed to court public support for specific political projects, parties or candidates.",[]],["some may interpret outright lies simply as alternative facts due to them employing confirmation bias because they are claims made by the candidate they feel closest to (Anstead 2021;Lilleker and Ozgul 2021).",["(Anstead 2021;Lilleker and Ozgul 2021)"]],["However, lies can be the most poisonous to the information environment and for public trust in institutions, although all forms of falsehood can be perceived by the public as evidence politicians are dishonest and out for themselves.",[]]],"rt":[["alternative facts",[]],["black propaganda",[]]],"sb":[["outright lies",[]],["blatant lies",[]],["black propaganda",[]]],"sp":[["falsehood",[]]]},{"de":[["Rather we use this classification to describe either when politicians repeat false information from another source where there is no evidence they are aware it is false, or when they provide statistics which are inaccurate and later apologise.",[]],["This category aligns with the notion misinformation is not relayed to deliberately deceive.",[]],["we use this classification to describe either when politicians repeat false information from another source where there is no evidence they are aware it is false, or when they provide statistics which are inaccurate and later apologise.",[]]]},{"de":[["At one level post-truth describes a phenomenon where people trust in their own beliefs and common sense rather than seeking expert advice or knowledge",["Van Zoonen 2012"]],["the notion of post-truth",[]],["an era when post-truth seems to have become the norm",[]]],"rt":[["confirmation bias",[]],["bullshit",[]]]},{"de":[["Usually, it is seen that the input set of textual units can be partitioned into groups, where each group contains textual units that are very similar to each other. A popular way of ensuring diversity in a summary is to partition the input set into such groups, and then select a representative element from each group [23].",["23"]],["R(S) rewards diversity since there is more benefit in selecting a textual unit from a partition (cluster) that does not yet have any of its elements included in the summary.",[]]]},{"de":[["if equal representation of all classes in the summary is desired, then c i = k t for all i.",[]]],"rt":[["fairness notions",[]]],"sp":[["standard notions of fairness",[]],["Fairness",[]]]},{"de":[["The control variables are analogous to the sensitive attributes with respect to which fairness is to be ensured, such as 'gender' or 'political leaning'.",[]]]},{"de":[["select highly relevant textual units in the summary while maintaining fairness in the process",[]]],"sy":[["fair summarization",[]]],"sb":[["in-processing algorithm",[]],["post-processing algorithm",[]],["pre-processing approach",[]]]},{"de":[["Formal equality suggests that when two people or two groups of people have equal status in at least one normatively relevant aspect, they must be treated equally",["30"]]]},{"de":[["The notion of implicit bias has been an important component in understanding discrimination in activities such as hiring, promotion, and school admissions.",[]]],"rt":[["discrimination",[]]]},{"de":[["A relaxed notion of proportional fairness is one which would ensure no adverse impact in the generated summary.",[]],["represent different opinions (coming from different social groups) in a similar proportion in the gold standard summaries as what occurs in the input data",[]]],"sy":[["Statistical Parity [47]",["47"]],["Statistical Parity",["47"]]],"rt":[["fairness notions",[]]],"sp":[["Fairness",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Roughly speaking, it requires that while recruiting for a job opening, one of the candidates interviewed must come from an underrepresented group.",[]]],"sb":[["the 'soft' variant of Rooney Rule",[]],["the 'hard' variant of the Rooney rule",[]]]},{"de":[["exploit thousands of automated agents, also known as bots, for enhancing their online influence",[]]],"rt":[["cyborg",[]]]},{"sy":[["bot users",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In this work we have identified and quantified a new phenomenon, i.e. digital augmentation, to characterize individuals that coordinate from hundreds to thousands of social bots for achieving a social influence comparable to the one of political parties and news media organisations, with serious repercussions in the real-world.",[]],["This digital augmentation represents an interesting behavioral response aimed at overcoming the well documented pressure for achieving influence and recognition in online ecosystems",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Hidden influentials, known to be efficient spreaders in viral phenomena [41], are mostly humans but augmented humans also falls in this category (e.g. User01).",[]]],"sb":[["augmented humans",[]]]},{"de":[["the phenomenon might manifest as collective action and faster diffusion of specific information",["1","2","25","26"]]],"rt":[["seed user",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The resulting network is what we call the social bulk, i.e. a network core of endorsement and exchange among users.",[]]]},{"de":[["The concept of social polarization assumes the existence of two competing stances or opposing groups characterizing the mesoscale organization of the system",["32"]]],"rt":[["social fragmentation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Such accounts tend to project an abstract debate space onto the issue under consideration, and then seek to position different actors in this space, to indicate their various perspectives or 'viewpoints' on the issue (Mol, 2002). Such an imagination of public controversy assumes that the space of controversy is analytically distinct from the controversy itself. One could say that a Euclidian imagination of controversy lifts social actors into an ideal space of public debate, in which actors are expected to settle into a single position that is true to their viewpoint, but this position-taking is not assumed to affect the shape of the space of debate itself.",[]]]},{"de":[["a move away from a restrictive focus on technology as the principal agent of innovation, and an expansion of frames of analysis to foreground sociotechnical processes of 'the ongoing, collective practices of sociomaterial configuration, and reconfiguration in use'",["Suchman, 2005: 12"]]]},{"de":[["A first type of frame expansion focuses on technology-in-use, and is enabled by technologies like smart energy meters. Here, frame expansion helps to highlight proliferating connections between social and technological entities within a technologically delineated space, say that of energy-in-use. A second type of frame expansion is concerned with societal processes of the problematization of technology, which digital devices of issue analysis and visualisation can help to bring into view. In this case, the deployment of a topological device helps to bring into view dynamics of the 'issuefication' of technology, the unfolding of concerns in an empirical space-time of publicity. Where in the first case frame expansion results in the inclusion of more entities in the technological frame, in the second case it results in the problematization of technology.",[]]],"sb":[["A first type of frame expansion focuses on technology-in-use",[]],["A second type of frame expansion is concerned with societal processes of the problematization of technology",[]]]},{"de":[["transformation of objects into issues",[]],["An analysis of public controversy as a process of 'issuefication' can be distinguished from the other perspectives on public controversies about technology outlined above, and has implications for how we define 'expansions of the frame' on technology.",[]]],"rt":[["problematization",[]]]},{},{"de":[["in Foucault problematization figures as an attribute of discursive regimes (Rabinow, 2005) while in ANT and pragmatism problematization figures as an event: one could say that here it refers not so much to an epistemic effect as to an ontological moment.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["it enables a much more dynamic understanding of the spaces and times of controversies. A topological imagination of controversy, that is, recognizes the capacity of controversy to produce variations in the spaces and times of issues. And rather than defining controversy in terms of actors taking positions, it entails the unfolding of heterogeneous -social, technological, environmental, political, economicconcerns.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Ruim omschreven willen alternatieve media zich, inhoudelijk en organisatorisch, afzetten tegen de traditionele, commerciële media (Atton, 2002;Atton & Hamilton, 2008).",["Atton, 2002","Atton & Hamilton, 2008"]],["onderscheiden zich door de manier waarop deze onderwerpen aan bod komen",[]],["Ruim omschreven willen alternatieve media zich, inhoudelijk en organisatorisch, afzetten tegen de traditionele, commerciële media",["Atton, 2002","Atton & Hamilton, 2008","Atton, 2002;Atton & Hamilton, 2008"]]],"rt":[["traditionele, commerciële media",[]],["mainstream nieuwsaanbod",[]]],"ex":[["IPS Vlaanderen, MO* magazine, DeWereldMorgen.be en Apache",[]]]},{"de":[["Op die manier proberen mainstream bronnen hun invloed op het publieke debat uit te breiden naar de netwerksfeer",[]]]},{"de":[["Die geloofwaardigheid kan voortkomen uit institutionele macht, een representatieve status (bijvoorbeeld vakbondsleiders en verkozen politici vertegenwoordigen een bepaalde bevolkingsgroep), of uit kennis over een welbepaald onderwerp (experts).",[]]]},{"de":[["De hoge werkdruk maakt het moeilijker voor journalisten om de rol van controlerende vierde macht uit te oefenen en maakt de journalistiek vatbaarder voor manipulatie door bronnen.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Domesticatie heeft niet alleen te maken met de invalshoek of de thema's van het nieuws, maar ook met de bronnen die in het nieuws opgevoerd worden.",[]],["Een van de manieren om nieuws te domesticeren is bijvoorbeeld om bij een natuurramp in het buitenland vooral Belgische slachtoffers of hulpverleners te interviewen in plaats van de lokale bevolking",[]]],"ex":[["bij een natuurramp in het buitenland vooral Belgische slachtoffers of hulpverleners te interviewen in plaats van de lokale bevolking",[]],["om bij een natuurramp in het buitenland vooral Belgische slachtoffers of hulpverleners te interviewen in plaats van de lokale bevolking",["Dimitrova & Strömbäck, 2009","Gans, 1979","Joye, 2010","Kester, 2010"]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["het globale perspectief",[]]]},{"sb":[["van journalistieke oorsprong",[]],["van niet-journalistieke oorsprong",[]]],"ex":[["nieuwsagentschappen",[]],["gerecycleerde informatie van andere nieuwsmedia",[]],["persberichten",[]],["sociale media",[]]]},{"de":[["Bronnen subsidiëren de massamedia door de kosten van nieuwsgaring en nieuwsproductie te verlagen en de workload voor journalisten beheersbaar te helpen houden. In ruil daarvoor verkrijgen ze toegang tot het nieuws.",["Dinan & Miller, 2009"]],["De afhankelijkheid van informatiesubsidies bij nieuwsagentschapjournalisten in combinatie met de lage transparantieniveaus in de (Vlaamse) nieuwsmedia maakt dat heel wat pr-materiaal indirect op de redacties van Vlaamse kranten en omroepen belandt dat behandeld wordt als oorspronkelijke journalistieke informatie waarvan de nieuwswaarde reeds door een journalist bevestigd is en die niet verder gecontroleerd hoeft te worden",[]],["informatiesubsidies over de afwikkeling van humanitaire projecten in verschillende landen en regio's",[]],["informatiesubsidies die niet hoeven vertaald te worden alvorens ze kunnen opgenomen worden in een nieuwsbericht",[]],["die niet hoeven vertaald te worden alvorens ze kunnen opgenomen worden in een nieuwsbericht",[]],["Vlaamse journalisten meestal niet transparant zijn over het gebruik van informatiesubsidies, en deze informatie bijgevolg voorstellen als oorspronkelijke journalistieke nieuwsgaring.",[]],["professionals hun informatiesubsidies het aura meegeven van originele journalistieke content die het publieke belang dient",[]],["een vast deel zal en kan gaan uitmaken van het nieuwsgaringproces",[]],["informatiesubsidies weliswaar vaak gecategoriseerd worden als manipulatie en vertekening, maar dat ze eigenlijk ook een positieve factor kunnen vormen in het nieuwsproductieproces.",[]]],"sy":[["voorverpakt nieuws",[]]],"rt":[["nieuwsgaring",[]],["public relations",[]]]},{"rt":[["persberichten",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Deze netwerkstructuur vereist immers een grotere openheid van nieuwsorganisaties en een transformatie van de traditionele benadering van nieuwsverzameling, -productie en -verspreiding",[]],["waarbij sociale media een goedkoop en efficiënt kanaal kunnen zijn voor een meer divers bronnengebruik en een meer kwalitatieve buitenlandberichtgeving",[]]]},{"sy":[["network of networked journalistiek",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Het gaat hier met andere woorden om de verschillende actoren die strijden om nieuwstoegang.",[]]]},{"ex":[["nabijheid, referentie aan elitelanden, en referentie aan elitepersonen",["Galtung & Ruge, 1965","Ostgaard, 1965"]]]},{"sy":[["informatiesubsidies",[]],["voorverpakt nieuws",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["overtuiging dat het nieuws een sociale constructie is, die slechts één mogelijke interpretatie van de realiteit vertelt",["Zelizer, 2004"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["two related aspects of social journalism that initially prompted journalists to declare their professional distance but that increasingly have come to be seen as at least potentially compatible with practitioner norms. The first involves content from outside the newsroom, and the second involves journalists' own activities in social media spaces.",[]],["journalists' use of normative markers to establish their relationship with outsiders",[]]]},{"de":[["transparency, a somewhat undervalued and even contested norm in traditional media, as a prominent norm in social journalism.",[]],["transparency involves a more proactive stance: a before-the-fact profession of goals or interests that supplements but also goes beyond an after-the-fact admission of responsibility.",[]],["Transparency, of course, is all about communication across boundaries.",[]]],"sy":[["accountability",[]]],"rt":[["truthful forthrightness",[]],["social journalism",[]],["entrepreneurial journalism",[]]],"sp":[["norm",[]],["boundary-breaching norm",[]]]},{"sp":[["norm",[]]]},{"de":[["UGC was described as unethical in its own right and as subverting practitioners' own normative standards.",[]]],"sy":[["UGC",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["desinformação e o caos informacional têm possibilitado o consumo e a partilha de informações falsas, distorcidas, manipuladas, servindo assim as mais diversas finalidades pessoais e institucionais.",["2"]],["As fake news são a disseminação deliberada de desinformação",["Alexander et al., 2017: 2"]],["fake news são uma espécie de desinformação",[]],["desinformação",[]],["a desinformação não é apenas sobre ser mal-informado e poderá conter elementos mais insidiosos e possivelmente mais perigosos",["Lewandowsky, Ecker e Cook, 2017: 356"]],["fluxos de conteúdos falsos nas redes digitais",["Letras, 2019: 5"]],["veículo à disseminação de falsas assunções que afetam a sociedade e as Instituições quer porque conduzem a crenças de que algo falso é real como ao oposto, toldando assim o bom discernimento no que concerne à tomada de decisões",[]],["ganhou visibilidade devido à capacidade de influenciar os sistemas políticos sobretudo processos eleitorais, por contribuir para acentuar a polarização política e ideológica",["ERC, 2019: 35"]],["a desinformação vem de alguém que está ativamente envolvido em uma tentativa de enganar",["Fallis, 2015: 402"]]],"sy":[["a má informação",["Letras, 2019: 5"]],["a informação errada",["Letras, 2019: 5"]],["fake news",[]],["misinformation",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["erros honestos",[]],["sátiras excessivamente subtis",[]],["clickbaits",[]]],"sb":[["fake news",[]],["falsidades deliberadas para atrair visitantes como clickbait",[]],["notícia satírica que é projetada para ser humorística e abertamente falsa",[]],["relações públicas, rotatividade ou reportagens tendenciosas que exageram certos fatos, obscurecendo outros",[]]],"sp":[["informação",["Fallis, 2015"]]]},{"de":[["isto é, plataformas que utilizam mensagens com carga emocional e que permitem uma rápida amplificação e uma rápida disseminação da desinformação.",[]]]},{"de":[["não há entendimento implícito entre o autor e o leitor de que o conteúdo utilizado é falso.",[]],["o produtor de conteúdo tem a intenção de desinformar e o conteúdo produzido pode ser partilhado em várias plataformas digitais e em redes sociais.",[]],["o facto do conteúdo e do formato parecerem reais, dando a ilusão de que estas notícias são, amplamente, divulgadas.",[]],["Esta definição difere da paródia porque neste caso não há entendimento implícito entre o autor e o leitor de que o conteúdo utilizado é falso.",["Tandoc, Lim e Ling, 2018: 142"]],["o produtor de conteúdo tem a intenção de desinformar e o conteúdo produzido pode ser partilhado em várias plataformas digitais e em redes sociais",["Tandoc, Lim e Ling, 2018: 145"]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["propaganda",["Tandoc, Lim e Ling, (2018: 146)"]]],"sp":[["fake news",["Tandoc, Lim e Ling, 2018: 142"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Em vez disso, o autor não está agindo de boa fé e é motivado por motivações econômicas ou políticas",["Tandoc, Lim e Ling, 2018: 145"]]]},{},{"rt":[["sátira",[]],["fake news",[]]],"sp":[["fake news",["Tandoc, Lim e Ling, 2018: 142"]]]},{},{"de":[["In a post-truth world, objective facts have less influence on opinions and decisions than emotions and personal beliefs.",[]]]},{"de":[["Uma característica óbvia de um mundo post truth é que ele permite que as pessoas escolham a sua própria realidade, onde factos e evidências objetivas são superados por crenças e preconceitos.",[]]],"sy":[["pós-verdade",[]]],"rt":[["desinformação",[]]]},{"de":[["Estes programas são responsáveis por inclinar as balanças do sentido de voto nas campanhas presidenciais, expondo candidatos e ideias que de outra forma poderia ter um resultado completamente diferente.",[]],["Ao mesmo tempo, tem proporcionado que gerações mais novas e desconectadas do panorama político, se comecem a interessar por assuntos políticos e pelas grandes questões.",[]]],"ex":[["peças de entretenimento político, como falsas entrevistas, cortes de entrevistas, explicações bizarras através de quadros ou esquemas simplistas",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Representa um tipo de interação social que é valorizada por si mesma levando a altos níveis de reciprocidade desarticulada (Goffee e Jones, 1996: 134).",[]],["Representa um tipo de interação social que é valorizada por si mesma levando a altos níveis de reciprocidade desarticulada",["Goffee e Jones, 1996: 134"]]],"rt":[["social",[]]]},{"de":[["o termo solidariedade implica consenso, embora existam implicações normativas que facilmente se prestam a idealização.",[]],["baseia-se mais na mente que no coração. Surge entre pessoas que partilham interesses comuns e objetivos mútuos e que percebam as vantagens de os encontrarem coletivamente",["Goffee e Jones, 1996: 134"]],["as normas relacionais, que consistem em solidariedade, flexibilidade e troca de informações",["Ishak, 2016: 9"]]],"sb":[["solidariedade emocional",[]]],"sp":[["normas relacionais",["Ishak, 2016: 9"]]]},{"de":[["o apoio e a partilha de recursos são os principais influenciadores da solidariedade emocional.",[]]],"sp":[["solidariedade",[]]]},{"rt":[["fake news",[]]],"sp":[["fake news",["Tandoc, Lim e Ling, 2018: 141"]]]},{},{"rt":[["polar sentiment",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sb":[["positive",[]],["negative",[]],["mixed",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["Mediated Discourse Analysis",[]]]},{},{"de":[["in this case sound",[]]],"rt":[["critical discourse analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["This intentional hybridity, or mestiza, foregrounds a duality that embraces both the here and there of social situations.",[]],["Anzaldua's (1987) notion of the borderlands mestiza, which presents identities as simultaneous entities that move fluidly across cultural spaces",["1987"]]]},{"rt":[["sonic punctuation",[]],["sonic oscillation",[]]],"ex":[["For Rowan, the sound design choices represent a form of sonic appropriation in that they seek to deliberately influence the credibility of certain perspectives.",[]]]},{"rt":[["sonic punctuation",[]],["sonic appropriation",[]]],"ex":[["For Erin, the sound modifications exhibit a form of sonic oscillation in that they allow her to move fluidly between already established identity positions.",[]]]},{"rt":[["sonic appropriation",[]],["sonic oscillation",[]]],"ex":[["For Mahmud, the sound decisions in the documentary exemplify a form of sonic punctuation, to assert his academic legitimacy in the class and the school.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["So, affect, in short, is the intensity in which we experience emotion.",[]]],"rt":[["emotion",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["politics of fear",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Choices in how imagery is organised and composed is also analysed.",[]]]},{"sy":[["remixes and iterations, viral texts that mutate and replicate and are readily transformed and altered by purposeful human agency",[]]],"rt":[["trolling culture",[]]]},{"de":[["They are a way 'a society expresses and thinks of itself' (Denisova 2019: 2) used 'for the purpose of satire, parody, critique …to posit an argument' (Wiggins 2019, see also Ponton 2021, this issue).",[]],["It is better to consider memes as remixes and iterations, viral texts that mutate and replicate and are readily transformed and altered by purposeful human agency, with mutation being desirable and often unavoidable (Denisova 2019, Wiggins 2019).",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["In visuals, 'modality can be decreased or increased depending on how much the image departs from how we would have seen the image had we been there'",["Machin 2007: 46"]],["In visuals, 'modality can be decreased or increased depending on how much the image departs from how we would have seen the image had we been there' (Machin 2007: 46)",["Machin 2007: 46"]]]},{"de":[["MCDS finds its origins in Critical Discourse Analysis and Halliday's (1994) functional grammar which assume linguistic and visual choices reveal broader discourses articulated in texts",["Kress & van Leeuwen 2001"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["These choices have repercussions in terms of representations of power and connotations of engagement with viewers",["Kress & van Leeuwen 1996: 127-128"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["memes are a part of 'scroll culture' that metaphorically shouts emotionally-laden viewpoints at us",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["trolling culture",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["data access via tools",["Batrinca & Treleaven (2015)"]]],"ex":[["Gnip provide commercial access to Twitter data through a partnership",[]],["Gnip",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["data collection strategies",[]]]},{"de":[["The purpose of the task is to differentiate between hateful and non-hateful, aggressive and non-aggressive, offensive and non-offensive, and stereotype and non-stereotype content in a binary classification scenario, which can be featured by different topical focuses depending on the targets of hate.",[]]]},{"de":[["The purpose of the task is to differentiate between hateful and non-hateful, aggressive and non-aggressive, offensive and non-offensive, and stereotype and non-stereotype content in a binary classification scenario, which can be featured by different topical focuses depending on the targets of hate.