[{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["explicate further qualitative data and meaning from both the physical structure of the media (layout etc.) and knowledge of the political and market environment in which it is placed, wherein journalistic reporting is most often constructed through opposing views, e.g. for or against something",1,-1,[],[37204]],["sharing the attributes of discourse analysis",1,-1,[],[37204]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["discourse analysis",1,13723,[],[37204]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["External biases are a broad category that may affect construct, internal, and external validity of research, and be problematic for both type I and type II research (section 2.1).",1,-1,[],[41191]],["including considerations of socioeconomic status, ideological/religious/political leaning, education, personality, culture, social pressure, privacy concerns, and external events.",1,-1,[],[41191]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["a focus on biological body parts as a sole form of describing someone's gender",1,-1,[],[48775]],["centers on biological essentialism",1,-1,[],[48775]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":4,"df":[],"de":[["Corrective action can be taken in different forms, such as censorship of media (Xu and Gonzenbach, 2008) and online participation through public comments (Chung et al., 2015).",1,-1,[],[1828]],["It describes actions that are reactive to (media) content perceived as harmful and that seek to influence the public sphere and counterbalance the negative influences of the content",1,-1,[],[9158]],["Recent empirical research on corrective action online includes sharing alternative opinions or information",1,-1,[],[9158]],["engaging in online discussions to correct biases",1,-1,[],[9158]],["sharing alternative opinions or information",1,-1,[],[9158]],["user-initiated forms of corrective action that may complement institutionalized regulation and journalistic moderation of online discussions.",1,-1,[],[9158]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["political participation",1,12312,[],[9158]]],"sb":[["passive corrective action",1,26327,[],[1828]]],"sp":[["political participation",1,12312,[],[9158]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[["New information is registered relatively passively and is held in an unanalyzed form until detailed analysis can sort out fact from fiction.",1,-1,[],[2618]],["The Cartesian model gives no basis for repetition to influence apparent truth.",1,-1,[],[2618]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["Spinozan model",1,7598,[],[2618]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["a new form of obstruction to his journalistic work",1,-1,[],[22681]]],"sy":[["communication bombing",1,26726,[],[22681]]],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["Obstructions",1,29178,[],[22681]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["Dialogue summarization, fittingly, takes dialogues as source text.",1,-1,[],[33302]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["It is calculated by the ratio of count of negative emotional words and count of positive emotional words.",1,-1,[],[7270]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":4,"df":[],"de":[["This toxic behavior has a demonstrated impact on community health both on and off-line.",1,-1,[],[6725]]],"sy":[["Online trolling",1,10695,[],[6743]]],"rt":[["Online hate speech",1,7507,[],[6725]],["cyberbullying",1,30890,[],[6725]],["hate speech",1,18278,[],[6725]],["personal attacks",1,8185,[],[6725]]],"sb":[["hate speech",1,18278,[],[6743]]],"sp":[["online behavior",1,-1,[],[6725]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["becomes both individual and collective at the same time",1,-1,[],[17023]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[["Black PR",1,11788,[],[27068]]],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["relaciones públicas",1,-1,[],[27068]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["used by many interviewees to portray the extensive cover-up of scandals.",1,-1,[],[25705]],["was used by many interviewees to portray the extensive cover-up of scandals",1,-1,[["was used by many interviewees to portray the extensive cover-up of scandals",1],["was used by many interviewees to portray the extensive cover-up of scandals.",1]],[25705]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["Both situations have negative consequences for public health and personal health.",1,-1,[],[23940]],["It does not offer a contribution in order to contrast but rather presents the message as evidence or trust information, or the source of the information offered is not scientific.",1,-1,[],[23940]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":20,"df":[],"de":[["A fala não é o discurso, pois este se caracteriza como um conceito mais amplo e complexo, em que um dos pilares do método é o materialismo histórico, no qual \"todo o processo discursivo se inscreve numa relação ideológica de classes\" (Pêcheux, 1997, p. 92).",1,-1,[],[14752]],["O discurso não deve ser compreendido como um texto ou