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["Online hate speech",[]],["cyber-hate",[]]],"sp":[["abusive phenomena",[]],["abusive language",[]]],"de":[["abusive expressions of hate against vulnerable groups, such as immigrants, LGBTQ+ people and women",[]]],"rt":[["abusive language",[]],["cyber-hate",[]]]},{"rt":[["hate speech",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["level of polarization (personalized perspectives) expressed by annotators in opinions given on individual instances of an abusive phenomenon",[]],["there is no polarization at all if we have an overall low agreement between different groups or among the members of same group.",[]]]},{"de":[["The method leverages the information at the level of single annotations, measuring the level of polarization for all the annotations individually.",[]]],"sy":[["P-index",[]]]},{"ex":[["hate speech is highly subjective",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Detecting CIB typically involves analyzing both interaction networks to detect suspicious coordination, as well as the coordinated users and the content they shared to detect inauthentic users and harmful content",["Nizzoli et al., 2021","Nizzoli et al., , 2020","Pacheco et al., 2021"]]],"rt":[["interaction networks",[]],["suspicious coordination",[]],["inauthentic users",[]],["harmful content",[]],["coordinated users",[]]]},{"de":[["The latter aspect of the disinformation (i.e., harmfulness) is often ignored, but it is equally important.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["propaganda",[]],["conspiracy",[]],["hoax",[]],["clickbait",[]],["factuality",[]],["harmfulness",[]]]},{"sb":[["alters/spreaders",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It is also commonly used in social media in different forms such as a fake image with false claims, a true image with false claims.",[]],["doctored images are often used as memes to mislead or as a means of satire, and that they have a 'clickbait' power to drive engagement.",[]]],"rt":[["misleading information",[]],["fake images",[]],["fake news",[]],["misinformation",[]]]},{"sy":[["harmfulness",[]]],"rt":[["factuality",[]]],"sb":[["child abuse material",[]],["violent and extreme content",[]],["hate speech",[]],["graphic content",[]],["sexual content",[]],["spam content",[]]]},{"de":[["also refers to the spreading of false content, but lacks the underlying intention to do harm.",[]]],"sy":[["false content",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["cases of image repurposing-in which the image is authentic but the accompanying metadata has been manipulated-have not been thoroughly studied.",[]],["actual image repurposing involves manipulating a detail which is semantically coherent, but misrepresents the image.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The scope of image repurposing was expanded to semantically consistent manipulations which are more likely to fool people.",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["face editing",[]],["face retouching",[]]],"ex":[["One example of this type of manipulation is the popular FaceApp mobile application.",[]]]},{"sb":[["plastic surgery",[]],["cosmetics",[]],["makeup",[]],["occlusions",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["face reenactment",[]]],"sb":[["Face2Face and Neural-Textures [45], [46], which replaces the facial expression of one person in a video with the facial expression of another person.",["45","46"]]],"ex":[["the popular video of Mark Zuckerberg saying things he never said 9 .",["9"]]]},{"de":[["This can be achieved in several ways.",[]],["The simplest way can be just to obfuscate the face by blurring or pixelation (e.g., in Google Maps Street View).",[]],["More sophisticated methods try to provide face images with different identities but maintaining all other factors (pose, expression, illumination, etc.) unaltered.",[]]],"rt":[["face identity swap",[]]],"sy":[["de-ID",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This means that the new morphed face image would be successfully verified against facial samples of these two or more individuals creating a serious threat to face recognition systems",["157","158"]],["face morphing is a different type of facial manipulation compared with the four main types covered in this survey",[]],["This means that the new morphed face image would be successfully verified against facial samples of these two or more individuals creating a serious threat to face recognition systems [157], [158].",["157","158"]],["In this sense, face morphing is a different type of facial manipulation compared with the four main types covered in this survey.",[]],["Also, it is worth noting that face morphing is mainly focused on creating fake samples at image level, not video such as identity swap manipulations.",[]]],"sp":[["face manipulation",[]]]},{"sy":[["expression swap",[]]]},{"de":[["one of the most popular face manipulation research lines nowadays due to the great public concerns around DeepFakes",[]],["the goal is to generate realistic fake videos",[]],["Two different approaches are usually considered: i) classical computer graphics-based techniques such as FaceSwap 6 , and ii) novel deep learning techniques known as DeepFakes 7 , e.g., the recent ZAO mobile application.",[]]],"rt":[["entire face synthesis manipulation",[]]],"sb":[["i) classical computer graphics-based techniques such as FaceSwap 6",["6"]],["ii) novel deep learning techniques known as DeepFakes 7",["7"]]],"ex":[["Very realistic videos of this type of manipulation can be seen on Youtube 8 .",["8"]]]},{},{},{},{"sb":[["Stereotype Agreement",[]],["Toxic Agreement",[]]],"sp":[["persona biases",[]]]},{"de":[["measure how sensitive the model's harmful expression level is to different persona adoptions",[]]],"sb":[["Offensiveness",[]],["Toxic Continuation",[]],["Regard",[]]],"sp":[["persona biases",[]]]},{"rt":[["specific persona",[]]]},{"ex":[["an Asian person",[]]]},{"sp":[["persona biases",[]]]},{"de":[["This statement is then provided to the dialogue model as a context to condition its generations upon.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["biases in harmful expression",[]]]},{"rt":[["Offensiveness",[]],["Toxic Continuation",[]],["Regard",[]],["Stereotype Agreement",[]],["Toxic Agreement",[]]],"sb":[["harmful expression",[]],["harmful agreement",[]]],"ex":[["For instance, a persona-assigned dialogue agent is said to demonstrate the offensiveness aspect of persona biases if the offensiveness level of generated dialogue is especially responsive to changes in persona adoptions.",[]]]},{"de":[["Persona bias exists when the model showcases significantly different levels of harmfulness on either of these two dimensions.",[]],["re-characterize and re-categorize persona biases along two dimensions: biases in harmful expression and biases in harmful agreement",[]]],"sb":[["biases in harmful expression",[]],["biases in harmful agreement",[]]]},{"de":[["use the regard metric as a lens to study the general level of respect and sympathy that a persona-assigned dialogue model demonstrates to all user groups in its conversations",[]]],"sp":[["biases in harmful expression",[]]]},{"rt":[["generic persona",[]]]},{"ex":[["Yumi",[]]]},{"de":[["the models are propagating societal biases through advocating for harmful stereotypes",[]]],"rt":[["offensiveness",[]]],"sp":[["biases in harmful agreement",[]]]},{"sp":[["biases in harmful agreement",[]]]},{"de":[["acts as a lens to study the \"safety level\" of persona-assigned dialogue models against being triggered to produce toxic content",[]]],"sp":[["biases in harmful expression",[]]]},{"de":[["may have minimal effects on beliefs, but may drive polarization and mistrust (even if identified as misleading)",[]],["bullshit, even at high depth, may have minimal effects on beliefs, but may drive polarization and mistrust (even if identified as misleading)",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"sy":[["fake news",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["may affect beliefs without affecting trust (because fewer individuals will identify the misinformation)",[]],["paltering may affect beliefs without affecting trust (because fewer individuals will identify the misinformation)",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["and could be interpreted as caution",[]]],"rt":[["evidenceaccumulation models",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["vertical identification",[]]],"sp":[["identification theory",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["to indicate a positive preventive effect of media reporting on suicidal behaviors, Niederkrotenthaler and colleagues [6] introduced the expression the 'Papageno effect'.",["6"]],["The term itself is a tribute to the character from Mozart's opera The Magic Flute (1791), who overcame his suicidal crisis after a talk with three boys.",[]],["preventive effect of media reporting on suicide",[]],["suicide rates may be reduced either by a newspaper blackout, lowering of the quantity of reporting, or by changing the quality of the media reporting style, i.e., by elimination of the emotional and sensational details of suicidal behaviors.",[]],["when the media present constructive coping strategies with suicidal ideation or emphasize other solutions to adverse life circumstances they can have a preventive effect",["6","14","16","108","109","110","112"]],["when the media describe suicide via unfavorable characteristics, i.e., as a wrong, horrific, painful, or disfiguring act, or present suicidal individuals as deviants, it may weaken the probability of imitation",["9","13","26","68","73"]],["researchers have suggested that, under certain conditions, the media may also play a positive, i.e., educative and preventive role",["6","14","16","108","109","110","112"]],["the media may also play a positive, i.e., educative and preventive role",[]],["it was Jerome Motto who first demonstrated that suicide rates may be reduced either by a newspaper blackout, lowering of the quantity of reporting, or by changing the quality of the media reporting style, i.e., by elimination of the emotional and sensational details of suicidal behaviors.",[]]]},{"de":[["reports on individuals who contemplated suicide but later coped with the adverse circumstances in a constructive way were associated with a short-term decrease in suicide rates.",["6"]]]},{"rt":[["horizontal identification",[]]],"sp":[["identification theory",[]]]},{"de":[["To indicate the negative influence of media portrayal of suicides, Phillips coined the term the 'Werther effect'.",[]],["extensive media reporting contributes to the 'advertising' of the unusual, novel, or dramatic and highly lethal suicide methods, which are rare in real life",[]],["69 studies included in this review report that media stories on suicide are contagious and may influence the actual suicide rates.",[]]],"rt":[["copycat effect",[]]]},{"de":[["In order to label some accounts or sources of information as fake, an intent to deceive has to be present.",[]]],"sy":[["Manipulation through misinformation",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["trustworthiness",[]],["originality",[]],["spontaneity",[]]]},{"rt":[["empty signifiers",[]]]},{"de":[["a moment 'in and out of time', and in and out of secular social structure, which reveals, however fleetingly, some recognition (in symbol if not always in language) of a generalized social bond that has ceased to be and has simultaneously yet to be fragmented into a multiplicity of structural ties",[]],["anti-structural social form",[]],["an effect of the digital format itself, which affords fractalizing the populist mechanics into what I called \"the king's digital body\"",[]]],"rt":[["liminality",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["internally-directed syntagmatic relations",[]]],"sp":[["discursive axes",[]]]},{"de":[["the behavioral vision that has informed the design of social media architectures and encourages a conception of users as influenceable subjects, not knowledge agents",["Marres 2018: 435"]]]},{"rt":[["externally-directed paradigmatic opposition",[]]],"sp":[["discursive axes",[]]]},{"de":[["the stripping off of preliminal and postliminal attributes",[]],["reduced or ground down to a uniform condition to be fashioned anew",[]],["In this kind of liminal formation, even temporality works differently than in regular social structure",[]],["a mystical character is assigned to the sentiment of humankindness",["TURNER, 1969, p. 365"]]],"rt":[["limen",[]],["interregnum",[]]]},{"de":[["internally-directed syntagmatic relations (which constructs equivalence within the group) and externally-directed paradigmatic opposition (which constructs difference in relation to a constitutive outside)",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Greogry Bateson's schismogenesis may provide useful insight into the cybernetic-communicational dimension of contemporary populism's reliance on digital media.",[]],["simplify and split the social field into two distinct, friend-enemy camps, which feed off each other through escalating opposition",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["propaganda",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["NELA contains 130 features categorized into six groups: (i) writing style and complexity, (ii) sentiment and emotion, (iii) LIWC psychology, (iv) topic specific, (v) bias, and (vi) morality.",[]]],"sb":[["writing style and complexity",[]],["sentiment and emotion",[]],["LIWC psychology",[]],["topic specific",[]],["bias",[]],["morality",[]]]},{"de":[["any content with biased messages either intentional or unintentional is propaganda",["11"]],["any content with biased messages either intentional or unintentional is propaganda [11]",["11"]]],"rt":[["lies",["10"]],["distortion",["10"]],["deceit",["10"]]],"sb":[["name calling",[]],["card stacking",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["In stance detection we attempt to mea-sure how an author's opinion is expressed in spontaneous, unstructured messages rather than the explicit prompts of formal opinion polls.",[]],["This task is distinct from sentiment analysis in that an in favor or against stance can be measured independently of an author's emotional state.",[]]],"rt":[["sentiment analysis",[]],["hashtag prediction",[]],["skip-gram tasks",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Identitarian Movement",[]]],"sb":[["Generation Identity -GI",[]]]},{"sp":[["racism",[]]]},{"de":[["Karl Popper's famous 1945 paradox of tolerance",[]]]},{"de":[["intended to inspire other alt-right followers as he posted on Facebook",[]]]},{"de":[["indiscriminate violence is the means to create terror and fear as a deliberate political act designed to incite hatred and further bloodshed that aims to threaten the innocent, to shock the population and to create enemies among the non-combatant civil population",[]],["indiscriminate violence is the means to create terror and fear as a deliberate political act designed to incite hatred and further bloodshed that aims to threaten the innocent, to shock the population and to create enemies among the non-combatant civil population.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["relatively widely read and associated with greater political knowledge",["23"]]]},{},{"de":[["by calculating the average slant of the websites they visit, which are based on differential sharing of websites by self-identified liberals versus conservatives on Facebook 21",["21"]],["we measure the overall ideological slant of respondents' online media consumption (or \"information diet\") by calculating the average slant of the websites they visit",[]],["calculating the average slant of the websites they visit, which are based on differential sharing of websites by self-identified liberals versus conservatives on Facebook",["21"]]],"sy":[["online media consumption",[]]]},{"de":[["people tend to prefer congenial information, including political news, when given the choice",["12","13","14","15"]],["selective exposure can distort the factual information that people consume and promote exposure to false or misleading factual claims",[]]]},{"de":[["websites frequently publish factually dubious or untrustworthy content",[]],["Our goal is to analyze consumption of news from untrustworthy sources rather than exposure to false information per se -a necessity given the impossibility of assessing the accuracy of all information that people encounter about politics.",[]]],"sb":[["orange (negligent or deceptive)",["35"]],["red (little regard for the truth)",["35"]]]},{"rt":[["harsh words",[]]]},{"sy":[["dirty words",[]],["Badwords",[]],["harsh words",[]]],"rt":[["dirty words",[]],["Badwords",[]],["harsh words",[]]],"ex":[["anjing",[]],["anjir",[]],["babi",[]],["monyet",[]],["\"anjing\"",[]],["\"anjir\"",[]],["\"babi\"",[]],["\"monyet\"",[]]]},{"sp":[["lexicon-based method",[]],["lexicon-based",[]]]},{"rt":[["lexicon-based",[]]],"sp":[["lexicon-based method",[]],["lexicon-based",[]]]},{"de":[["In social media, in this case the users do not meet directly. They can not see the surrounding conditions that may affect the other person, free expression, free to write something that may unconsciously hurt the feelings of people even do not know each other, so hate speech on social media is very high.",[]],["On sentiment analysis, hate speech is a negative sentiment.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The purpose of sentiment is to classify a commentary into a negative, positive, or neutral impression, and the conclusion can describe one's feelings, emotions",["[5]","5"]],["provides the assessment or opinion of a person to the subject, product, or event of the data set.",[]],["Sentiment Analysis or opinion mining provides the assessment or opinion of a person to the subject, product, or event of the data set.",[]],["The purpose of sentiment is to classify a commentary into a negative, positive, or neutral impression, and the conclusion can describe one's feelings, emotions [5].",["5"]]],"sy":[["opinion mining",[]]],"rt":[["opinion mining",[]]],"sb":[["machine learning method",[]],["lexicon-based method",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["Chronós",[]],["social time",[]]],"sp":[["social time",[]]]},{"de":[["narratives-as a cultural product-play a role in reshaping the social world of individuals.",[]],["interconnect all the actors and elements involved in the various transformation processes of the conceptual structures of society and these transformations, in turn, permeate the individual-society relationship.",[]],["allows us to understand how individuals use different ways of narrating to attribute meaning and sense to events and experience.",[]],["Narratives become the means to push both the individual and the group to action",[]]],"sy":[["storytelling",[]],["account",[]]],"rt":[["modes of narration",[]]]},{},{"de":[["They are also inherently conceptually ambiguous, which often leads to \"perverse effects\" (Boudon, 1982(Boudon, /1977)): there is conflict in them.",[]],["the idea that narratives come in two forms (Czarniawska, 2004): they are both a mode of knowledge and a mode of communication",[]],["they orient individuals' paths based on the subject's (individual or collective) use of narrative as a tool through which to perceive society, social reality, and the future.",[]]],"sb":[["a mode of knowledge",[]],["a mode of communication",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the users in the same community that send duplicate or near-duplicate messages very close in time.",[]]]},{"de":[["hyperadvocacy refers to those users and content that are consistently biased towards a specific point of view, without necessarily having a malicious or subversive intent",[]],["users that consistently express the same opinion about a topic are hyperadvocates",[]],["While the term \"propaganda\" suggests the use of deception, confusion, and manipulation to change public opinion, hyperadvocacy refers to those users and content that are consistently biased towards a specific point of view, without necessarily having a malicious or subversive intent.",[]],["Throughout this paper we use both \"hyperadvocacy\" and \"propaganda\" to refer to the consistent lack of impartiality.",[]]],"sy":[["propaganda",[]]],"rt":[["neutral",[]],["propaganda",[]]],"sp":[["propaganda",[]]],"ex":[["dumpreid in #nvsen, whose tweets continually defame democratic candidate Harry Reid",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["hyperadvocacy",[]]]},{"sy":[["hyperadvocacy",[]]],"sb":[["hyperadvocacy",[]]]},{"de":[["A final rejoinder is what is known as the \"bellwether\" argument",[]]]},{"de":[["Much Internet speech is anonymous (i.e., devoid of self-identification).",[]]]},{"de":[["The term is a contraction formed from the words \"Web\" and \"log.\"",[]]]},{"de":[["a well-known mechanism in social science",[]]]},{"de":[["The confrontation theory builds on the insight, mentioned earlier, that many Americans are ambivalent in matters of race, harboring highly aspirational convictions (\"all men are equal\") but acting on a lower set in moments of intimacy, when their guard is down and no one is watching.",["100"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The theory holds that much of racial prejudice and friction is a function of incorrect cognition: the individual internalizes the belief, often from parents or playmates, that members of other races are not to be trusted.",["92"]]],"rt":[["confrontation theory",[]]],"ex":[["Sports and the military are prime examples.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["confrontation theory",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["if we asked the RLHF model to enter \"4chan mode\" the assistant would oblige and produce harmful and offensive outputs (consistent with what can be found on 4chan).",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In machine learning research, the terms bias and fairness are sometimes used interchangeably",["6"]],["The subtle difference between media and machine learning bias is the categorization of disproportionate representation of an ideology, where machine learning would not classify this as being biased unless the data collection process actively discriminates or favors one or more individuals or groups.",[]],["definition of partisan or political bias",[]]],"rt":[["fairness",[]]]},{"de":[["delving into the nuanced domain of bias awareness, exploring the capabilities of LLMs in comprehending their own limitations with respect to partisan bias",[]]],"rt":[["partisan bias",[]]]},{"de":[["where users are only exposed to information that aligns with their existing beliefs",[]]]},{"sy":[["right-leaning",[]],["political right",[]]]},{"rt":[["fairness",[]],["political diversity",[]]]},{"sp":[["partisan bias",[]],["political bias",[]],["Bias",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["If the model displays a significant degree of indirect bias, it could potentially indicate a systemic problem within the training data, suggesting that there may not have been adequate measures in place to counteract or minimize this behavior.",[]]],"rt":[["neutrality",[]],["objectivity",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["partisan bias",[]],["political bias",[]],["Bias",[]]]},{"sy":[["left-leaning",[]],["political left",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["Indirect political bias",["18"]],["Direct political bias",["18"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It is crucial for understanding opinions and analyzing how opinions are presented in texts regarding specific issues",[]]],"sy":[["stance classification",["Walker et al., 2012"]],["stance identification",["Zhang et al., 2017"]],["stance prediction",["Qiu et al., 2015"]],["debate-side classification",["Anand et al., 2011"]],["debate stance classification",["Hasan and Ng, 2013"]]],"rt":[["zero-shot stance detection",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This frame also appeared regularly in the online sites where in all the stories, issues about the kidnap, continued detainment of the abducted girls, how they were abducted and the condition that led to the abduction were coded for abduction.",[]],["issues about the kidnap, continued detainment of the abducted girls, how they were abducted and the condition that led to the abduction were coded for abduction.",[]],["Phrases and words like \"carted away,\" \"captivity,\" \"continued detention,\" \"abduction,\" \"kidnap,\" and even \"kidnappers,\" \"abductors,\" and \"captors\" were coded for Abduction Frame.",[]],["in all the stories, issues about the kidnap, continued detainment of the abducted girls, how they were abducted and the condition that led to the abduction were coded for abduction.",[]]],"ex":[["Phrases and words like \"carted away,\" \"captivity,\" \"continued detention,\" \"abduction,\" \"kidnap,\" and even \"kidnappers,\" \"abductors,\" and \"captors\" were coded for Abduction Frame.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["political identity",[]],["politics of signification",[]],["news framing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Incompetence and display of lack of intelligence by the Nigerian security in their approaches to rescuing the kidnapped girls as covered by the newspapers, the use of police to dislodge the campaigners from where they mounted a permanent sit-in, also formed part of the Ineptitude Frame.",[]],["This statistic is more explicable given the fact that the agitations by the protesters was as a result of the government's inept attitude towards ensuring safe return of the abducted girls.",[]]]},{"de":[["making the campaigners unrepresentative of the general public; and making other issues perceived to be less important as more important than rescuing the girls.",[]],["This was cited in the stories as making the campaigners unrepresentative of the general public; and making other issues perceived to be less important as more important than rescuing the girls.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["discourse is not only vital in terms of framing social issues and problems for the attentive public, but it is also a place of ideological and ideational struggle for various social movements, state actors and institutions.",["Boykoff (2006:211)"]]]},{"rt":[["framing",[]]]},{"rt":[["framing",[]]]},{"de":[["It addresses the question of what is to be done and suggests remedies.",[]]],"ex":[["All efforts to negotiate the release of the girls or other demands that focused on calling on the government to secure the return of the girls either by the protesters, sympathisers or victims' parents or any other authority were coded under the Prognostic Frame.",[]]]},{"de":[["Activities such as candle light vigils, special sit out ceremonies, advocacy campaigns, organised protests and rallies, including public outcries were captured under the protest frame.",[]],["In other words, bring back our girls protest was vehemently supported by the online sites in more than one of every four.",[]]],"sy":[["protest paradigm",[]],["rally",[]],["agitation",[]],["dissent",[]],["protest",[]],["campaign",[]]],"ex":[["words like \"rally,\" \"agitation,\" \"dissent,\" \"protest,\" \"campaign,\" etc. were identified as the protest themes.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["But unlike in the reviewed studies where the protesters were seen and recorded as exhibiting violent tendencies, in this study, the protesters were viewed as the victims of violence from the government through the security personnel. Also, violence towards the kidnapped girls and the rest of the people in the region by the Boko Haram sects, as cited in the BBOG campaigns stories, were coded under the violence frame.",[]]],"ex":[["Phrases and words like \"bomb attack,\" \"blast,\" female bomber,\" \"horrendous massacre and destruction,\" \"residents killed,\" etc. were considered and incorporated under the Violence Frame.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["experiences of cultural f luency and of cultural disf luency are the result of the interface between what observers' cultural expertise leads them to (implicitly) expect, what they actually observe, and the meaning they draw from their ensuing metacognitive experiences of ease or difficulty",[]]],"rt":[["cultural f luency",[]]]},{"de":[["These expectations are rooted in one's culture -what one has learned explicitly or picked up implicitly through observation and socialization practices.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Veracity and bias are irrelevant to disinformation messaging, it does not matter if the content is true or unbiased; it only matters if the intended response is produced",["Weedon, Nuland, & Stamos, 2017"]],["disinformation may be more potent because it focuses directly on shaping judgment and engineering behavior.",[]],["disinformation is agnostic as to the veracity of information.",[]],["it only matters if the intended response is produced",["Weedon, Nuland, & Stamos, 2017"]]],"rt":[["information",[]],["misinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["information-based approach",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["People are likely to use information-based processing when the information to be used is easy to access, clear, and limited; in these cases, computational processing (e.g., trading off risks and rewards) is possible",["Reyna, 2004"]]],"ex":[["which navigation route is faster can be answered by searching a web-based traffic application",[]],["which product costs more can be answered by price comparisons",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformational messages",[]]]},{"rt":[["logic of communication",[]]]},{},{"de":[["people assume that message sharers share content they believe to be factually true, unbiased, and potentially useful in informing judgment and decision making, even if sometimes message sharers get it wrong and, unbeknownst to themselves, misinform -share factually untrue or biased content.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["Sense-making",[]]],"rt":[["Sense-making",[]]]},{"rt":[["personal identities",[]]],"ex":[["being patriotic, nationalistic, British, a Londoner, a European, male, a parent, a taxpayer",[]],["being patriotic",[]],["nationalistic",[]],["British",[]],["a Londoner",[]],["a European",[]],["male",[]],["a parent",[]],["a taxpayer",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["delay has no impact",["Seamon et al., 1983"]]]},{},{"de":[["This language can be derogatory on the basis of attributes such as race, religion, ethnic origin, sexual orientation, disability, or gender.",[]],["Also sarcastic or humorous expressions, if they are meant to offend or hurt one or more persons, are included in this category.",[]],["This language can be derogatory on the basis of attributes such as race, religion, ethnic origin, sexual orientation, disability, or gender. Also sarcastic or humorous expressions, if they are meant to offend or hurt one or more persons, are included in this category.",[]]]},{"de":[["It has been considered as a fundamental human decision-making process since the beginning of time",["Kahneman and Tversky, 1973"]]],"rt":[["cognitive bias",[]],["machine learning bias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Though usually tacit, bias range from the use of gender defaults to associating between occupation and gender.",[]]]},{"sp":[["machine learning bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["machine learning bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["machine learning bias",[]]]},{"ex":[["negative selection have been reported to occur more frequently in male dominated jobs than in other types of jobs",["(Davison and Burke, 2000)","Davison and Burke, 2000"]],["women were rated less positively than men in line jobs (which tend to be male gender-typed), but not in staff jobs, according to a prominent financial services organization",["(Lyness and Heilman, 2006)","Lyness and Heilman, 2006"]],["For example, negative selection have been reported to occur more frequently in male dominated jobs than in other types of jobs (Davison and Burke, 2000).",["Davison and Burke, 2000"]]]},{"sp":[["machine learning bias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The similarity of IAT and WEAT consists of using two lists of target words and two lists of attribute words. The first pair of lists represents the terms we want to compare and the second pair of lists represents the categories in which we suspect bias could exist (Mulsa and Spanakis, 2020).",["Mulsa and Spanakis, 2020"]]],"rt":[["Implicit Association Test (IAT)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In this threat, a real image is re-purposed to support other narratives by misrepresenting its context and/or elements.",[]]]},{"sb":[["outright distortion",[]],["filtering of information",[]],["filtering bias",[]],["facts bias",[]],["issue bias",[]],["framing bias",[]],["ideological stand bias",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["consumers tend to choose media whose biases match their own preferences or prior beliefs-what we will refer to as confirmatory news.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the media can strategically withhold information (a version of distortion bias)",[]]]},{"de":[["This can capture selection, where s is a high-dimensional vector and news outlets are constrained to choose one or a subset of the elements of the vector to report in n.",[]],["It can also take the form of coarse summaries, where s is a continuous variable and reports n take on a finite number of values, such as when the report is an editorial endorsement of one candidate or the other.",[]]],"sb":[["selection",[]],["coarse summaries",[]]],"sp":[["bias",[]]]},{"rt":[["filtering bias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In this special case, we can think of reports as objective statements about the value of s, and it is meaningful to talk about a \"truthful\" strategy (one where σ (s) = s), and the \"amount\" of bias (some integral of the distance between σ (s) and s).",[]]],"sp":[["bias",[]]]},{"de":[["This \"psychological\" utility is a function only of bias and consumers' priors, and is separable from the instrumental value of the information in a news report.",[]],["Such a taste could result from a preference for self-image, esteem or consistency (it may \"feel good\" or be more entertaining to receive news confirming one's beliefs are correct, and others are wrong), a desire to avoid complexity (updating away from the prior may involve cognitive costs), or other reasons.",[]],["consumers get direct utility from news whose bias matches their own prior beliefs",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["filtering of information",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["frames",[]],["all frames",[]]]},{"de":[["Framing is what allows communicators to focus their message and make particular aspects of information salient to their readers.",[]]],"sb":[["Emotional framing",[]]]},{"de":[["occupy an atypical middle ground between being a fairness metric and a significance test",[]]],"rt":[["fairness metric",[]],["significance test",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Counterfactual fairness is often viewed as a type of individual fairness, which asks for similar individuals to be treated similarly (Dwork et al., 2012).",[]]],"rt":[["individual fairness",["Dwork et al., 2012"]]],"sp":[["individual fairness",["Dwork et al., 2012"]]]},{"de":[["can also detect the presence of systematic differences in the behavior of a model, and hence are often employed as alternative means to quantify bias",["Mohammad et al., 2018","Davidson et al., 2019","Zhiltsova et al., 2019"]]]},{},{"ex":[["demographic parity (Dwork et al., 2012), which requires equal positive classification rate across different groups",["Dwork et al., 2012"]],["equalized odds (Hardt et al., 2016) which for binary classification requires equal true positive and false negative rates",["Hardt et al., 2016"]]]},{},{"ex":[["Religion or Gender",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The creator of the statement is not an expert but may give the impression to be an expert or have some form of authority, in order to manipulate recipients to believe the claims.",[]],["The article discusses news covering popular conspiracy theories regarding e.g. the existence, origin, spread and effects of COVID-19 or individual or governmental involvement in its creation and spread.",[]]]},{"ex":[["racism, irreligion, homophobia",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["It could be a false rumour, wrong claim, insult and prank.",[]]],"ex":[["false rumour, wrong claim, insult and prank",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["hashtag's publicity and legitimacy is driven by social exposure as part of a process of complex contagion",[]]],"rt":[["social exposure",[]]]},{"de":[["In summary, hashtags exhibiting higher levels of conversational vibrancy should gratify more users' needs and thus contribute to the success of the hashtag.",[]],["The user-generated and socially-mediated nature of Twitter will create a positive feedback loop through which hashtags with high conversational vibrancy will preferentially recruit more attention from users who in turn increase the vibrancy of the hashtag while also decreasing the communicative vibrancy of competing hashtags.",[]],["Conversational vibrancy consists of four general elements, each of which we operationalize with behavioral features specific to Twitter:",[]],["These elements should satisfy a confluence of users' needs by providing topical information, interactive sociality, diverse and novel content, and involvement from well-connected users and lead to a feedback loop that reinforces these tendencies.",[]]],"rt":[["topicality",[]],["prominence",[]],["interactivity",[]],["diversity",[]]],"sb":[["Topicality",[]],["Interactivity",[]],["Diversity",[]],["Prominence",[]]]},{"de":[["Because counting the absolute frequency of tweets observed using a hashtag can be biased towards hashtags being hustled by spammers, the number of unique tweets that have been retweeted at least once provides a reasonable threshold for capturing the breadth of tweets attracting attention. Hashtags are more likely to grow and persist when many unique tweets with the hashtag are being shared.",[]]],"sp":[["conversational vibrancy",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Hashtags allow users to track ongoing conversations, signal membership in a community, or communicate non-verbal cues like irony.",[]],["Twitter hashtags can serve either as a label for identifying topically relevant streams of message or a prompt for commenting and sharing",[]],["Hashtags often fill a dual role as both a topical identifier (e.g., #iPhone) and a symbol of a community membership (e.g., #VoteForObama)",[]],["Unlike traditional tagging systems used for information archival, Twitter hashtags can serve either as a label for identifying topically relevant streams of message or a prompt for commenting and sharing",["Huang, Thornton, and Efthimiadis 2010"]]]},{"de":[["Hashtags can denote spaces for on-going interpersonal conversation, supportive interest-based communities, or heated debates that bring others into the community and get them to adopt the hashtags as well.",[]],["The number of replies co-occurring with a hashtag captures the extent to which users are not only paying attention to others' content but actively responding to one another. Hashtags are more likely to grow and persist when there are many users speaking directly to each other while invoking the hashtag.",[]]],"sp":[["conversational vibrancy",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Hashtags mentioned by users with large audiences of many followers are more likely to result in rapid growth and sustained activity than hashtags mentioned by users with small audiences.",[]]],"sp":[["conversational vibrancy",[]]]},{"de":[["content relevant to the Twitter community draw more tweets and retweets and thus grow sustainably over time",["Huang, Thornton, and Efthimiadis 2010","Yang et al. 2012","Lehmann et al. 2012","Yang and Counts 2010"]]]},{},{"de":[["hashtags grow because they are adopted by users with social connections to one another, and by users' repeated use and spreading the word to others of interests",["Romero, Tan, and Ugander 2011","Romero, Meeder, and Kleinberg 2011"]]]},{"de":[["The number of times a hashtagged tweet created by one user is retweeted reflects the value this information has for other users. Hashtags are more likely to grow and persist when users re-share hashtagged content created by others with their own networks.",[]]],"sp":[["conversational vibrancy",[]]]},{"de":[["U&G argues that different forms of media compete to provide distinct uses such as news or entertainment and audiences actively seek out those media that are meaningful to them and can best satisfy their individual needs for information, social connection, or emotional support",["Ruggiero 2000","Stafford, Stafford, and Schkade 2004"]],["U&G emphasizes \"what people do with media rather than what media do to people\"",[]]]},{},{"de":[["working on the ground and reaching out to lower segments of society, and using Arabic rather than English or French",[]]]},{"sy":[["global critical media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["encourages one to analyze \"relationships between media and audiences, information, and power\"",["Kellner & Share, 2007, n.p."]]],"sp":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["This approach embraces the notion of the audience as active in the process of making meaning",["Kellner & Share, 2007, n.p."]]],"rt":[["traditional approach to media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["In particular, social media platforms such as YouTube, Instagram and Twitter allow access to diverse, intimate and everyday negotiations and performances of identity that students in the West may otherwise be excluded from.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Eurocentrism remains \"embedded in everyday life, so pervasive, that it often goes unnoticed\" (p. 1), spread through media, popular culture and education.",["p. 1"]]]},{"sy":[["conscientious consumerism",[]]]},{"de":[["To become literate on a global scale, then, necessitates not only more general global critical and traditional/hierarchical but also local media literacy skills.",[]]],"sp":[["media literacy",[]]]},{},{"de":[["traditional media literacy education has enabled students not to easily accept what they see as 'truth'",[]],["traditional media literacy education remains possible in contexts that demand such skills.",[]],["traditional media literacy education around authenticity, propaganda, financial power, and audiences",[]]],"sb":[["critical approach",[]],["GLOBAL MEDIA LITERACY",[]],["local media literacy",[]],["global critical",[]],["traditional/hierarchical",[]]]},{},{"de":[["While the concept originated in the West, it was proclaimed universal in time and space (see e.g., Lerner, 1958) although being nothing more than a \"particular [autocentric] paradigm about a particular narrative of happiness\" (Sabry, 2010, p. 12).",["Lerner, 1958","Sabry, 2010, p. 12"]],["nothing more than a \"particular [autocentric] paradigm about a particular narrative of happiness\"",["Sabry, 2010, p. 12"]],["being nothing more than a \"particular [autocentric] paradigm about a particular narrative of happiness\" (Sabry, 2010, p. 12)",["Sabry, 2010, p. 12"]]]},{},{"rt":[["critical media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["traditional literacy skills are crucial to become media literate in contexts of conflict, war and mediated propaganda.",[]]],"sp":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["The right of access to information has indeed become one of the fundamental individual rights.",[]]]},{"rt":[["Passive injustice",[]]]},{"sy":[["sins of information",["Levitt & Harper (2005)","2005:69"]]],"rt":[["mistrust",[]],["dependency",[]],["fear",[]],["insecurity",[]]],"ex":[["the seller knew much more about the condition of the vehicle than the buyer",[]],["The choice of a life partner is in most cases based on an asymmetrical information relationship.",[]]]},{"de":[["it refers to the fact that information can never be isolated from a carrier.