um pronunciamento e pode ser analisado sob qualquer forma de expressão (oral, verbal, icônica, corporal, artística, cultural, política, religiosa, imagética, fílmica, fotográfica, de rótulos e outros diferentes tipos de mídia etc).",1,-1,[],[14752]],["Portanto, o discurso não deve ser compreendido como sendo a análise de uma fala ou mesmo ser tomado como análise semântica e sintática (linguística), ou como uma unidade de análise. Sua concepção é mais ampla, pois os sentidos do discurso decorrem das estruturas materiais que determinam o modo e as relações de produção da sociedade em que são produzidos.",1,-1,[],[14752]],["Seu sistema, portanto, se fecha num tripé entre sujeito, história e linguagem",1,-1,[["Seu sistema, portanto, se fecha num tripé entre sujeito, história e linguagem",1],["Seu sistema, portanto, se fecha num tripé entre sujeito, história e linguagem.",1]],[10268]],["Sua existência e materialidade dependem de uma postulação teórica, de uma construção e formação de um campo de análise diverso, em que o discurso se torna o centro das preocupações.",1,-1,[],[10268]],["Todo discurso aspira dominar a discursividade, fixar e deter as diferenças e, ainda que de forma provisória e precária, definir a significação, o fechamento que nunca se completa.",1,-1,[],[57201]],["Todo discurso é prática, uma vez que as práticas se constituem discursivamente: não é apenas linguagem, mas abrange ações e instituições, sendo o próprio funcionamento do social entendido como linguagem.",1,-1,[],[57201]],["apreender o objeto do discurso corresponde a observar os processos de constituição dos saberes e dos significados, por definição sócio-históricos.",1,-1,[],[10268]],["con el fin de persuadir en los lectores",1,-1,[],[29490]],["existe unanimidade nos artigos no que se referem ao discurso",1,-1,[],[14752]],["mensajes que moldean a la opinión pública",1,-1,[],[49675]],["o discurso enquanto materialidade está entre a linguística e ideologia, o que provoca a possibilidade de o dizer ter sempre outros sentidos, pois todo dizer provém de determinadas condições de produção e de diferentes formações, sejam elas sociais, ideológicas e/ou discursivas.",1,-1,[],[14752]],["o discurso não deve ser compreendido como sendo a análise de uma fala ou mesmo ser tomado como análise semântica e sintática (linguística), ou como uma unidade de análise. Sua concepção é mais ampla, pois os sentidos do discurso decorrem das estruturas materiais que determinam o modo e as relações de produção da sociedade em que são produzidos.",1,-1,[],[14752]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["história",1,4027,[],[10268]],["linguagem",1,-1,[],[10268]],["sujeito",1,-1,[],[10268]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["autocracy promotion",1,22359,[],[48101]],["passive promotion",1,33389,[],[48101]]],"sb":[],"sp":[["autocracy promotion",1,22359,[],[48101]]],"ex":[["disinformation campaigns regarding labour rights targeted at foreign audiences",1,-1,[],[48101]],["disinformation campaigns regarding labour rights targeted at foreign audiences exemplify active promotion",1,-1,[],[48101]]]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":11,"df":[],"de":[["Branding thereby equals a form of persuasive and often symbolic communication, whereby the underlying logic is emotional rather than rational (Eshuis and Klijn, 2012;Marsh and Fawcett, 2011;Papadimitriou et al., 2015).",1,-1,[],[3220]],["Branding, as we argue, should be added to the analysis of contemporary science diplomacy as well as of broader foreign policies, adding to the understanding of SD as an instrument of cross-border communication and global opinion shaping.",1,-1,[],[3220]],["Common categories of researchers' motives for media contact seem to be branding",1,-1,[],[26583]],["Only clearly defined responsibilities and coordinated policy decisions could facilitate a standardized and, hence effective, branding process.",1,-1,[],[3220]],["Psychologically, brands and images are associations, framing associations with places, particular events or points in history",1,-1,[],[61331]],["The overarching objective is to underscore the significance of branding in comprehending diverse facets of politics, ranging from ideological stances to public perceptions and electoral strategies and from cultural and societal contexts to issues of identity and differentiation.",1,-1,[],[53026]],["Ultimately, the article highlights branding as a serving tool for elucidating the intricacies of power dynamics within political systems and processes.",1,-1,[],[53026]],["We therefore understand branding as a creative tool used by policy makers to imbue different audiences with positive understandings (meanings) and positive dispositions (emotions) towards individual projects, national policy sectors as well as towards nation states as a whole.",1,-1,[],[3220]],["branding as a creative tool used by policy makers to imbue different audiences with positive understandings (meanings) and positive dispositions (emotions) towards individual projects, national policy sectors as well as towards nation states as a whole.",1,-1,[],[3220]],["branding innovations or science