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["information poverty",[]]],"sp":[["information poverty",[]]]},{"de":[["According to this view the unavailability or scarcity of usable information and high quality information, as well as deficient access of this information needed for development, underlie the genesis and roots of information poverty (Haywood, 1995;Aguolu, 1997 andNorris, 2001).",["Haywood, 1995","Aguolu, 1997","Norris, 2001"]]]},{"de":[["Contributive justice is therefore primarily concerned with the responsibilities and duties of members to not only the group to which those members belong but also to the broader community and even strangers.",[]],["It requires a person who receives certain benefits from a society to maintain and support that particular society.",[]]],"rt":[["distributive justice",[]],["Duty",[]],["Productivity",[]],["Contribution of society",[]]],"ex":[["the obligation on members in society to share their knowledge that will contribute to development of society",["Britz, 2004:203"]]]},{"de":[["This approach allows the researcher to analyze and interpret data within the framework that reality is socially constructed.",[]]]},{"de":[["This has resulted in the relatively cheap distribution of large quantities of information from the West to developing communities without taking into account the level of knowledge in those communities.",[]]],"ex":[["the Internet",[]]]},{"de":[["an enabling environment for cultural diversity",["UNESCO, 2002"]]]},{"sp":[["Ethics",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The negative claim emphasises the relativity of moral reasoning -for example, it denies universal norms.",[]],["There is a negative claim and a positive claim. The negative claim emphasises the relativity of moral reasoning -for example, it denies universal norms. Ethical relativism also claims some certainties -in other words it makes some positive claims of which the most famous is that what is \"right and wrong is relative\" (Johnson, 2000:30).",["Johnson, 2000:30"]],["Ethical relativism also claims some certainties -in other words it makes some positive claims of which the most famous is that what is \"right and wrong is relative\" (Johnson, 2000:30).",[]]]},{"de":[["As an academic discipline it is divided into descriptive, normative and metaethics.",[]]],"sb":[["descriptive, normative and metaethics",[]],["Descriptive ethics",[]],["Meta-ethics",[]],["Prescriptive ethics",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["misfortune/loss of control",["Buiter-Hamel, 1998:58-60"]]]},{"sp":[["freedom",[]]]},{"sb":[["formal freedom",[]],["material freedom",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["According to this approach the focus in the fair distribution of information should rather be on the real needs of individuals and the value of the information.",[]]],"rt":[["information inequities",[]],["vertical perspective",[]]]},{"de":[["emphasising the knowledge aspect of information poverty and linked to the human-connectedness of information",[]],["According to this view information is seen as a subjective phenomenon and is viewed as a social construct that enables human understanding, interpretation, decision-making and problem solving.",[]]],"sy":[["knowledge or hermeneutical approach",[]]],"rt":[["information poverty",[]]],"sp":[["information poverty",[]]]},{"de":[["Human rights can actually be seen as the legal articulation of the core and fundamental principles of justice.",[]],["Hamelink (2000) argues that the principle of human rights meets the requirement of universal validity.",["Hamelink (2000)"]],["human rights provide currently the only universally available set of standards for the dignity and integrity of all human beings",["Hamelink (2000:59)"]],["Human rights, as an expression of human dignity and autonomy, are also closely associated with justice.",[]]],"rt":[["justice",[]],["human freedom",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["misfortune/loss of control",["Buiter-Hamel, 1998:58-60"]]],"ex":[["a person cannot be held responsible for the actions of a company when taking up a new job without having prior knowledge of the criminal activities of a company that trade in information products and services",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["right of authorship",["Geldenhuys, 1993:100-109"]],["trade secrets",["Geldenhuys, 1993:100-109"]],["patent rights",["Geldenhuys, 1993:100-109"]],["trademarks",["Geldenhuys, 1993:100-109"]],["model rights",["Geldenhuys, 1993:100-109"]],["cultivation rights",["Geldenhuys, 1993:100-109"]],["heraldic rights",["Geldenhuys, 1993:100-109"]]]},{"de":[["Based on this etymological description together with current usage of the word information, the concept of information will be regarded as both a process and a product.",[]],["The product of this informational action is information.",[]],["The literal meaning is to give form to something, and the figurative to form an idea and to conceptualise something.",[]],["I refer to the product of this informational action as \"information\".",[]]],"sy":[["the product of this informational action",[]],["inligting",[]],["inlichting",[]]],"rt":[["ideological approach",[]],["user approach",[]],["process approach",[]],["content approach",[]],["knowledge approach",[]],["informene",[]]]},{"de":[["Education serves as prime example, and the policy that underpins public education with public funding reflects this view of information as a merit good.",[]]],"ex":[["Education serves as prime example, and the policy that underpins public education with public funding reflects this view of information as a merit good.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Access to the conduit does not guarantee access to the content. For example, a person might have access to a book in Russian, but due to an inability to read Russian cannot access the content.",[]]],"rt":[["content",[]]],"ex":[["language, books, CDs and other electronic storage devices",[]]]},{"de":[["This is possible because each individual has a unique experience and knowledge base to engage in the hermeneutical process of understanding and applying knowledge.",[]]]},{"rt":[["information poverty",[]]]},{"rt":[["information poverty",[]],["knowledge gap",[]]]},{"sb":[["vertical perspective",[]],["horizontal perspective",[]]]},{"de":[["information poverty is approached from an information literacy perspective",[]],["an awareness of the importance of information in everyday life, and a facility in obtaining, evaluating and using it for a wide range of work purposes",["Boon (1992: 32)"]],["those who have learned how to learn. They know how to learn because they know how knowledge is organized, how to find information and how to use information in a way that others can learn from them",[]]],"rt":[["ICT literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["must have a platform and opportunity within a system to mobilise themselves and rightfully protest against economic, social and political oppression that violates their basic information rights.",[]],["The information poor must be allowed to take responsibility for initiating social changes that will not only ensure the protection of their information rights, but will also restore their human dignity.",[]]]},{"de":[["It relates to an individual's or communities inability, not only to access essential information but also to benefit from it in order to meet their basic needs for survival and development.",[]],["It is further characterised by a lack of essential information and a poorly developed information infrastructure. Resources needed to satisfy human needs are in most cases inaccessible because the information about these resources are not unbundled and therefore not available to humans to use to gain access to these resources (Britz, 2004: 199).",["Britz, 2004: 199"]],["The notion of information poverty was first coined in the 1950s",[]],["a rather complex notion and many factors contribute to this condition.",[]],["complex social and cultural phenomenon",[]],["Information poverty is chronic and long-lived.",[]],["It is furthermore an instrumental form of poverty because it can affect all aspects of people's lives.",[]],["information poverty is not restricted or limited to a technology/digital divide only.",[]],["A lack of access to information can therefore seriously hamper development and as such contributes to a situation of information poverty.",[]],["It not only affects the individual and community in terms of human freedom, dignity and autonomy, but also limits the individual's and society's ability to make informed choices and to develop in the different spheres of live.",[]],["An information connectivity approach focusing on the connectivity to ICT",[]],["The content approach where the focus is on the effect of the unavailability of essential information to people",[]],["The human approach which I defined as the knowledge or hermeneutical approach where the emphasis is on the ability of people to apply meaning to information and to benefit from it.",[]]],"sy":[["digital divide",[]]],"rt":[["information capital",[]],["economic poverty",[]]],"sb":[["An information connectivity approach focusing on the connectivity to ICT",[]],["The content approach where the focus is on the effect of the unavailability of essential information to people",[]],["The human approach which I defined as the knowledge or hermeneutical approach where the emphasis is on the ability of people to apply meaning to information and to benefit from it",[]]],"sp":[["poverty",[]]]},{},{"de":[["who are involved in the generation, processing, value-addition, and distribution of information products and services as tradable commodities",[]]]},{},{"de":[["• freedom of the flow of information;",[]],["• access to essential information;",[]],["• freedom of opinion and freedom of expression;",[]],["• freedom of the press;",[]],["• the right to privacy;",[]],["• the right to be educated, and",[]],["• the right to own and control information.",[]]],"rt":[["positive rights",[]],["Negative rights",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["People are able to make informed choices and wise decisions that affect their lives.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["outsiders",[]]]},{"de":[["protect the moral rights of the creators of intellectual property products (moral justification)",[]],["recognise and protect the right of fair compensation for the creation and distribution of information products (economic justification)",[]],["enhance, to the benefit of the common good, the creation and accessibility of new knowledge (social justification)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["He therefore views justice as an important virtue for any social institution and indicates that it should be used primarily as a normative instrument in the evaluation of an institution or in societies (1973:5).",[]],["As a social virtue it sets out important principles for a fair and equitable treatment of all people within communities and offers normative guidelines for the regulation of existing inequalities, for example between the information poor and the information rich, within social institutions.",[]],["Justice is a public matter and addresses collectively public and social matters which can be changed or altered -such as poverty.",[]],["The scope of justice \"concerns any aspect of human life where people's lives can be harmed, their dignity be violated or their development be constrained\" (Lötter, 2000:191).",["Lötter, 2000:191"]]],"rt":[["social injustice",[]]]},{"de":[["I argued that contributive justice must be concerned with the production and dissemination processes of information, particularly essential information, to address the information needs of all.",[]],["In economic terms it deals with the common good as well as the private good and centres on the selection of",[]],["contributive justice must be concerned with the production and dissemination processes of information, particularly essential information, to address the information needs of all.",[]]],"rt":[["distributive justice",[]]]},{"de":[["I distinguished three different criteria for distribution that are of specific relevance to information poverty and the equal distribution of and access to information. These are merit, need and equality.",[]],["Different criteria for distribution can be distinguished -for example, merit, need and equality.",[]]]},{"de":[["The modes of injustice as disablement include oppression and domination, preventing people from becoming fully who they are and preventing them access to the necessary material means needed to achieve their human well-being.",[]],["As a form of justice it oversees the process whereby societies, based on their moral obligation and responsibility, allows human development to such an extent that people are enabled to make their own choices in order to fulfill their human well-being.",[]]],"rt":[["contributive and distributive justice",[]],["Sen's capability approach",[]]]},{"de":[["It implies the elimination of negative inequality, plus the elimination of the marginalisation of poor communities in society.",[]],["Participatory justice positively emphasises the equality of all people in respect of access to equal opportunities.",[]],["The purpose of participatory justice is, in other words, to ensure that each individual in a community has an equal opportunity to fulfill his/her life.",[]],["As a category of justice it implies the elimination of negative inequality, plus the elimination of the marginalisation of the information poor in society.",[]],["I furthermore argued that participatory justice positively emphasises the equality of all people in respect of access to equal opportunities.",[]],["Based on Sen's capabilities approach towards justice I also made an argument that the purpose of participatory justice is to ensure that the information poor and the information rich in society must have an equal opportunity to fulfill their lives.",[]],["It implies the elimination of negative inequality, as well as the termination of the marginalisation of poor communities in society.",[]],["it implies the elimination of negative inequality, plus the elimination of the marginalisation of the information poor in society.",[]]],"rt":[["Sen's capabilities approach",[]]]},{"de":[["it requires \"fundamental fairness in all agreements and exchanges between individuals or social groups\" (National Conference of Catholic Bishops, 1997:42).",["(National Conference of Catholic Bishops, 1997:42)"]],["It entails that the same rules and norms will apply in all similar situations.",[]],["Justice as reciprocity is therefore concerned with the fair procedures and outcomes in terms of social contracts and co-operation regulating the creation, gathering, adding value to, distribution and use of information products and services.",[]],["I emphasized the fact that as a category of justice it entails that the same rules and norms will apply in all similar situations.",[]],["I argued that this category of justice will eliminate any arbitrariness in exchange relations affecting the information poor.",[]],["It also entails that the same rules and norms will apply in all similar situations.",[]],["It entails that the same rules and norms will apply in all similar situations. This will eliminate any arbitrariness in exchange relations. An important issue of justice as reciprocity is to determine what qualifies as fair contracts and mutual agreements concerning trade relations with regard to information products and services.",[]],["this category of justice will eliminate any arbitrariness in exchange relations affecting the information poor.",[]],["it requires \"fundamental fairness in all agreements and exchanges between individuals or social groups\"",["National Conference of Catholic Bishops, 1997:42"]]],"rt":[["commutative justice",[]],["Aristotle's notion of commutative justice",[]],["distribute justice",[]]]},{"de":[["It insists on a pursuit of equitable treatment of all people because they are of equal moral dignity and reflects the first and second principle of justice.",[]],["it insists on a pursuit of equitable treatment of all people, the information poor as well as the information rich, because they are of equal moral dignity.",[]],["I illustrated that as a category of justice it insists on a pursuit of equitable treatment of all people, the information poor as well as the information rich, because they are of equal moral dignity.",[]],["It insists on a pursuit of equitable treatment of all people because they are of equal moral dignity.",[]]]},{"de":[["It is based on the principle that any normative mechanisms that are responsible for the application of justice would be hollow without an enforcement/punishment component.",["Lötter, 2000"]],["It does not only refer to the fair and just punishment of the guilty, but also to how to transform and change existing practices and institutions as well as human behaviour (Lötter, 2000).",["(Lötter, 2000)"]],["It does not only refers to the fair and just punishment of the guilty, but also how to transform and change existing practices and institutions as well as human behaviour (Lötter 2000:231).",[]],["As a form of justice it aims to restore the position of both the offender and the victim to their appropriate positions in society.",[]],["It does not only refer to the fair and just punishment of the guilty, but also to how to transform and change existing practices and institutions as well as human behaviour.",[]],["I make a case that this category of justice is based on the principle that any normative mechanisms that are responsible for the application of justice would be hollow without an enforcement/punishment component.",[]],["It is based on the principle that any normative mechanisms that are responsible for the application of justice would be hollow without an enforcement/punishment component. It does not only refer to the fair and just punishment of the guilty, but also to how to transform and change existing practices and institutions as well as human behaviour (Lötter, 2000).",["Lötter, 2000"]],["I make a case that this category of justice is based on the principle that any normative mechanisms that are responsible for the application of justice would be hollow without an enforcement/punishment component. It does not only refer to the fair and just punishment of the guilty, but also to how to transform and change existing practices and institutions as well as human behaviour.",[]]],"sy":[["punishable",[]],["transformation justice",[]],["punishable or transformation justice",[]]],"rt":[["retributive justice",[]]],"ex":[["free riders, intellectual property theft and the question of responsibility",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["information artifact",[]]]},{"rt":[["information gap",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Not to know what you do not know could probably be regarded as one of the worst forms of ignorance and by implication also as the worst degree of information poverty.",[]],["When someone does not know what he/she does not know, this means that such a person is not only restricted to \"that which is known\", but also does not have the ability to discover what can potentially be known.",[]]]},{"de":[["Legal systems, for example, intellectual property rights, are developed to guarantee the legal protection of our shared values and human rights and also to ensure fairness and stability in society.",[]]],"rt":[["moral responsibility",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["negative freedom",[]],["positive freedom",[]]],"sp":[["freedom",[]]]},{"sy":[["digital divide",[]]],"rt":[["digital divide",[]]]},{"de":[["At a minimum level there is a societal benefit in the provision of information in the marketplace. The provision of certain categories of information is benefiting society beyond the benefits to the individual.",[]]],"ex":[["Education serves as prime example, and the policy that underpins public education with public funding reflects this view of information as a merit good.",[]],["The provision of public funds to support public libraries is based on the same argument.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Ethics",[]]]},{"de":[["It implies the creation of an accessible -with the understanding that it must also be affordable -and context-friendly information infrastructure.",[]]],"rt":[["information literacy programmes",[]],["access to the Internet",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["positive rights",[]]],"ex":[["my right to own information requires that society refrains from stealing my information.",[]]]},{"de":[["It may even be important information in some cases, but is not necessarily essential for survival.",[]]],"ex":[["Information about taxi routes is a case in point.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["Budapest Open Access Initiative",[]],["Berlin Declaration on Open Access to Knowledge in the Science and Humanities",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The purpose of participatory justice is, in other words, to ensure that each person in a particular community has an equal opportunity, not only to gain access to essential information, but also to receive education in order to benefit from access to information (Britz, 2004:202).",[]],["there can in certain circumstances be justification for the application of inequality to ensure the creation of equal opportunities in society.",[]]]},{"de":[["Injustice is tolerated and those who are the victims of injustice are ignored. In other words, passive injustice occurs \"when people just stand around and do nothing, calm in the belief it could not be helped\" (Shklar, 1990:3).",[]]],"rt":[["Active injustice",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["reality (first world)",[]],["reality as experienced by a person (subjective idea -second world)",[]],["the presentation (objectification) of reality by means of human symbols, including language and books -third world",[]]]},{"de":[["This form of freedom allows us to positively express our freedom by means of our activities and the choices we make.",[]]],"rt":[["freedom to",[]]],"sp":[["material freedom",[]]]},{"rt":[["Negative rights",[]]],"ex":[["the right of access to essential information and the right to be knowledgeable.",[]]]},{"rt":[["data",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Retributive justice therefore deals with the question of how society deals with the victims of injustice as well as with those who are responsible for inflicting harm on the victims.",[]],["This category of justice is also known as punishable or transformation justice. It is based on the principle that any normative mechanisms that are responsible for the application of justice would be hollow without an enforcement/punishment component.",["Lötter 2000:231"]],["it aims to restore the position of both the offender and the victim to their appropriate positions in society.",[]]],"sy":[["punishable or transformation justice",[]],["punishable",[]],["transformation justice",[]]]},{"de":[["this right is no longer concerned only with freedom of opinion and expression or to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers -a right understood primarily as an intellectual right.",[]]],"sy":[["right of access to information",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["information poverty",[]]]},{},{"de":[["provide for a more equitable distribution of wealth between people, implementation of fair and just remuneration practices and punitive justice in cases where poor people are exploited by the powerful.