activities for diplomatic or political purposes may contribute to the politicization of science",1,-1,[],[3220]],["branding was hitherto overlooked as part of the SD toolbox.",1,-1,[],[3220]],["used to boost the visibility and images of politicians, political parties, places and nations and even policies",1,-1,[],[3220]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["nation state branding",1,-1,[],[3220]],["place branding",1,23672,[],[3220]],["policy branding",1,7738,[],[3220]],["policy tool branding",1,26828,[],[3220]],["reputation management",1,-1,[],[3220]]],"sb":[["nation branding",1,7953,[],[3220]],["place branding",1,23672,[],[3220]],["policy branding",1,7738,[],[3220]],["policy tool branding",1,26828,[],[3220]],["the nation state",1,14191,[],[3220]],["the policy",1,21749,[],[3220]],["the policy tool layers",1,-1,[],[3220]]],"sp":[],"ex":[["place branding in the sense of promoting the Science Location Germany",1,-1,[],[3220]]]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["NWICO was attacked as a curb on media freedom",1,-1,[],[60071]],["The New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO) debate",1,-1,[],[60071]],["The concept of New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO) occupied global media policy debates from the 1970s until the 1990s, amidst the strong ideological battle relating to decolonisation and the collapse of Soviet communism",1,-1,[],[60071]],["even though NWICO was located in mass media, its fundamental ethos was rooted in international law.",1,-1,[],[60071]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["freedom of information",1,1027,[],[60071]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":4,"df":[],"de":[["Groups that perform collective action vary in their aims and formal organization, but many of their underlying psychological mechanisms and motivations are similar (Van Zomeren et al., 2008) and include the perception of a social grievance or injustice, a shared social identity, and a sense of collective efficacy to change society for the better (Kelly and Kelly, 1994;Postmes and Brunsting, 2002)",1,-1,[["Groups that perform collective action vary in their aims and formal organization, but many of their underlying psychological mechanisms and motivations are similar (Van Zomeren et al., 2008) and include the perception of a social grievance or injustice, a shared social identity, and a sense of collective efficacy to change society for the better (Kelly and Kelly, 1994;Postmes and Brunsting, 2002)",1],["Groups that perform collective action vary in their aims and formal organization, but many of their underlying psychological mechanisms and motivations are similar (Van Zomeren et al., 2008) and include the perception of a social grievance or injustice, a shared social identity, and a sense of collective efficacy to change society for the better (Kelly and Kelly, 1994;Postmes and Brunsting, 2002).",1]],[9156]],["include the perception of a social grievance or injustice, a shared social identity, and a sense of collective efficacy to change society for the better",1,-1,[],[9156]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["collective efficacy",1,19853,[],[9156]],["knowledge of the formal rules and structures of the social movement",1,-1,[],[9156]],["perceived collective benefits",1,-1,[],[9156]],["perceived group efficacy",1,-1,[],[9156]],["shared social identity",1,-1,[],[9156]],["social grievance",1,-1,[],[9156]],["social movement organizations",1,-1,[],[9065]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[["Jena 6 protest",1,-1,[],[9065]],["flash mob",1,-1,[],[9065]]]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["implicit abuse",1,34255,[],[19359]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["Hate speech",2,18278,[["Hate speech",1],["hate speech",1]],[52236,52304]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["the Self and Other",1,-1,[],[60083]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[["artificial censorship",1,-1,[],[60083]],["the comparatively meagre time available in each day for paying attention to public affairs",1,-1,[],[60083]],["the difficulty of making a small vocabulary express a complicated world",1,-1,[],[60083]],["the distortion arising because events have to be compressed into very short messages",1,-1,[],[60083]],["the limitations of social contact",1,-1,[],[60083]]]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["opción monoglósica",1,-1,[],[15161]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["Evaluation",1,19890,[],[36376]]],"ex":[["I don't' like having to use a mask at all times",1,-1,[],[36376]]]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[["used to draw attention to the apparent \"feminising\" of Western/white societies by encouraging and expanding liberal values associated with sexual equality, transgender rights and feminism",1,-1,[],[24176]]],"sy":[["globohomo",1,-1,[],[24176]]],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[["perspective-taking",1,23348,[],[56085]],["reappraisal",1,12918,[],[56085]]],"sp":[["emotion-regulation process model",1,29150,[],[56085]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[["without rank",1,-1,[],[19329]]],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[["dealing with health concerns or difficult relatives",1,-1,[],[8932]],["winning the lottery",1,-1,[],[8932]]]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[["Micro worries, which correlate most positively with power values and most negatively with universalism values, cause conservatives more distress.",1,-1,[],[24679]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["macro worries",1,7140,[],[24679]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["voice conversion detection",1,-1,[],[26578]]],"sb":[["Parallel VC",1,-1,[],[26578]],["impersonation",1,16902,[],[26578]]],"sp":[["audio deepfakes",1,21830,[],[26578]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":8,"df":[],"de":[["differences in metacognition, specifically (over)confidence in one's own knowledge and intuition, that affect one's susceptibility to fake news",1,-1,[],[14156]],["metacognitions are usually distinguished as positive and negative with distinct functions (initiation vs maintenance of health-related internet use)",1,-1,[],[12707]],["often serve as informational judgment cues.",1,-1,[],[94]],["reflecting how people regulate and reflect on their beliefs and thoughts.",1,-1,[],[3004]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["self-regulation strategies",1,-1,[],[12707]]],"sb":[["negative",1,27826,[],[12707]],["positive",1,26933,[],[12707]]],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[["jihadisphere",1,-1,[],[33607]]],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["incidence rate",1,-1,[],[28869]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["The first factor is named 'social understanding goal', because it refers to using media for understanding actions of others, current events, making decisions and thinking about the future.",1,-1,[],[29231]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["orientation goals",1,2218,[],[29231]],["social understanding",1,-1,[],[29231]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":22,"df":[],"de":[["Counterfactual fairness is a more recent concept that aims to ensure that AI systems are fair even in hypothetical scenarios.",1,-1,[],[14597]],["Counterfactual fairness is often viewed as a type of individual fairness, which asks for similar individuals to be treated similarly (Dwork et al., 2012).",1,-1,[],[20310]],["Criteria based purely on probabilistic independence cannot satisfy this and are unable to address how unfairness is occurring in the task at hand.",1,-1,[],[18824]],["It allows us to propose algorithms that, rather than simply ignoring protected attributes, are able to take into account the different social biases that may arise towards individuals based on ethically sensitive attributes and compensate for these biases effectively.",1,-1,[],[18824]],["Our definition of counterfactual fairness captures the intuition that a decision is fair towards an individual if it is the same in (a) the actual world and (b) a counterfactual world where the individual belonged to a different demographic group.",1,-1,[],[18824]],["The counterfactual fairness definition is based on the \"intuition that a decision is fair towards an individual if it is the same in both the actual world and a counterfactual world where the individual belonged to a different demographic group.\"",1,-1,[],[7312]],["captures the intuition that a decision is fair towards an individual if it is the same in (a) the actual world and (b) a counterfactual world where the individual belonged to a different demographic group.",1,-1,[],[18824]],["concisely emphasizes that U can be a random variable, and clarifies which conditional distribution it follows.",1,-1,[],[18824]],["counterfactual analog of demographic parity",1,-1,[],[18824]],["counterfactual fairness is an individual-level definition.",1,-1,[],[18824]],["counterfactual fairness requires the same model predictions before and after intervention on sensitive attributes in data-generating causal graphs (Kusner et al., 2017;Kilbertus et al., 2017;Chiappa, 2019;Chiappa and Isaac, 2019).",1,-1,[],[11580]],["enforces that a distribution over possible predictions for an individual should remain unchanged in a world where an individual's protected attributes had been different in a causal sense.",1,-1,[],[18824]],["fairness should be regulated by explicitly modeling the causal structure of the world.",1,-1,[],[18824]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["individual fairness",2,1616,[],[11031,20310]],["Equality of Opportunity",1,7668,[],[18824]],["actual causes",1,-1,[],[18824]],["average causal effect (ACE)",1,-1,[],[18824]],["demographic parity",1,33889,[],[18824]],["ethically sensitive attributes",1,-1,[],[18824]],["predictive parity criterion",1,-1,[],[18824]],["probability of sufficiency",1,-1,[],[18824]],["protected attributes",1,7749,[],[18824]],["social biases",1,242,[],[18824]],["token causality",1,-1,[],[18824]]],"sb":[["(Path-dependent) counterfactual fairness",1,-1,[],[18824]]],"sp":[["Individual fairness",2,1616,[["Individual fairness",1],["individual