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["can be seen as an important contributor to information poverty.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["According to this approach information inequality is determined by the socio-economic status of people; and greater equality of information access and use can be achieved by a more even and fair distribution of information in the marketplace.",[]]],"rt":[["information inequities",[]],["horizontal perspective",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["counterargument",[]]]},{"de":[["To capture the effect of parameter perturbations on query results, we need a way to compare results. For example, if a perturbation in Giuliani's claim leads to a lower increase (or even decrease) in the total adoption number, this new result is \"weaker\" than the result of the claim.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It influences how people perceive themselves and each other, how they behave and interact and the distribution of power and resources in society.",[]],["Gender is usually incorrectly conceptualized as a binary (female/ male) factor. In reality, there is a spectrum of gender identities and expressions defining how individuals identify themselves and express their gender.",[]],["shaped by social and cultural circumstances",[]],["Gender is usually incorrectly conceptualized as a binary factor (female/male). In reality, there is a spectrum of gender identities and expressions defining how individuals identify themselves and express their gender.",[]],["Gender is usually incorrectly conceptualized as a binary (female/ male) factor.",[]],["In reality, there is a spectrum of gender identities and expressions defining how individuals identify themselves and express their gender.",[]],["It influences how people perceive themselves and each other, how they behave and interact and the distribution of power and resources in society. Gender is usually incorrectly conceptualized as a binary factor (female/male). In reality, there is a spectrum of gender identities and expressions defining how individuals identify themselves and express their gender.",[]]]},{"de":[["It is the internal experience of gender role. (Mesh term, introduced in 1991, revised in 1975).",[]]]},{"de":[["Successful implementation of the policy, programme and project goals of international and national organizations is directly affected by the impact of gender and, in turn, influences the process of social development. Gender is an integral component of every aspect of the economic, social, daily and private lives of individuals and societies and of the different roles ascribed by society to men and women.",[]],["Gender is an integral component of every aspect of the economic, social, daily and private lives of individuals and societies and of the different roles ascribed by society to men and women.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["Transexual persons",[]],["Transgenders",[]]]},{"de":[["MeSH term 2016(MeSH term (2013)).",[]]],"sy":[["Transgender Persons",[]],["Transexual persons",[]],["Transgenders",[]]]},{"de":[["Specifically, civic online reasoning permits citizens to engage with political and social topics in critical and constructive ways.",[]],["We perceive civic online reasoning as a limited but central part of the complex field of media and information literacy.",[]],["Thus, civic online reasoning is a central part of a civic literacy, necessary for all citizens to better understand and participate in democratic conversations and decision-making in a digital world.",[]],["includes knowledge, skills and attitudes found in the social sciences and journalism in a digital world",["McGrew et al., 2017(McGrew et al., , 2018)"]],["permits citizens to engage with political and social topics in critical and constructive ways.",[]]],"rt":[["media and information literacy",[]],["civic literacy",[]]],"sp":[["media and information literacy",[]],["civic literacy",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["use cues and heuristics (intellectual rule of thumb) to estimate the credibility in online environments.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Unless people use English, they cannot be a major player in capitalist societies.",[]]]},{"de":[["It recognizes the existence of racial oppression and class divisions and argues the centrality of the social relations of production that exists in class relationships.",[]]]},{"de":[["contemporary minorities' status is rationalized as the product of naturally occurring phenomena",[]]],"rt":[["Jim Crow racism",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Discourse analysis will focus on texts to study how powerdependence relations between speakers were negotiated and constructed.",[]],["It examines characteristics of language and word use, description of topics in texts, through consistency and connection of words to theme analysis of content and establishment of central terms",["Neuendorf, 2002"]]],"rt":[["content analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["raises awareness of the experience of women of color",["Fong and Shinagawa, 2000: 6","van Dijk, 1991: 29"]]]},{"de":[["It describes the complexity of cultural, economic and political integrations and disintegrations and suggests a threat to the continuity and authenticity of local cultures, and a protest against homogenization of cultures.",[]],["Globalization and hybridization tends to create greater ethnic and religious tensions.",[]],["Globalization standardizes and homogenizes our everyday lives.",[]]],"rt":[["hybridization",[]]],"sb":[["the economic dimension of globalization refers to the expansion and transformation of capitalism into an integrated global economy.",[]],["cultural globalization is the result of development of mass tourism, increase of migration, commercialization of cultural products such as McDonaldization and wide-spread ideology of consumerism.",[]],["political globalization indicates the rise of international agencies which regulate the global economy and limit the freedom of nation states.",[]]]},{"de":[["Ideology is central to our beliefs and actions.",[]],["It is considered as not only a set of institutions but also as cultural and ideological practices.",[]],["Thus, ideology relates particular actions and mundane practices with a wider set of meanings (Apter, 1964).",[]],["It organizes and legitimates one's actions.",[]],["Ideology is connected to power.",[]],["which are generated by social and cultural practices.",[]]]},{"de":[["I suggest that the Japanese English textbooks created an imagined English-speaking community.",[]]]},{"de":[["The former stresses conformity and unity, but the latter promotes diversity and individuality.",[]]],"rt":[["globalization",[]]]},{"de":[["The movement of internationalization of Japanese education involves forming and disseminating an ideology that will result in the identification of a commonly accepted set of values, goals, social practices, and social relations (Lincicome, 1993).",["Lincicome, 1993"]],["When the term internationalization became a popular word in the early 1980s, Japan began to play a significant role in the world economy.",[]],["While internationalization may help to bridge between societies and between peoples, it also creates power divides.",[]],["The term internationalization is used to refer to various aspects of foreign policy while shifting attention away from major issues which divide the Japanese.",[]],["First, kokusaika or internationalization has come to stand for many of the processes formerly subsumed under the labels \"Westernization,\" \"modernization\" and \"liberalization\".",[]]],"sy":[["kokusaika",[]],["Americanization",[]]],"rt":[["Westernization",[]],["modernization",[]],["liberalization",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["dependence",[]]]},{"de":[["the concept of race has no real biological foundation.",[]],["the concept of race is socially constructed",[]],["The designation of racial groups emphasizes physical characteristics as opposed to cultural differences.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["race signification is made through a social and historical process by which racial categories are created and transformed and destroyed.",[]],["This perspective helps to understand minority groups in Japan as well as racial and ethnic diversity in other countries.",[]],["The racial formation theory helps to understand social structures established in a certain way that foreign workers may be assigned to lower statuses while Japanese people pursue their promotions in their careers.",[]]]},{"sy":[["internal colonialism perspective",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["dual processing theory",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["CTF",[]]]},{"rt":[["conjunction fallacy",["Epstein, Denes-Raj & Pacini, 1995","Toyosawa & Karasawa, 2004"]]]},{"de":[["believers are especially prone to the conjunction fallacy (Brotherton & French, 2014;Dagnall, Denoven et al., 2016;Prike et al., 2017;Rogers et al., 2009;2011, 2016;2017)",["Brotherton & French, 2014","Dagnall, Denoven et al., 2016","Prike et al., 2017","Rogers et al., 2009","2011","2016","2017"]]],"rt":[["probabilistic reasoning biases",["Rogers, 2015"]]]},{},{},{},{"ex":[["I believe in trusting my hunches",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["dual processing theory",[]]]},{"sy":[["System 1 thinking",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["I prefer my life to be filled with puzzles that I must solve",[]]]},{"ex":[["the number of people in a total workforce who receive a pay rise on a randomly selected day",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Être rationnel, selon la théorie économique standard, c'est être capable de résoudre un programme individuel et de s'y conformer, de maximiser son utilité sous contrainte, lorsque, placé dans une situation de choix en face de plusieurs alternatives, on prétend choisir la meilleure solution.",[]],["Une chose est rationnelle lorsqu'elle a à voir avec un ensemble d'actions ou de réflexions conscientes, délibérées",[]]],"sy":[["raisonnable",[]],["sensible",[]],["significatif",[]],["cohérent",[]],["logique",[]],["cartésien",[]],["déductif",[]],["raisonnable, sensible, significatif, cohérent, logique, cartésien, et déductif",[]]]},{"de":[["L'hypothèse de rationalité limitée naît du rejet de l'hypothèse de l'existence d'une bonne et unique façon de faire.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["basic model",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The inputs are exogenous conditions (e.g., individual and group characteristics). The outputs are the settled opinions of a group's members. The paradigm specifies features of the process by which the inputs are transformed into the outputs.",[]]]},{"rt":[["social conformity",[]],["social conflict",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The theoretical foundations that we have provided indicate that the model may be used when an investigator can assume an equality of the direct interpersonal effects on an individual.",[]]],"rt":[["interpersonal influences",[]],["social influence",[]]],"sp":[["basic model",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Movement of variant opinions toward normative opinions is a central characteristic of theories of social conformity.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Negative advert contains only negative statements about the opponent and nothing positive about the candidate",["Goldsten and Freedman 2002","Lau and Sigelman 2000","Opelbi 2006","Olujide et al 2011","Udeze and Akpan, 2014"]]],"sy":[["attack copy",[]],["knocking copy",[]],["negative advert",[]]],"rt":[["smear campaigning",[]],["negative campaigning",[]],["attack copy",[]],["knocking copy",[]]],"sb":[["Negative advert",[]]],"sp":[["political advertising",[]]]},{"de":[["It can also be described as \"marketing good qualities of a candidate through personality profiling, image/reputation research and management, opinion audit and personality packaging, etc. in order to secure the support of party members or the electorate before, during and after elections or any political mobilization campaign",["Achor, 2011","Moguluwa and Achor 2013"]],["marketing good qualities of a candidate through personality profiling, image/reputation research and management, opinion audit and personality packaging, etc. in order to secure the support of party members or the electorate before, during and after elections or any political mobilization campaign",["Achor, 2011","Moguluwa and Achor 2013"]]],"rt":[["marketing politics",[]]],"sp":[["marketing politics",[]]]},{"de":[["The balancing cum verification of information from the two sources happens in any of the three cognitive compartments of an individual voter or voting public",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Often times due to the way political advertisers and their consultant craft the messages, it usually contains both negative and positive statements about the opponents. Somehow it employs attack ads that criticize both issues as well as the opposition candidates, and often do so by contrasting with their own (Wikipedia 2008), cited by Anyanwu (2012).",["Wikipedia 2008","Anyanwu (2012)"]]]},{"sp":[["political advertising",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This can be done through mounting publicity/promotional campaign aimed at creating awareness of the achievement of a political aspirant, candidate or government with a view of winning support of the majority of the citizenry or electorate.",[]],["When politicians or candidates use image advertisement they are trying to sell themselves or personality to the electorate. They provide information about the object or person so that voters can make informed voting decision.",[]]],"sp":[["political advertising",[]]]},{},{"de":[["If the message of the candidate's USP falls within the latitude of acceptance during thought evaluation process, the voter is bound to vote based on his conviction of the message of the USP.",[]]],"sp":[["voter cognitive compartments",[]],["social judgment theory (SJT)",[]]]},{"sp":[["social judgment theory (SJT)",[]]]},{"de":[["On the contrary, if it falls within the compartment of rejection, the voter rejects the candidate and may not vote him.",[]]],"sp":[["voter cognitive compartments",[]],["social judgment theory (SJT)",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["it is the information provided that facilitates public agenda, which makes voters engage in discussions as to which candidate has a better political manifestoes for a possible selection at election",["Owuamalam, 2014"]]]},{"sp":[["political advertising",[]]]},{"de":[["Negative campaigning can come in form of word-of-mouth rhetoric which smears an opponent. It can also be in form of printed words.",[]]],"sy":[["Ad/attack copy",[]],["attack copy",[]],["knocking copy",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["orthodox marketing",[]]],"sb":[["political advertising",[]]]},{"de":[["political advertising influences attitude, behavior and acts as a tool for mobilization of the electorate to participate in politics or political processes, for example supporting or voting a particular political candidate during elections",[]],["political advertising is a tributary of the orthodox advertising",[]],["Political advertising could be seen as an aspect of marketing politics",[]],["Political advertising could be seen as an aspect of marketing politics just like orthodox advertising is an aspect of orthodox marketing, promotional or marketing communications tool",["Nwosu, 2003;Nwosu and Nkamnebe, 2006"]],["a form of advertising used to persuade the electorate to vote for a candidate of their choice during elections.",[]],["that form of advertising that creates awareness for a political candidate and the same time canvasses support of the voters during electioneering campaigns or elections.",[]],["a broad concept that operates beyond canvassing votes for a political candidate or selling a candidate to the prospective voters",[]],["political advertising is a tributary of the orthodox advertising.",[]],["political advertising is a broad concept that operates beyond canvassing votes for a political candidate or selling a candidate to the prospective voters, but extends to employing various forms of advertising techniques and strategies to market government policies, programmes or drums support for governments decisions that impact the entire citizenry.",[]],["political advertising is a broad concept that operates beyond canvassing votes for a political candidate or selling a candidate to the prospective voters",[]]],"rt":[["political communication",[]],["political marketing",[]],["marketing politics",[]],["orthodox advertising",[]],["promotional or marketing communications tool",[]],["candidate marketing",[]],["negative campaigning/ advertisement",[]],["marketing communications tool",["Nwosu, 2003;Nwosu and Nkamnebe, 2006"]]],"sb":[["Attack Ads/Negative Campaigning Advertisement",[]],["Contrast Adverts (Advertisement)",[]],["Pure and Clean Purpose Advert",[]],["Image Advert",[]],["Issues Advert",[]]],"sp":[["orthodox advertising",[]],["political marketing",[]]]},{"sp":[["social marketing",[]]]},{"de":[["The use of poster and jingles are two most used vehicles or media used to deliver such messages to the recipients. The essence of this kind of advertising is to create awareness about the candidate and political party he/she is vying for elective position. This type provides information about the candidate and persuades various classes of the voting publics to endorse the candidate as their choice in an election.",[]]],"sp":[["political advertising",[]]]},{"rt":[["latitude of acceptance",[]],["latitude of rejection",[]],["latitude of non-commitment",[]]],"sb":[["latitude of acceptance",[]],["latitude of rejection",[]],["latitude of non-commitment",[]],["latitude of acceptance compares messages that are ordinarily acceptable to the electorate",[]],["The latitude of non-commitment describes messages which the electorates are indifferent about, that is they may accept or reject them.",[]],["Latitude of acceptance",[]],["Latitude of rejection",[]]]},{"de":[["It represents the offer which a candidate, as a brand in the political market, makes to the electorate as reason for seeking votes at election",["Kaid, 1991"]],["USP is the fulcrum on which persuasive communication that drives any political advertising revolves. It is the USP that directs the ad message which serves as the major plank for attracting voter attention, arousing voting disposition and facilitating favourable patronage at the specified election.",["Nwosu, 2003"]],["It is the USP that directs the ad message which serves as the major plank for attracting voter attention, arousing voting disposition and facilitating favourable patronage at the specified election.",[]],["A unique selling point is not a chance event; it is guided on series of opinion polls and other forms of researches conducted by political marketing campaign professionals.",[]],["provides the information or message which voters require as justification to vote at an election",[]],["the fulcrum on which persuasive communication that drives any political advertising revolves",["Nwosu (2003)"]],["directs the ad message which serves as the major plank for attracting voter attention, arousing voting disposition and facilitating favourable patronage at the specified election",["Nwosu (2003)"]],["unique selling proposition crafted in advertisement influences consumer opinion and works as a catalyst for behavioural change",[]],["The voting public makes voting decisions /and or choices based on their convictions of a candidate's unique selling proposition",[]]],"sy":[["unique selling point",[]]],"ex":[["the two gubernatorial candidates used in this study were able to utilize the USPs to sell their personality, party blueprint and at the same time made a strong case for Imo electorate on the reasons why they should vote for their choice of candidate at the 2015 polls.",[]]],"rt":[["orthodox advertising",[]],["integrated marketing communication",[]]]},{"sb":[["latitude of acceptance",[]],["latitude of rejection",[]],["latitude of non commitment",[]]]},{"rt":[["substantive representation",[]]]},{"de":[["direct quotes are less likely to be less subject to misreporting than indirect quotes, and confer authority on the speaker.",[]]],"rt":[["indirect quotes",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["in this mediatized political age, to struggle to be seen and heard is a form of political death.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["descriptive representation",[]]]},{"de":[["In the mass media, this largely takes the shape of actor expansion of predominantly elite and collective actors",[]]],"rt":[["politicisation",[]]],"ex":[["online and social media are increasingly dominated by direct citizens' voices",[]],["increasing public resonance in the form of the numbers of citizens regularly following EU events and the respective news",[]],["travelling of debate from one setting to the next -for instance from parliamentary plenaries to newspaper coverage to social media.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The ultimate polarised scenario would feature diametrically opposed coalitions of societal groups at extreme positions with neutral voices having been crowded out.",[]]],"rt":[["polarisation of a country's party system",["2008","2012"]],["politicisation",[]]]},{"de":[["Most students of politicisation refer to a component of importance (societal actors consider EU issues more important for their interests or values), a behavioural component (societal actors spend more resources on contesting or influencing EU issues), a preference component (opinions diverge about what the EU should be and do) and a socialisation component (more societal actors become attentive and/or engaged in EU affairs).",[]],["politicisation can be empirically observed in (a) the growing salience of European governance, involving (b) a polarisation of opinion, and (c) an expansion of actors and audiences engaged in monitoring EU affairs",["De Wilde 2011","De Wilde and Zürn 2012","Green-Pedersen 2012","Hutter and Grande 2014","Statham and Trenz 2013","Zürn et al. 2012"]],["This understanding implies that a multitude of actors engages with issues of European governance via direct participation, public debate or protest.",[]]],"rt":[["salience",[]],["polarisation",[]],["actor and audience expansion",[]]]},{"de":[["democracy requires 'politics' (debate, conflict and choice) to decide which 'policies' (legislative output) to implement.",["2006"]]]},{"de":[["That is, we debate and contest what should be done at the national level but national politicians are increasingly powerless to implement the results of these debates.