fairness",1]],[14597,20310]],["causal reasoning",1,16566,[],[189]],["fairness in AI",1,6829,[],[14597]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[["This method is fundamentally a political contestation of imperial power. But it is one that works through, in the interstices of, in the fringes of, rather than simple opposition to, history.",1,-1,[],[61833]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["epistemic injustice",1,20171,[],[31761]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["It is commonly called the lack of evidence argument in the social sciences or the ex silentio argument in history, where it is regarded as a reasonable but defeasible argument.",1,-1,[],[18908]]],"sy":[["Argument from Ignorance",1,20499,[],[18908]],["ex silentio argument",1,-1,[],[18908]],["lack of evidence argument",1,-1,[],[18908]]],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["Unless people use English, they cannot be a major player in capitalist societies.",1,-1,[],[20486]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["Gratitude and deference (lines 1-2) are ways for the speaker to incur a social cost, helping to balance out the burden the request places on the addressee.",1,-1,[],[21864]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["positive politeness",1,15233,[],[21864]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["enfoque de control migratorio",1,-1,[],[35651]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["building a public problem",1,-1,[],[48162]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["In fact, we observed strong polarization even under conditions where Axelrod's model of cultural polarization typically leads to monoculture (e.g. random networks, complete networks).",1,-1,[],[48444]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["rich-get-richer dynamic",1,-1,[],[48444]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":4,"df":[],"de":[["Vulnerable narcissists' low self-esteem and preoccupation with how others perceive them are likely to drive them to enhance and curate an image online to receive attention and approval.",1,-1,[],[14513]],["driven by fear of receiving criticism, vulnerable narcissists' self-image is tied to external feedback [14] and these individuals tend to engage in fewer social interactions compared with grandiose narcissists [5,8,9,15].",1,-1,[],[14513]],["people who are high in vulnerable narcissism feel anxious in face-to-face interactions and feel more comfortable online, which may lead to problematic social media use",1,-1,[],[14513]],["social interactions in the real world are problematic",1,-1,[],[14513]],["vulnerable narcissism may in fact contribute more to problematic use of social networking sites (SNS) than grandiose narcissism",1,-1,[],[14513]],["vulnerable narcissists who lack opportunities in the real world due to anxiety and insecurities",1,-1,[],[14513]]],"sy":[["covert",1,33506,[],[14513]],["fragile",1,-1,[],[14513]],["hypersensitive",1,-1,[],[14513]],["implicit narcissism",1,-1,[],[14513]]],"rt":[["egocentricity",1,6462,[],[14513]],["grandiose narcissism",1,30745,[],[14513]]],"sb":[["egocentricity",1,6462,[],[14513]],["oversensitivity",1,8267,[],[14513]]],"sp":[["Narcissism",1,34707,[],[14513]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["Consistent with the view that interpersonal trust consists of trusting beliefs and trusting intentions",1,-1,[],[23737]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[["Move 1: Introducing",1,-1,[],[58092]],["Move 2: Discussing",1,-1,[],[58092]],["Move 3: Giving Opinions",1,-1,[],[58092]],["Move 4: Calling for Action",1,-1,[],[58092]]],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[["any criticism from the mainstream increases the \"truth value\" of the story under official denial",1,-1,[["any criticism from the mainstream increases the \"truth value\" of the story under official denial",1],["any criticism from the mainstream increases the \"truth value\" of the story under official denial.",1]],[5789]],["emerging as a predictable commodity in the nascent political economy of radical right media.",1,-1,[],[5789]],["what is clear from this data is that the structuring conceit of telling the untellable truth also produces formulaic, repeated story forms.",1,-1,[],[5789]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["fake news",1,33960,[],[5789]],["information laundering",1,21268,[],[5789]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["culture-based marketing should reflect cultural values and be adaptive to the ever-evolving digital dynamics.",1,-1,[],[27738]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["epistemic injustice",1,20171,[],[37572]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["these information are expected to translate linearly into better decisions about risk and health",1,-1,[],[10814]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["intergroup relationships (IGR, in-group and out-group)",1,-1,[],[45490]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["subtly neutralising political responsibility by positioning climate change as an event beyond human control (Hulme 