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the public sphere as the primary locus of politicisation",["De Wilde (2011: 560)"]]]},{"de":[["It may be indicated by the number of newspaper articles reporting on European governance (e.g. Grande and Hutter 2015; Hoeglinger 2015; Leupold 2015; Schmidtke 2015), how 'aware' citizens are of the existence of the EU, its institutions and policies and how worried they are about EU politics (Baglioni and Hurrelmann 2015), by the amount of public statements party representatives dedicate to EU issues in national election campaigns (Hoeglinger 2015) or by the number of parliamentary questions devoted to EU issues (Wonka 2015).",["Grande and Hutter 2015","Hoeglinger 2015","Leupold 2015","Schmidtke 2015","Baglioni and Hurrelmann 2015","Wonka 2015"]]],"rt":[["politicisation",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["fake news variants, such as misinformation, rumors, clickbait, and disinformation.",[]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["malicious accounts",[]],["malicious account",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Given the sophistication of these counterfeiting techniques, determining the veracity of the public appearances or influencer claims is challenging owing to fabricated descriptions.",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["friendship network",[]]]},{"de":[["fake news variants, such as misinformation, rumors, clickbait, and disinformation.",[]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["a distortion bias is often defined as a binary classification.",["51"]]]},{"sp":[["Linguistic-based features",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["These opinions are reinforced by repeated interactions with other users with similar tendencies and attitudes.",[]]],"rt":[["Frequency heuristic",["31"]]]},{"de":[["These opinions are reinforced by repeated interactions with other users with similar tendencies and attitudes.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Subjective opinions are not considered factual statements.",[]],["Only objective opinions are considered factual statements.",[]],["Factual statements can never be incorrect.",[]],["When a statement is published, it is not a factual statement if it can be disproved",["41"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In [26], the authors considered fake news in various forms, such as false, misleading, or inventive news, including several characteristics and attributes of the disseminated information.",["26"]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["rumors",[]],["clickbait",[]],["disinformation",[]]],"sb":[["misinformation",[]],["rumors",[]],["clickbait",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["we consider fake news detection as a multiclassification task.",[]],["fake news detection identifies a classification function F , such that F : N → Ψ , to map each news n ∈ N into the true class with the reliable label in Ψ .",[]]],"rt":[["rumor detection",[]],["misinformation detection",[]]]},{},{"de":[["A Frequency heuristic forms when people frequently hear the news, leading to natural approval of the information, even if it is fake news.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["GNNs",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Linguistic-based features",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sb":[["latent textual features",[]],["latent visual features",[]]]},{"sp":[["latent features",[]]]},{"sp":[["Linguistic-based features",[]]]},{"sb":[["lexical",[]],["syntactic",[]],["semantic",[]],["domain-specific",[]],["informality",[]]]},{"de":[["Malicious accounts are divided into three main types: social bots, trolls, and cyborg users [24].",["24"]]],"sb":[["Social bots are social network accounts controlled by computer algorithms.",[]],["Trolls are real people who disrupt online communities to provoke an emotional response from social media users",["24"]],["Cyborg users are malicious accounts created by real people; however, they maintain activities by using programs.",["24"]],["social bots",["24"]],["trolls",["24"]],["cyborg users",["24"]]],"sp":[["social bot",[]]]},{},{"de":[["fake news variants, such as misinformation, rumors, clickbait, and disinformation.",[]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"sp":[["multi-relational graphs",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In other words, this news is sometimes wrong, sometimes right or completely wrong.",[]]]},{"sb":[["group",[]],["post",[]],["temporal",[]]]},{"sp":[["Fake news",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Fake news",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Linguistic-based features",[]]]},{"de":[["They are classified into two groups: visual polarity and text polarity.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Fake news",[]]]},{"sp":[["malicious account",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["malicious account",[]]]},{"sb":[["the group level",[]],["the individual level",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["visual",[]],["statistical",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It takes several minutes to read and comprehend the message of an editorial.",[]],["They share many characteristics with political cartoons in how they present a problem and imply or describe a solution.",[]]],"rt":[["political cartoons",[]]]},{"rt":[["newsgame",[]]]},{"sy":[["newsgame",[]]]},{"de":[["the mechanics of a newsgame become more complex, and the procedural rhetoric more sophisticated",[]],["Newsgames are created in response to a specific current event, released while the story is still relevant in people's minds. Newsgames also are meant to be played and understood in a short period of time. Much like political cartoons, newsgames editorialize and often summarize the news story.",[]]],"rt":[["political cartoons",[]],["Editorial games",[]]],"sp":[["nonfiction game categories",[]]]},{"de":[["newsgames are the video game equivalent to political cartoons.",[]],["the word \"newsgame\" is currently only quite loosely defined, resulting in the term being applied to many forms of serious, or nonfiction games.",[]],["Much like political cartoons, newsgames editorialize and often summarize the news story.",[]],["While political cartoons communicate solely using imagery and language, newsgames additionally use the methods as well as the rhetorical possibilities made available through gameplay.",[]],["A strong newsgame encodes the author's editorial stance in the game design as well as in the imagery and sound.",[]],["Newsgames serve as one of the most direct examples of how procedural rhetoric is put into practice.",[]],["serve as a legitimate medium for social commentary, art making and other editorial pursuits.",[]],["can better represent an editorial stance than political cartoons and newspaper editorials.",[]],["A newsgame can point out a problem related to a current event and demonstrate or imply a solution by leading the player to enact the proposed solution and thus demonstrating its success.",[]],["In Sicart's discussion of newsgames, he describes how they are to be as \"ephemeral as the news they illustrate\"",["27"]]],"rt":[["political cartoons",[]],["editorial game",[]],["procedural rhetoric",[]],["Social Comment cartoons",[]]],"sp":[["nonfiction game categories",[]]],"ex":[["Kabul Kaboom",[]],["SimCity",[]],["September 12 th",["9"]],["Bacteria Salad",["21"]],["Madrid",["8"]]]},{"de":[["political cartoons have developed a set of stylistic tropes that utilize visual metaphor and caricatures to explain complicated political situations.",[]],["Political cartoons do not strive to report information, and often hardly report the events of a factual story at all. Their primary function is to communicate the author's biased, editorial opinion through persuasive visual and textual metaphor.",[]],["So political cartoons contain the editorial stance of their authors; the cartoonist purposely creates ideologically biased imagery and narratives to persuade the reader to share his stance",["6"]],["Political cartoonists know that what they create are not accurate or factual descriptions and would likely not dispute the claim that their work can be understood as propaganda.",[]],["The purpose of the cartoon is often to persuade the reader to agree. A common feature of these cartoons is to use trite events (e.g. celebrity gossip) to make a statement of lasting importance about a more significant aspect of culture (e.g. the news media). Often these cartoons point out a problem in the world and in many cases present a solution. In practice, Political Cartoons serve to offer a summary of a news story and judgment about it all in one.",[]],["Their primary function is to communicate the author's biased, editorial opinion through persuasive visual and textual metaphor.",[]]],"rt":[["Social Comment cartoons",[]]],"sb":[["Social Comment cartoons",["24"]]],"ex":[["a caricature of Uncle Sam performing some unfavorable action will be used represent the U.S. government performing that action.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["game rules and goals can communicate messages to the player through gameplay.",[]],["procedural rhetoric may elicit player emotions that are inconsistent with a game's theme, emergent effects of the procedural rule system can and often do undermine its intended meaning.",[]],["This provides a lens for analyzing how games persuade through rules and player goals.",[]]]},{"de":[["This cartoon does not make much of a compelling statement, but rather acknowledges the existence of the issue using exaggerated imagery. The cartoon does not seek to assign blame, suggest solutions or explain the phenomenon of global warming. The primary response to a Social Comment cartoon is to provide a \"smile of recognition\" to the reader",["24"]],["The cartoon does not seek to assign blame, suggest solutions or explain the phenomenon of global warming. The primary response to a Social Comment cartoon is to provide a \"smile of recognition\" to the reader",["24"]]],"rt":[["Political Cartoons",[]]],"sp":[["political cartoons",["24"]]],"ex":[["a polar bear wearing swim shorts and sunglasses while riding a melting piece of ice in the ocean is a cartoon about global warming.",[]]]},{"de":[["Reforça a reflexão de que \"desinformação\" não é só ausência de informação do receptor.",["Estrada-Cuzcano et al. (2020)*"]]]},{"de":[["disinformation as a 'multifaceted and polysemic phenomenon'",[]],["\"disinformation\" is not just a lack of information from the receiver.",[]],["disinformation characterized by the interpretative limitation of the content receiver.",["Nan et al. (2022)"]]],"sy":[["desinformação",[]]],"rt":[["Sender",[]],["Content",[]],["Receiver",[]],["Environment",[]],["agents",["Wardle e Derakhshan (2017)","Abad (2018)"]],["message",["Wardle e Derakhshan (2017)","Abad (2018)"]],["interpreter",["Wardle e Derakhshan (2017)","Abad (2018)"]]],"sb":[["\"Disinformation\", false and harmful information",[]],["Fake news",["Martens et al. (2018)"]]]},{},{"sp":[["Disinformation",["Martens et al. (2018)"]],["misinformation",["Rastogi & Bansal (2022)"]]]},{"rt":[["\"fake news\"",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["misinfomation",["Rastogi & Bansal (2022)"]]],"sb":[["fake news",["Rastogi & Bansal (2022)"]],["conspiracy theories",["Rastogi & Bansal (2022)"]],["hoax",["Rastogi & Bansal (2022)"]],["rumors",["Rastogi & Bansal (2022)"]],["clickbait",["Rastogi & Bansal (2022)"]],["satirical news",["Rastogi & Bansal (2022)"]]]},{},{"ex":[["narrative dispute surrounding BlackLivesMatter",[]],["airstrikes in Syria in 2018",[]]]},{"de":[["the point of the concept was to bring into focus a certain class of epistemic misjudgements",[]],["discriminatory epistemic injustice might remain a normative concept that carves out a space in which people are wronged in their status as a knower without that ever being a wrong done simply on purpose.",[]],["someone is indeed wronged in their capacity as an epistemic subject",[]],["this kind of epistemic injustice is fundamentally a form of (direct or indirect) discrimination.",[]]],"rt":[["distributive injustice",[]],["discriminatory epistemic injustice",[]]],"sb":[["testimonial injustice",[]],["hermeneutical injustice",[]],["discriminatory epistemic injustice",[]]],"ex":[["someone's receiving less than their fair share of an epistemic good, such as education, or access to expert advice or information",[]]]},{"de":[["When a resultant failure of shared intelligibility takes place",[]],["So ill people tend to be hermeneutically marginalised in the sense that the non-expert terms in which they naturally and effectively understand their experiences of illness are not sufficiently shared across social space as regards the decision-making of the professionals whose judgements they rely on.",[]],["Hermeneutical injustice is the actualization of unequal hermeneutical opportunity, which can be somewhat mitigated by especially virtuous epistemic and communicative conduct on the part of any individual hearer.",[]]],"rt":[["testimonial injustice",[]],["white ignorance",[]],["discriminatory epistemic injustice",[]]],"sp":[["epistemic injustice",[]],["discriminatory epistemic injustice",[]]]},{"de":[["any such structural testimonial injustice would have to be pre-emptive, for as soon as anyone actually said anything (perhaps they speak uninvited and formally out of turn in the courtroom), it would become transactional as well as structural",[]],["Their views are not sought, and this is owing to a structural prejudice (the un-refreshed list).",["Fricker 2007, ch. 6"]]],"rt":[["structural testimonial injustice",[]]],"sp":[["testimonial injustice",[]]],"ex":[["We imagine a list of expert witnesses that no one has refreshed for a good while, so that (through no one's fault, let us add) the same old white male witnesses tend to be drawn on time and time again, and all those whose names would have made it onto the list if any official had been keeping more of a vigilant eye on updating it are effectively silenced.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["a species of ingenuous epistemic misjudgement",[]],["For this reason I would advocate continued strictness about 'testimonial injustices' being unintentional: a species of ingenuous epistemic misjudgement.",[]],["finding that their relative expertise in the matter of their lived experience of illness is not recognised or utilised adequately by healthcare professionals",[]],["plus a secondary associated disadvantage",[]]],"rt":[["hermeneutical injustice",[]],["prejudicial over-generalisation",[]],["discriminatory epistemic injustice",[]]],"sb":[["transactional",[]],["structural",[]]],"sp":[["epistemic injustice",[]],["discriminatory epistemic injustice",[]]]},{"sy":[["interpersonal",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["regret, resent, forget, amuse, suffice, bother.",[]],["E.g., regret, resent, forget, amuse, suffice, bother.",[]]]},{"de":[["The difference, however, is that framing and epistemological bias refer to the individual words used, whereas bias by semantic properties refers to how the sentence is structured",["90"]]],"rt":[["framing bias",[]],["epistemological bias",[]]],"sp":[["linguistic bias",[]]],"ex":[["\"The gunmen shot the opposition leader\" vs. \"The shooting killed the opposition leader\".",[]]]},{"ex":[["\"Rebecca broke the pencil\" vs. \"The pencil broke\".",[]]]},{"de":[["biased processing of news by the reader is often attributed to a need for a consistent world view and for overcoming dissonances evoked by discordant information",["169"]]],"sb":[["Selective Exposure",["125","55","170","141"]],["Partisan Bias",["18","82"]]],"sp":[["media bias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["selective exposure to media to be consistent with previous viewpoints [125], further strengthening prior convictions",["125"]]]},{},{"de":[["While the denotation of a word expresses its literal meaning, the connotation refers to a secondary meaning besides the denotation. The connotation is usually linked to certain feelings or emotions associated with a point of view",["187"]]],"sp":[["linguistic bias",[]]],"ex":[["\"immigrants\" vs. \"aliens\", \"estate tax\" vs. \"death tax\".",[]],["E.g. \"immigrants\" vs. \"aliens\", \"estate tax\" vs. \"death tax\".",[]]]},{"de":[["The level of attention can be measured either in absolute numbers (e.g., there are more articles discussing pro-life than pro-choice topics), how much space the topics get in a newspaper (e.g., printed on the front page), or as the length of the article (e.g., pro-life articles are longer and receive more in-depth coverage than pro-choice articles)",["47,199"]]],"rt":[["reporting-level context bias",[]]],"sp":[["Reporting-level Context Bias",[]],["Context Bias (Reporting Level)",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["filter bubble",[]]]},{"de":[["hampering unbiased information processing",[]]],"sy":[["echo chamber",[]],["filter bubble",[]]]},{"sb":[["Sparse embeddings",[]],["Dense embeddings",[]]],"sp":[["tNLP",[]]]},{"ex":[["\"Cyprus was invaded by the Ottoman Empire in 1571\" implies the hypothesis \"The Ottomans attacked Cyprus\".",[]]]},{"de":[["In contrast to framing bias, epistemological bias is rather subtle and implicit",["190"]]],"rt":[["factive verbs",[]],["entailments",[]],["assertive verbs",[]],["hedges",[]]],"sp":[["linguistic bias",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["\"John realized that he had no money\" implies \"John had no money\".",[]]]},{"de":[["has been widely documented even before the introduction of social media and may be partially due to identity motivations explained earlier [154].",[]]]},{"sy":[["echo chamber",[]]]},{"rt":[["echo chambers",["216"]]]},{},{"de":[["to sway the meaning of a statement.",["190"]]],"sb":[["one-sided terms",["190"]],["subjective intensifiers",["190"]]],"sp":[["media bias",[]],["linguistic bias",[]]]},{"de":[["Frames promote a specific interpretation of the content or highlight certain aspects while overlooking others. In other words, this type subsumes biases resulting from how events and entities are framed in a text [53,65]",["53","65"]],["Frames promote a specific interpretation of the content or highlight certain aspects while overlooking others. In other words, this type subsumes biases resulting from how events and entities are framed in a text",["53","65","53,65"]]],"sp":[["related concepts",[]]]},{},{"de":[["resulting in the under-representation of the less dominant gender and the formation of stereotypes [43,183]",["43","183"]],["resulting in the under-representation of the less dominant gender and the formation of stereotypes",["43","183","43,183"]]],"rt":[["selection bias",["10","116","10,116"]],["coverage bias",["32","135","32,135"]],["context bias",[]],["selection bias [10,116]",["10","116"]],["coverage bias [32,135]",["32","135"]],["context bias at the text level",[]]],"sp":[["group bias",[]]],"ex":[["women are quoted more frequently than men for \"Lifestyle\" or \"Healthcare\" topics, while men are quoted more frequently in \"Business\" or \"Politics\" [186]",["186"]]]},{"de":[["they all refer to biased views toward certain groups",[]]],"rt":[["framing effects",[]],["hate speech",[]],["sentiment analysis",[]]],"sb":[["gender bias",["43"]],["racial bias",["39","161"]],["religion bias",["153"]]],"sp":[["related concepts",[]]]},{"de":[["Often, hateful language is biased [163]. The consequences of hate speech in media content are severe, as it reinforces tension between all actors involved [3,163]",["163","3"]],["Often, hateful language is biased",["163"]],["The consequences of hate speech in media content are severe, as it reinforces tension between all actors involved",["3,163"]],["Often, hateful language is biased [163]. The consequences of hate speech in media content are severe, as it reinforces tension between all actors involved [3,163].",["163","3"]]],"sp":[["group bias",[]],["related concepts",[]]]},{"ex":[["perhaps, might, may.",[]],["E.g., perhaps, might, may.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This effect increases with the extremity of party affiliation and is primarily due to the derogation of dissenting media [17,83,216], making it a cognitive bias rather than a characteristic of the media landscape.",["17","83","216"]]],"sp":[["cognitive bias",[]]]},{"de":[["which can be described as a combination of linguistic and text-level biases on a document level.",["122"]],["Hyperpartisanship is not to be confused with partisan bias as described in Section 4.2.",[]]],"rt":[["partisan bias",[]]],"sp":[["Cognitive / Perception Bias",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["exaggeration",["70"]]],"sp":[["Spin Bias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In simpler terms, linguistic bias means using language that reflects a particular attitude or viewpoint towards a particular group or individual.",[]]],"sy":[["lexical bias",["70"]]],"sb":[["linguistic intergroup bias",["206"]],["framing bias",["190"]],["epistemological bias",["190"]],["bias by semantic properties",["90"]],["connotation bias",["187"]]],"sp":[["media bias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The concept is based on the linguistic category model (LCM), which categorizes words into different levels of abstraction (action words, interpretive action words, state verbs, and adjectives) according to their purpose",["58","206","58,206"]]],"rt":[["linguistic category model (LCM)",["58,206"]]],"sp":[["Linguistic Bias",[]]],"ex":[["\"Mary hit Mike\" vs. \"Mary hurt Mike\" vs. \"Mary hates Mike\" vs. \"Mary is aggressive\".",[]]]},{},{"de":[["slanted news coverage or internal bias reflected in news articles.",["222","p. 2"]],["We emphasize the complexity of media bias and note that researchers often fail to clearly define the type of media bias they investigate, which leads to confusion when comparing different studies.",[]],["which can be intentional, i.e., purposefully express a tendency towards a perspective, ideology, or result",["243"]],["or unintentional",["21,243"]],["Media bias is a complex concept [213,217] that has been researched at least since the 1950s [242]. It describes slanted news coverage or other biased media content [98], which can be intentional, i.e., purposefully express a tendency towards a perspective, ideology, or result [243], or unintentional [21,243].",["213,217","242","98","243","21"]]],"sy":[["editorial slant",["60"]]],"rt":[["hate speech",[]],["gender bias",[]],["cognitive bias",[]],["framing effects",[]],["racial bias",[]]],"sb":[["linguistic",[]],["cognitive",[]],["text-level context",[]],["reporting-level",[]],["linguistic bias",[]],["cognitive bias",[]],["text-level context bias",[]],["reporting-level bias",[]],["related concepts",[]],["Reporting-level context bias",[]]]},{"sb":[["linguistic bias",[]],["cognitive bias",[]],["text-level context bias",[]],["reporting-level bias",[]]]},{"ex":[["relentless (-) vs. persistent (+) gentleman (+) vs. man (=) protection (-) vs. security (=)",[]]]},{"sy":[["simplification",["155,164"]]],"sp":[["Spin Bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["Framing Bias",[]],["Linguistic Bias",[]]],"ex":[["\"Pro-life\" vs. \"anti-abortion\".",[]]]},{"sp":[["Cognitive / Perception Bias",[]]],"ex":[["The perception of bias in the same news article depended on the brand or outlet name (e.g., CNN or FOX) study participants saw.",["20"]]]},{"de":[["Selective attention to world-view-consistent news has led to research on the effects of political identity.",[]]],"sp":[["cognitive bias",[]]]},{"de":[["Depending on the context, a word can change from neutral to inflammatory. Therefore, when analyzing bias, the inter-dependencies between words and phrases must be considered",["110"]]],"sp":[["Text-level Context Bias",[]]]},{"rt":[["partisan bias",[]]]},{"de":[["Newspapers tend to report more frequently and more in-depth on events that happened nearby",["199"]],["For instance, the more two countries are culturally similar, the more likely it is that events from one region or country will be reported in the other, and the coverage will be more in-depth",["77,199"]]],"sp":[["Reporting-level Context Bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["group bias",[]]]},{"de":[["While text-level context bias observes bias within an article, reporting-level bias observes the general attention for specific topics",["31","47","77","199","31,47,77,199"]]],"rt":[["Coverage bias",[]]],"sb":[["selection bias",["47","164","199","242"]],["proximity bias",["199","77"]],["coverage bias",["47","199"]]],"sp":[["media bias",[]]]},{"de":[["Obviously, not all news events can be reported due to the limited resources of newspapers. However, this decision-making process is prone to bias from personal preferences",["47,164,199,242"]]],"sy":[["gatekeeping bias",["47"]]],"sp":[["media bias",[]],["Reporting-level Context Bias",[]],["Context Bias (Reporting Level)",[]]]},{"de":[["exacerbating already existent biases through selective exposure to one-sided news reports [55,170]",["55","170"]],["Given this choice, they tend to favor reading information consistent with their views, exacerbating already existent biases through selective exposure to one-sided news reports",["55","170","55,170"]],["Additionally, such selective exposure tends to extend to social tie formation. Topic information is solely exchanged among like-minded individuals, a phenomenon often dubbed echo chamber or filter bubble",["141"]]],"rt":[["echo chamber",["141"]],["filter bubble",["141"]],["echo chamber or filter bubble",[]]],"sp":[["cognitive bias",[]]]},{"de":[["In the context of media bias, sentiment analysis can detect biases in statements or articles [97,109] and help identify other concepts like hate speech, political ideology, or linguistic bias [3,193].",["97","109","3","193","97,109","3,193"]]],"rt":[["hate speech",[]],["political ideology",[]],["linguistic bias",[]]]},{"rt":[["in-group favoritism",["121","198"]],["out-group derogation",["121","198"]]]},{"de":[["The underlying motivation is to tell a simple and memorable story",["164"]]],"sb":[["omission bias",["155","164","155,164"]],["informational bias",["155","70"]]],"sp":[["Text-level Context Bias",[]],["Context Bias (Text Level)",[]]]},{"rt":[["political bias detection",[]]],"sp":[["Cognitive / Perception Bias",[]]]},{"de":[["which leads to certain news being reported in a way that is more or less favorable towards a particular position",["47"]]],"sp":[["Text-level Context Bias",[]],["Context Bias (Text Level)",[]]],"ex":[["A political protest in which people sat in the middle of a street blocking traffic can be described as \"peaceful\" and \"productive, \" or others may describe it as \"aggressive\" and \"disruptive\".",["47"]]]},{"sp":[["Framing Bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["Linguistic Bias",[]]],"ex":[["Subjective adjectives (e.g., preposterous, unseemly) and metaphorical or idiomatic phrases (e.g., dealt a blow, swept off one's feet).",[]]]},{"de":[["Words and statements have the power to alter the article's context, influencing the reader's opinion",["110"]]],"sb":[["statement bias",["47"]],["phrasing bias",["110"]],["spin bias",["155"]]],"sp":[["media bias",[]]]},{"de":[["Conversely, a score close to -1 or 1 indicates that one group disproportionately cites an influencer compared to another group.",[]],["Stefanov et al.[223] indicated that valence scores are essential in identifying media bias in social networks.",["223"]]]},{"ex":[["The story begins in Illinois in 1987 when a 17-year-old girl suffered a botched abortion.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the basic idea is to compare language use in news outlets to language use by members of Congress in the Congressional Record (CR)",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["agreedupon components include (a) the awareness about one's positionality and attitude, (b) the knowledge about the language, values, beliefs, practices, symbols, etc. of a culture, and (c) the skill of appropriately using this knowledge when communicating",["Howard-Hamilton et al., 1998;Deardorff, 2006;Fantini and Tirmizi, 2006;Deardorff, 2009"]],["evaluation of cultural competence demands participatory and intersectional approaches, in addition to accounting for imperfect and static measures of cultures.",[]],["Cultural competence includes a person's knowledge of a culture, which then supplements their skills of effectively communicating with people from that culture",["Deardorff, 2006","Fantini and Tirmizi, 2006","Alizadeh and Chavan, 2016"]],["While multiple definitions exist (Alizadeh and Chavan, 2016), agreedupon components include (a) the awareness about one's positionality and attitude, (b) the knowledge about the language, values, beliefs, practices, symbols, etc. of a culture, and (c) the skill of appropriately using this knowledge when communicating (Howard-Hamilton et al., 1998;Deardorff, 2006;Fantini and Tirmizi, 2006;Deardorff, 2009).",["Howard-Hamilton et al., 1998","Deardorff, 2006","Fantini and Tirmizi, 2006","Deardorff, 2009"]]],"sy":[["intercultural competence",[]],["cross-cultural competence",[]]],"rt":[["communication",[]],["education",[]],["business",[]],["healthcare",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["journalism of attachment",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The term implies that television coverage forces policy makers to take actions they otherwise would not have taken.",["50"]]]},{"rt":[["conflict resolution",["34"]]]},{},{"de":[["DEOCC journalists must maintain a critical distance from the belligerents and equally and forcefully criticize their actions.",["88"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["media effects",[]],["uses and gratifications",[]],["agenda-setting",[]],["framing",[]],["cultivation theory",[]],["spiral of silence theory",[]]]},{"de":[["the global media have no such official allegiance.",[]]],"ex":[["CNN International",[]],["the International Herald Tribune",[]],["the Economist",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the international media present news and commentary from the perspective of a particular state",[]]],"ex":[["the Voice of America, BBC World News, China's CCTV-9, Al Jazeera International, France 24, Russia's Vesti-TV, and Iran's Press TV.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["bystanders' journalism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["political-military confrontation between contending states or groups below conventional war and above the routine, peaceful competition among states. It frequently involves protracted struggles of competing principles and ideologies. Low-intensity conflict ranges from subversion to the use of armed forces. It is waged by a combination of means, employing political, economic, informational, and military instruments. Low-intensity conflicts are often localized, generally in the Third World, but contain regional and global security implications. LIC is usually asymmetrical, especially when one side is a state employing armed forces and obeying the laws and rules of war while the other side is an organization or a group employing irregular forces, exploiting the weaknesses of liberal democracies, and systematically violating the laws and rules of war.",["18"]]],"sy":[["small war",[]],["fourth-generation wars",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["media functions",[]]],"ex":[["the American media self-mobilized and became a significant collaborating actor in the global war against terrorism.",["106"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["peace journalism explores the reasons behind the violence and provides not only a voice to all parties, but also empathy and understanding.",["82"]],["Peace journalism focuses on all suffering and humanizes all sides.",["83"]],["While war journalism attaches only to -our side,‖ peace journalism is a journalism of attachment to all actual and potential victims.",["84"]]],"rt":[["war journalism",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["Qatar-based Al Jazeera Arabic and Dubai-based Al Arabiya, which broadcast primarily to the Middle East, and the South African Broadcasting Corporation, which serves Africa.",[]]]},{"sy":[["positive peace",["31"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["war journalism focuses on who advances and who capitulates, keeping score of the cost in human lives and material damage.",[]],["War journalism is driven by propaganda and manipulation and is therefore biased and distorted.",["81"]]],"rt":[["peace journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["collective narcissism is tied to the belief that it is one's ingroup, rather than the self, that is exceptional, deserves special treatment and that others do not sufficiently recognize it",["Golec de Zavala et al., 2019"]]]},{},{"de":[["Conspiracy theories about the COVID-19 pandemic might emerge from the desire to manage this threat.",[]]],"sb":[["deflection conspiracy theory",[]],["denial conspiracy theory",[]]],"ex":[["COVID-19 is a hoax",[]],["COVID-19 is a bioweapon",[]],["claiming that the pandemic was a Chinese bioweapon",[]],["claiming that the pandemic was a media scheme against the Trump administration",[]]]},{"ex":[["the pharmaceutical industry expedited the spread of COVID-19 for financial gains",[]],["e.g., the pharmaceutical industry expedited the spread of COVID-19 for financial gains",[]]]},{"ex":[["a cover-up of 5G networks",[]],["e.g., a cover-up of 5G networks",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["National narcissists are primarily concerned with reinforcing an (idealistic) national image and preferential treatment of their nation.",[]],["They care about what the nation can do for them and how it reflects on them",[]],["They are ready for change and are quick to abandon their country if it benefits them",[]],["The defensive sense of entitlement and preoccupation with external recognition of the in-group also differentiates national narcissism from political conservatism.",[]],["defensive love for the nation-captured in national narcissism",[]]],"sy":[["collective narcissism with regards to one's nation",[]]],"rt":[["general ingroup positivity",[]],["individual narcissism",[]],["low reflection",[]],["collective narcissism with regards to one's nation",[]]],"sp":[["collective narcissism",["Golec de Zavala et al., 2009"]]]},{},{"de":[["As such, they threaten an idealistic national image.",[]]]},{"de":[["was measured via the Bullshit Receptivity Scale (Pennycook et al., 2015)",["(Pennycook et al., 2015)"]]],"sy":[["proneness to believe nonsensical information",[]]]},{},{"de":[["conscripted users into systems of compulsory identification with or as a set of discrete categories for the purpose of value extraction largely divorced from or in direct contradiction with a radical politics of difference.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["queer technics",[]]]},{"de":[["Blas (2012) suggests that we might understand queer darkness as not only an aesthetic but an ethos",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a tactic he terms queer opacity.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Queerness here is marked by its illegibility to the social order; indeed this is its very value.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Continued influence arises when (a) the misinformation is supplied by an automatic retrieval process, whose output is mainly determined by memory strength, and (b) the strategic retrieval process fails, either because the person does not engage in strategic retrieval (e.g., inadequate output monitoring under time pressure; cf. Jacoby, 1999), or because of genuine failure of the process.",["(e.g., inadequate output monitoring under time pressure; cf. Jacoby, 1999)"]]],"ex":[["if a fictional character is accused of a crime but is later exonerated, people continue to use the outdated misinformation (that the person is guilty) in subsequent inferences, even if they recall the correction.",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["the Bush administration purportedly made 935 false statements about the security risk posed by Iraq in the 2 years following 9/11 (Lewis & Reading-Smith, 2008).",["Lewis & Reading-Smith, 2008"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["explain our participants' ambivalences towards algorithmic personalisation.",[]]],"rt":[["algorithmic personalisation",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["social imaginary",["2019: 2-3 and 36"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["determining how information circulates online",[]]]},{"de":[["Social media platforms also function as spaces for promotional paratexts, such as trailers, adverts and reviews, that were frequently described as operating alongside word of mouth in shaping decisions about what to watch.",[]],["such as trailers, adverts and reviews, that were frequently described as operating alongside word of mouth in shaping decisions about what to watch",[]],["trailers, adverts and reviews",[]]],"rt":[["word of mouth",[]]],"ex":[["trailers, adverts and reviews",[]]]},{"de":[["This encompasses a wide range of activities and multiple forms of 'television'. It involves the use of television-viewing technologies including smart TVs, mobile devices and add-on devices (such as set-top-boxes (STBs), connected devices and games consoles) to both find and watch television (Johnson, 2019: 7). It also involves the activities that take place around that technology use, such as the negotiations between household members about what, when and where to watch (Lull, 1982;Morley, 1986).",[]],["The ways in which routes to content are negotiated extends beyond household dynamics to the user tactics adopted to navigate industrial limits on access to TV (usually because of licencing regimes).",[]]],"rt":[["pathfinding",[]]]},{},{"de":[["where 'word of mouth' and 'buzz' in people's networks can, in turn, itself have been shaped by a variety of platform algorithms",[]]],"rt":[["word of mouth",[]],["buzz",[]]]},{"de":[["rather than as a matter of policy debate/anxiety (something imagined or assumed by industrial concerns)",[]]]},{"de":[["constitute the majority of audiences' productivity and form a central component of people's routes to content.",[]]],"rt":[["routes to content",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["promotional paratexts",[]]]},{"de":[["The dissemination of fake news is often targeted to damage the image of a person, group, or community.",[]],["Furthermore, these news are nicely fabricated to catch the headlines by reaching more people.",[]],["advertising agencies earns revenue from such fake news posted as a headlines and clickbait stories in online",["Wikipedia: Fake News, 2020"]],["Without the presence of real news with facts and figures, fake news has the capability of impersonating as a piece of real news and cause havoc.",[]],["mostly fake news are deliberated to misguide the people in large",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["clickbait stories",[]]],"ex":[["clickbait stories",[]]]},{"de":[["annotator bias exists in current NLU datasets, which can lead to problems in model generalization to new users.",[]],["annotator bias in the data that leads to an over-estimation of model performance",[]],["the language generated by annotators often reveals their identity",[]],["If an annotator consistently uses language patterns that correlate with the labels, a neural model can pick up on those, which can lead to an over-estimation of model performance.",[]]],"rt":[["data diversity",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["multi-armed bandit",[]]],"sb":[["K-armed bandit",[]],["context-free bandit",[]]]},{"de":[["The above problem is indeed known as a feature-based exploration/exploitation problem. In this paper, we formulate it as a contextual bandit problem",[]]]},{},{"de":[["They confirm and consolidate the iconic status by recycling the image in question.",[]],["Appropriations help shape and delimit the publics and discourses surrounding visual icons by raising questions about morality and political obligations; commenting on the media's construction and mass dissemination of iconic images; reproducing or satirizing the pathos-filled rhetoric with which they are usually addressed; and so on.",[]],["constitute a genre in their own right, which often introduces a critical-reflexive dimension to icons and their reception.",[]],["appropriations form the major visual response to visual icons, which are spun into an intertextual web by referring to previous icons and giving way to appropriations and possibly also future icons (Hansen, 2015;Mortensen, 2015).",["Hansen, 2015","Mortensen, 2015"]],["appropriations are a key feature of iconic circulation precisely because the images are being used to do the work of democratic legitimation. They are used by citizens to negotiate the self-understanding of a democratic society amidst historical change and to work out public opinion and personal attitudes about specific political actors, policies, and practices (2007: 38).",["2007: 38"]],["Appropriations might explore the emotional and political potentialities of the icon, they might assume the identity of the victim in decontextualizations and be satirical-critical in recontextualizations.",[]],["They constitute a genre in their own right, which often introduces a critical-reflexive dimension to icons and their reception.",[]],["While appropriations highlight that iconic images are exclusive and one-of-a-kind by imitating the specific, recognizable image, they also make it clear that icons lend themselves to endless replicas, reproductions, repurposing.",[]]],"rt":[["Visual citation",[]],["iconic circulation",[]],["iconization processes",[]]]},{"de":[["The appropriations that decontextualize the Kurdi figure shift attention away from the specific instance of the drowning and the context of the 'refugee crisis' to evoke a general register of emotionality such as solidarity and mourning.",[]],["a lack of interpretive context for the work of art and a lack of factual context about the drowning",[]],["Decontextualizations raise the question of how audiences are to cope with the traumatic reality represented so bluntly in the Kurdi imagery and deal with the interplay between aesthetic expression and the tragic death of a refugee child.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This confirms the widespread belief that iconic images require 'no caption' because they are thought to be self-explanatory and unite audiences in the same understanding",[]]]},{"rt":[["iconization processes",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Personification is the pivotal point for this double statement of the authentic and the symbolic.",[]],["Across shifting genres, personification becomes the main cue for audiences to decode appropriations.",[]],["personification becomes the main cue for audiences to decode appropriations.",[]],["personification is a decisive factor in iconic images and constitutes the essential link between icons and appropriations.",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["internet memes and gifs",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["indirect translation",[]]]},{"sp":[["history of translation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["models are more likely to rely on their own biases when they cannot find an answer in the context.",[]]],"rt":[["disambiguated contexts",[]]]},{"de":[["we can observe the difference between the models that rely on this information, and those that rely on their own biases instead.",[]]],"rt":[["ambiguous contexts",[]]]},{"de":[["Efforts are made not only in the school system, but also extend to groups in the community, to foster students' critical thinking ability.",[]],["many scholars view access and understanding of contemporary media as a vital aspect of citizenship in general.",[]],["teaching students to be good citizens in a democratic society is an important goal most media educators aim to achieve in the United States.",[]]]},{"de":[["Living in a particular social formation (a mix of class, gender, age, race, and so forth)",[]]]},{"de":[["an important goal of media literacy education remains \"to develop selective viewers who seek out and appreciate distinctive high-quality of form, format, and content in mass media\"",[]]]},{"rt":[["logical comparison process",[]]]},{"de":[["Behavioral intention is determined by a person's attitudes toward performing the given behavior and the perceived normative pressure to perform that behavior.",[]]],"rt":[["theory of reasoned action",[]]]},{"de":[["When applied to health issues -e.g. violence, alcohol and tobacco use, or self-image -media literacy education aims to help young people to see that the media are in the business of selling them products and behaviors that are not always good for them.",[]]],"rt":[["media literacy education",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Rather than encouraging children and adolescents to understand the mechanics of television, evaluative strategies try to create negative evaluations about what is viewed.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["media literacy education",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It argues that people can be motivated to refute specific challenges to existing attitudes. This process of counterarguing is hypothesized to strengthen resistance to subsequent counterattitudinal attacks.",[]],["It argues that people can be motivated to refute specific challenges to existing attitudes.