2013).",1,-1,[],[58010]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":4,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[["body",1,284,[],[26574]],["dubbing",1,-1,[],[26574]],["expression",1,32293,[],[26574]],["gaze",1,17116,[],[26574]],["gaze reenactment",1,-1,[],[26574]],["pose",1,-1,[],[26574]],["the body which uses human pose synthesis or pose transfer which is like a facial reenactment",1,-1,[],[26574]]],"sp":[["video deepfakes",1,15117,[],[26574]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":4,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[["This definition positions misuse concerns between those of inequity (where models can cause harm without bad intentions; §5.1: fairness) and security (where bad actors exploit unintentional abilities or vulnerabilities in models to cause harm; §4.7: security).",1,-1,[],[15556]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["fairness",1,27748,[],[15556]],["inequity",1,20685,[],[15556]],["security",1,19618,[],[15556]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[["harassment",1,-1,[],[15556]],["manipulative content creation",1,-1,[],[15556]],["to develop deepfakes for harassment",1,-1,[],[15548]],["to generate disinformation",1,-1,[],[15548]],["to generate language",1,-1,[],[15556]]]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["duanzi",1,14129,[],[32437]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["aim to fill the research gap in investigating the linguistic properties of framing.",1,-1,[],[31559]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["framing",1,22777,[],[31559]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":242,"df":[["Fact-checking is the long-standing process of checking that all facts in a piece of writing, news article, or speech are correct.",2,-1,[],[37229,38774]]],"de":[["A fact-checker must be proficient in using a variety of tools, interpreting statistical data, comprehending the structure of scientific articles, grasping academic sources, and maintaining a general understanding of developments in the world of science.",1,-1,[],[35413]],["All of this is done by correcting major mistakes and mistakes that were previously seen as insignificant (Fole, 2012).",1,-1,[],[32114]],["As a form of accountability journalism",1,-1,[],[45584]],["As agências não checam opiniões e previsões, além de tópicos de pouca relevância para o debate público, como vícios de linguagem, questões de foro íntimo e afins.",1,-1,[],[17701]],["As misinformation remains a significant threat to news organizations, fact-checking has become a crucial tool for verifying information.",1,-1,[],[27262]],["As news media have become more intertwined with digital tools and social media platforms, fact-checking processes have shifted toward a detection rather than a prevention mechanism.",1,-1,[],[47089]],["Based on technological infrastructures, these initiatives verify fake news and offer truthful information with an effect on elites",1,-1,[],[54326]],["Based on technological infrastructures, these initiatives verify fake news and offer truthful information with an effect on elites (Nyhan & Reifler, 2015).",1,-1,[],[54326]],["Behind its meticulous work of verification, fact-checking is thus eminently political (Graves, 2016) and complements, but does not substitute for, the work of political journalists whose main focus is the analysis of issues of public interest.",1,-1,[],[47927]],["But fact-checkers challenge old habits by adding a judgement on claims and proofs",1,-1,[],[37359]],["Cette pratique de vérification exhaustive et systématique des contenus journalistiques, avant publication, afin d'en garantir la qualité et la véracité aux lecteurs",1,-1,[],[15072]],["El binomio que se produce entre el fact-checking y la alfabetización mediática debe servir como base sobre la que pivote la lucha contra la desinformación",1,-1,[],[10823]],["El fact-checking es siempre reactivo ya que se produce a posteriori de la difusión del engaño y no evita su circulación.",1,-1,[],[54554]],["Este chequeo ex-post (Mantzarlis, 2018), busca fuentes primarias y de reputación sólida que puedan confirmar o refutar los contenidos publicados, así como la verificación de comentarios realizados por políticos y otros personajes relevantes.",1,-1,[],[14726]],["Este proceso incluye la identificación de hechos verificables, la búsqueda de evidencia y la publicación de los resultados de la verificación",1,-1,[],[13947]],["Este trabajo es llevado a cabo tradicionalmente por periodistas, salas de redacción y analistas políticos. Así pues, su práctica deriva de la necesidad de hacer que los gobernantes rindan cuentas de sus afirmaciones.",1,-1,[],[16490]],["Esto cuestiona la capacidad del fact-checking para combatir la desinformación dado que la corrección no garantiza la eliminación de las consecuencias negativas generadas por las falsedades en las personas expuestas a ellas",1,-1,[],[54554]],["Esto provoca que la eliminación de los efectos generados por la desinformación sea difícil.",1,-1,[],[54554]],["Fact checker roles as perceived by users match fact checker self-perception as reporters, reformers and experts but also