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["visual syntax",[]],["codes and conventions",[]],["aesthetic aspects",[]],["media content literacy",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a prerequisite for full participation in late modern society, involving as it does the critical skills of analysis and appreciation of the social dynamics and social centrality of media as framing the cultures of the everyday.",["48"]],["In particular, individuals need to acquire knowledge about key facets of the mass media phenomenon, such as media industries, media messages, media audiences, or media effects.",[]],["Also, they should be able to apply this knowledge when accessing, analyzing and evaluating all kinds of media messages.",[]],["individuals need skills of analysis, evaluation, grouping, induction, deduction, synthesis, and abstracting",[]],["reading comprehension, writing skills, critical reading, critical listening, and critical viewing skills",[]],["both cognitive and affective mechanisms are theorized to determine the cognitive, attitudinal and behavioral outcomes of media literacy practices.",[]],["individuals need to acquire knowledge about key facets of the mass media phenomenon, such as media industries, media messages, media audiences, or media effects.",[]],["media literacy is not something you either are or not. Rather, individuals permanently move on a continuum.",[]]],"sy":[["media literacy education",[]],["media literacy intervention",[]],["media literacy program",[]],["media education",[]],["media education program",[]]],"rt":[["media industries",[]],["media messages",[]],["media audiences",[]],["media effects",[]],["active citizenship",[]],["public health",[]],["aesthetics",[]]],"sb":[["digital or multiple media literacies",[]],["visual literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["enable them to reflect systematically on the processes of reading and writing, to understand and to analyze their own experience as readers and writers",[]],["Media literacy is seldom taught as a goal in itself. That is, media educators mostly try to increase children's and adolescents' mass media knowledge and skills because this, in turn, will maximize positive media effects and minimize negative ones.",[]],["an increasingly important \"transactional learning space\" between school-based education and leisure activities among youth, where students engage in learning activities that are linked to an existing media culture outside the school context",[]],["Within this context, media literacy is also often linked with public access community radio and television (Higgins 1999;King and Mele 1999;Wagg 2004;Pinseler 2008), citizen journalism (Lim and Nekmat 2008), and more broadly, the public sphere (Kovacs 2003;Papacharissi 2002;Fisherkeller 1999;Means Coleman 2003;Vande Berg, Wenner, and Gronbeck 2004;Nassanga 2008;Phang and Schaefer 2009).",[]]],"sy":[["media literacy intervention",[]],["media literacy program",[]],["media education",[]],["media education program",[]]]},{},{"de":[["awareness of the constructed nature of media messages is essential to a valid evaluation of media content.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Not unlike inoculation theory, the MIP model takes a receiver-oriented, information-processing approach to media effects (Austin et al. 2002).",["Austin et al. 2002"]],["Thus, the MIP model proposes that individuals, applying logic to their analysis of media messages, make logical comparisons between their personal experiences and what they see in the media.",[]],["the MIP model proposes that individuals, applying logic to their analysis of media messages, make logical comparisons between their personal experiences and what they see in the media.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["non-technical codes",[]]]},{"de":[["According to the theory of reasoned action (see Fishbein and Ajzen 1975) an individual's behavioral intention is an immediate precursor of behavior. Behavioral intention is determined by a person's attitudes toward performing the given behavior and the perceived normative pressure to perform that behavior.",["Fishbein and Ajzen 1975"]],["Behavioral intention is determined by a person's attitudes toward performing the given behavior and the perceived normative pressure to perform that behavior.",["Fishbein and Ajzen 1975"]]],"rt":[["behavioral intention",[]]]},{"sy":[["influence spread",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["cannot be linked to a specific precipitating event or experience, but rather reflect the cumulative effect of multiple inputs (including both internal endogenous processes and external events)",["Gray and Watson (2003)","2003"]],["mood is influenced by emotional framing (Russell and Barrett, 1996) and thereafter influences our actions and perspectives (Rucker and Petty, 2004;Barsade et al., 2018;DiRusso and Myrick, 2021), and as such potentially acts as a mediator between information input and behavioral response in the context of environmental issues.",["Russell and Barrett, 1996","Rucker and Petty, 2004","Barsade et al., 2018","DiRusso and Myrick, 2021"]]],"rt":[["emotion",["Beedie et al., 2005"]],["emotions",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["subjective experience of collective deprivation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["distinguishing them from ordinary assertions of fact and value",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["What is relevant are the effects (or consequences) of the behavior.",[]]]},{"de":[["factors are all matters which affect (and sometimes control) the meaning of a particular speech act.",[]]],"rt":[["contextual factors",[]]]},{"ex":[["a racial slur spoken in a rap song by a black rap group with the same word spoken by a white man to a black man",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The point of the approach is to focus on specific situations and specific factors, both in determining whether a certain kind of (hate) speech should be outside the First Amendment or subject to some form of regulation, and in determining whether there has been a violation (i.e., resolving the question whether something is a threat of violence).",[]]],"rt":[["hate speech debate",[]]]},{"de":[["This harassment may include \"(i) cross burning... or (iii) written or oral communication designed to intimidate or harass\" because of race.",[]],["The statute exempts from this definition \"critical, insulting, or deprecatory\" speech or acts \"unless the context or circumstances\" are such as to place the recipient \"in reasonable fear of harm.\"",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["racist fighting words",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["therefore such speech can be regulated because of the serious risk of harm.",[]]]},{"de":[["The conduct must be so \"extreme in degree, as to go beyond all possible bounds of decency, and to be regarded as atrocious, and utterly intolerable in a civilized community.\"",[]]]},{},{"de":[["My proposal is not designed to address generally demeaning or insulting language, but only to target language which creates a threat of violence.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["\"Offensive speech,\" therefore, can be seen as an overarching category of language that includes swearing, insults, and derogatory advertisements as well as intimidating, threatening or harassing speech.",[]]],"rt":[["swearing",[]],["insults",[]],["derogatory advertisements",[]],["intimidating",[]],["threatening",[]],["harassing",[]]],"ex":[["insults",[]],["epithets",[]],["salty language",[]],["sex talk on the airwaves",[]],["commercial advertisements that use scantily-clad women to sell beer to men",[]],["public displays of nudity",[]],["street harassment of women",[]],["Louis Farrakhan's diatribes against Jews or whites",[]],["Nazi marches through Skokie",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["racial threat",[]]]},{"de":[["will deprive some members of a community the opportunity to participate equally in the functioning of society",[]],["Such threats infect society generally. They falsify the legal ideal of equality and deny the importance of respect for individuals. Because the racial stigmatization that accompanies racially-motivated threats of violence obstructs members of racial minorities from participating equally in community life, the state has a special interest in prohibiting them.",[]],["a means of depriving people of color of fundamental civil rights.",[]]],"rt":[["threats of violence",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["racist vilification directed by skinheads at a black child",[]],["disparaging remarks about a co-worker",[]],["racist diatribes by black nationalists or Nazis carried on some cable stations",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Stigmatization results from the imposition of a label that defines the marked person as deviant, flawed and undesirable.",[]],["The stigma is discrediting because it is connected to purportedly deviant dispositions.",[]],["The discredited characteristics become more significant when the deviant dispositions are seen as enduring and primary and thus part of the stigmatized person's identity.",[]],["If the target is significantly stigmatized, the stigmatizer becomes incapable of dealing with the target apart from the assumption that the deviant mark is an essential part of the target's identity.",[]],["Thus, persons belonging to a stigmatized group are expected to display the behavior stereotypical of that group.",[]],["Labeling someone as a member of a stigmatized group ultimately serves as the basis for devaluing that person and contributes to that person's negative perception by the entire community.",[]]],"rt":[["stigma",[]]],"ex":[["The badge or symbol which the victim is forced to wear derives its humiliating meaning from historical, societal and cultural contexts, as well as from the way witnesses interpret it.",[]]]},{"de":[["the concept is not self-defining, any attempt to regulate such threats depends upon social understandings and the context in which these threats are made.",[]],["protecting individuals (1) from the fear of violence, (2) from the disruption that fear engenders, and (3) from the possibility that the threatened violence will occur.",[]]],"rt":[["verbal threats of violence",[]],["racially-motivated threats of violence",[]]]},{"sy":[["racial threat",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It can be interpreted as the share of conservative (or liberal) visits that would need to be redistributed across media for the share conservative to be uniform across outlets.",[]]]},{"de":[["people restrict themselves to their own points of view-liberals watching and reading mostly or only liberals; moderates, moderates; conservatives, conservatives; Neo-Nazis, Neo-Nazis",[]]]},{"de":[["Our main measure of segregation is the \"isolation index\" (White 1986, Cutler et al. 1999), a standard metric in the literature on racial segregation.",["White 1986","Cutler et al. 1999"]]],"rt":[["racial segregation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["You cannot easily wall yourself off from contentions or conditions that you would not have sought out in advance, or that you would have avoided if you could have",["Sunstein 2001, 32"]]]},{"ex":[["In daily newspapers, for example, conservatives and liberals might both read the Wall Street Journal, but conservatives might concentrate on the editorial pages while liberals concentrate on the news section.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["betweenness",[]],["super-mediators",["38"]],["broker",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["information for node v is then defined as the harmonic mean of the information between v and every other node",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["A person with high prestige refers to an influencer as the object of communication, rather than the source of communication",["34"]]],"rt":[["in-degree",[]],["influencer",["34"]]],"ex":[["eigenvector centrality is used to derive the prestige of each vertex",["28"]]]},{},{"rt":[["DW-Nominate ideological scores",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["News framing",[]]]},{"de":[["Journalists may further delegitimize protests by judging them as futile or as failures, ignoring many of the latent functions of protest groups (e.g., spreading information, generating resources, building solidarity among individuals and coalitions among like-minded groups, etc).",[]]],"sp":[["protest paradigm",[]]]},{"de":[["A prominent feature of protest coverage is a focus on the negative consequences of the protest, such as the violence, property damage, traffic congestion, and expenditure of community resources (i.e., the cost of law enforcement), that result from the protest.",[]]],"sp":[["protest paradigm",[]]]},{"de":[["In the process, an exploration of the underlying issue is lost.",[]]],"rt":[["protest coverage",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["protest paradigm",["6"]]]},{},{"sb":[["crime story",[]],["riot",[]],["carnival",[]],["debate",[]]],"sp":[["protest paradigm",[]]],"ex":[["crime story",["7"]],["riot",[]],["carnival",[]],["debate",[]]]},{"de":[["This coverage generally disparages protesters and hinders their role as vital actors on the political stage.",[]],["The protest paradigm is a routinized template for creating protest stories that has been naturalized through the process of journalistic socialization; that is, journalists learn how to apply the protest paradigm as they learn their craft through training in journalism schools and then later as they learn how things are done in media organizations.",[]],["The origins of the protest paradigm are the product of the forces that shape news production including the bias of the individual reporter, the impact of the news organization, the canons of the journalistic profession, the cultural and ideological blinders of the social system, and the constraints of the medium.",[]],["the more radical a group is, the more closely news coverage will follow the characteristics of the protest paradigm. They suggest that assessing how radical a group is should be done on the basis of two dimensions: the extremity of its objectives (i.e., the extent of change to the system that it seeks) and the militancy of its tactics (i.e., the extent to which tactics violate social norms).",["6"]],["thin, episodic stories that do little to inform or enlighten the public",[]],["focusing on the appearance of the protesters, downplaying clashes with the police in favor of covering clashes with policymakers",[]],["disparaging them through the techniques of delegitimization and demonization",[]]],"rt":[["delegitimization",[]],["demonization",[]],["news frames",[]],["reliance on official sources",[]],["the invocation of public opinion",[]]],"sb":[["news frames",[]],["reliance on official sources",[]],["invocation of public opinion",[]],["delegitimization",[]],["demonization",[]],["extremity of its objectives",["6"]],["militancy of its tactics",["6"]],["the invocation of public opinion",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["manifestation of online creativity",[]],["(post)modern folklore",[]],["kind of metaphorical utterance",[]],["artifacts of participatory digital culture",[]],["one of \"new literacies\" practices",[]]]},{"de":[["these information units are a sort of viral communication and are capable of replication",[]],["memes mostly belong to the culture of laughter, containing a joke or ironical comment [Davison, 2009, р. 122]",["Davison, 2009, р. 122"]],["they are open to transformation and play (language games, visual puns etc.), they are interactive, intertextual and welcome creativity [Tay, 2014]",["Tay, 2014"]],["memes represent an effective mechanism of participatory culture [see : Jenkins, 2009]",["Jenkins, 2009"]],["Due to its brevity and precision in conveying a particular emotion, value or stereotype, a meme spreads fast among the members of a group…",[]],["Collective emotional experience and reactions to current events are crystallized in specific phrases, drawings, popular photos and videos, which gain significance for a certain community.",[]],["These virtual artifacts produce similar emotions in members of a community and are understood only in this milieu",[]],["an organic means through which citizens can respond in almost real time to contemporary political events with no fear of delay or censorship by mainstream media",["Ross, Rivers, 2017, p.3"]],["a means of public commentary on the news agenda, a tool of personal and group self-identification, a channel for transmitting views and political values, a mechanism of shaping a collective identity",["Bayerl, Stoynov, 2016","Milner, 2013 et al."]],["a key instrument of interpersonal and group interaction",[]],["a special technology of communication with users",[]],["memes mostly belong to the culture of laughter, containing a joke or ironical comment",[]],["they are open to transformation and play (language games, visual puns etc.), they are interactive, intertextual and welcome creativity",["Tay, 2014"]],["memes represent an effective mechanism of participatory culture",[]],["it is a means of information exchange, a form of cognition and making sense of reality",["5"]]],"sy":[["cultural hieroglyph",[]],["virtual artifacts",[]],["viral messages",[]]],"rt":[["media meme",[]],["Internet meme",[]],["memetic messages",[]],["memosphere",[]]],"sb":[["verbal (hashtags, speech clichés, abbreviations etc.)",[]],["audial (melodies, sound imitations)",[]],["visual (GIF files, photoshopped images, collages)",[]],["mixed (demotivators, coubs, videos etc.)",[]]]},{"de":[["the use of memes becomes a technology of political Public Relations, going far beyond everyday entertaining Internet communication",[]],["natural tools of an insurgency; great for blowing things up",["Siegel, 2017"]],["a means of building solidarity instantly ('haha, I can't stand Prince Lemon either', 'right, I also think the mayor of Gotham is a bad man')",[]]],"rt":[["memetic content",[]],["memosphere",[]],["memeplex",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Regarded as a unit of online transmission of cultural information, such a meme can be considered, on the on hand, as a manifestation of postfolklore, and on the other hand, as a mechanism of political participation and construction of social media users' collective identity.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["are extremely important for a media representation of the event",[]]],"rt":[["flash mobs with toys",[]]]},{"de":[["Hallucination is commonly attributed to knowledge gaps in LMs",[]],["Hallucinations are often attributed to knowledge gaps in LMs (Zheng et al., 2023)",["Zheng et al., 2023"]],["Hallucinations are often attributed to knowledge gaps in LMs, but we hypothesize that in some cases, when justifying previously generated hallucinations, LMs output false claims that they can separately recognize as incorrect.",[]]],"rt":[["hallucination snowballing",[]]]},{"de":[["leading to extremely simple mistakes.",[]],["Hallucination snowballing is likely the result of exposure bias: LMs were only exposed to gold history during training, but during inference, conditions on possibly erroneous previous predictions.",[]],["conditioning on faulty context leads LMs to produce extremely simple mistakes that they wouldn't otherwise make.",[]],["hallucinations on simple facts that wouldn't otherwise occur",[]]],"rt":[["snowballed hallucinations",[]]],"ex":[["We refer to this factorization as a snowballed hallucination, as GPT-4 appears to \"know\" that 13 is not a factor of 9677 when asked separately.",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["4chan users raid YouTube videos by posting large numbers of abusive comments in a relatively small period of time",["9"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["fairness of the electoral process",[]]]},{"de":[["Our definition of election credibility reflects the idea that a credible election is one in which the process is generally perceived as fair and in which any problems that do occur-since even elections in consolidated democracies have problems-are not perceived as changing the overall result.",[]]],"rt":[["electoral integrity",[]]],"sp":[["Credibility",[]]]},{"de":[["This framework emphasizes that people are often biased information processors",["Taber and Lodge 2006"]],["motivated reasoning suggests that election winners could have become even more positive about the election when exposed to the positive reports since positive reports are consistent with their partisan goals",[]],["a factor conditioning the effect of EOs' reports in most elections, particularly as it pertains to vote choice",[]],["This framework emphasizes that people are often biased information processors (e.g., Taber and Lodge 2006).",[]],["This framework emphasizes that people are often biased information processors (e.g., Taber and Lodge 2006). Whereas the Bayesian model assumes that individuals' information processing is motivated by \"accuracy goals,\" motivated reasoning proposes that individuals are driven by \"partisan goals,\" which lead to biased information processing in defense of individuals' prior beliefs.",[]]],"rt":[["accuracy goals",[]],["partisan goals",[]],["biased information processing",[]],["Bayesian model",[]],["Bayesian and motivated reasoning frameworks",[]]]},{"de":[["A key indicator of democratic deliberation in online spaces",[]]]},{"de":[["envisions a system where public reasoning-not just voting or majoritarian rule-determines political legitimacy",[]],["Unlike aggregative democratic models, which emphasize vote-counting, deliberative democracy prioritizes the quality of discourse. It requires political arguments to undergo scrutiny, counterarguments, and rational debate before reaching a consensus.",[]]],"rt":[["aggregative democratic models",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Rather than encouraging informed discussion across perspectives, online platforms tend to promote homogeneity within ideological groups and antagonism across them, thereby diminishing the potential for mutual understanding and civic reasoning.",[]],["Deliberative disintegration thus captures the paradox of digital political engagement: while more people than ever participate in public discourse, the quality of that participation is increasingly shaped by affective polarization and rhetorical simplification.",[]]],"rt":[["affective polarization",[]],["rhetorical simplification",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["functions primarily as a rhetorical strategy rather than a coherent ideological framework",[]],["often associated with anti-establishment sentiments, emotional appeals, and crisis narratives that simplify complex political issues",[]],["actors claim to exclusively represent the will of the people, positioning their opponents as illegitimate or even as enemies of democracy",[]],["populist actors claim to exclusively represent the will of the people, positioning their opponents as illegitimate or even as enemies of democracy.",[]]]}]