contain a fourth, collaborative-facilitative, dimension.",1,-1,[],[29974]],["Fact checking has been found to sometimes fail or even backfire in its effects on factual beliefs",1,-1,[],[27964]],["Fact checking has recently emerged as an important research topic due to the unprecedented amount of fake news and rumors that are flooding the Internet in order to manipulate people's opinions",1,-1,[],[12240]],["Fact checking is thus not merely a luxury but rather of essential significance for quality journalism.",1,-1,[],[25441]],["Fact checking is very time-consuming, and thus most datasets focus on claims that have been already checked by experts on specialized sites",1,-1,[],[12240]],["Fact checks integrate original sources and, according to Vázquez-Herrero et al. (2019, p. 4), \"stand out for the richness and diversity in the use of verification mechanisms.\"",1,-1,[],[3123]],["Fact-checking articles, which are subject to multiple rounds of editorial scrutiny, are more formal and standardised in style",1,-1,[],[52798]],["Fact-checking as a reactive strategy for addressing misinformation has gained traction as a method of mitigating its spread.",1,-1,[],[27262]],["Fact-checking comes into play after the information has gained social impact, reverberation in public debate, or online resonance (Rodríguez-Pérez & Seibt, 2022). Thus, fact-checkers do not determine what news is, but rather what is true in the public debate. In contrast to traditional journalism, fact-checkers place less emphasis on timeliness, originality and exclusivity (Graves, 2016).",1,-1,[],[9481]],["Fact-checking has become a staple part of US political journalism",1,-1,[],[9526]],["Fact-checking initiatives abound, and some (such as PolitiFact and Snopes) have even become household names.",1,-1,[],[28330]],["Fact-checking involves a variety of tasks, including checking sources, verifying claims and statistics, and consulting experts.",1,-1,[],[1494]],["Fact-checking is an initiative in the field of journalism that has emerged in recent years",1,-1,[],[52896]],["Fact-checking is one of the most significant innovations in journalistic practice in recent years",1,-1,[],[15072]],["Fact-checking represents one of the most widespread innovations to combat the spread of misinformation.",1,-1,[],[54639]],["Fact-checking seeks to make public figures accountable for the truthfulness of any statements",1,-1,[],[35493]],["Fact-checking seeks to make public figures accountable for the truthfulness of any statements (UNESCO, 2018).",1,-1,[],[35493]],["Fact-checking stories do not usually set the agenda or reveal new facts. They are limited to verifying stories that have already been published. They therefore correspond to a reactive dynamic: checks are always reactions to what others have said or done.",1,-1,[],[3123]],["Fact-checking websites aim to correct disinformation and make politicians accountable by providing coverage of the accuracy of statements made by political actors",1,-1,[],[54833]],["Fact-checks may be effective in refuting misinformation because they combine simple and short messages with factual information, eventually reaching an unequivocal conclusion about a statement's truthfulness",1,-1,[],[22385]],["Factcheckers typically arrive at a verdict of the overall truthfulness of speeches, claims, and news articles: e.g., false, mostly false, mostly true, or true.",1,-1,[],[22385]],["Factchecking are initiatives that have been positioned as central to data verification",1,-1,[],[34941]],["From this perspective, fact-checking may be seen as a reaction to massive growth of information available in the public sphere, but most of all towards the uncontrolled spread of disinformation.",1,-1,[],[54833]],["Il consiste à vérifier, a posteriori, des déclarations publiques d'hommes politiques (principalement), glanées dans le champ médiatique, le plus souvent, d'ailleurs, à l'extérieur des colonnes et émissions du média pour lequel ces fact-checkers travaillent eux-mêmes.",1,-1,[],[15072]],["In fact, fact-checking has been recognized as one of the most important non-governmental responses to disinformation",1,-1,[],[27262]],["In journalism, corrections, verification, and fact-checking are simple yet powerful antidotes to misinformation [11]",1,-1,[],[51843]],["In journalism, this process occurs internally before publication as well as externally via articles evaluating the accuracy of publicly available information",1,-1,[],[10050]],["In subjecting political discourse to journalistic expertise ex-post, fact-checking invokes that historic, yet today contested, division.",1,-1,[],[47927]],["In the US, from where much of the fact-checking literature originates, the evaluation is typically performed by journalists, based on various documented sources.",1,-1,[],[9526]],["In the domain of journalism, fact checking is the task of assessing whether claims made in written or spoken language are true.",1,-1,[],[25586]],["It participates in the construction of journalistic authority (Carlson, 2017) since it is in a position to inform audiences about politicians' credibility or lack thereof.",1,-1,[],[47927]],["Journalistic fact-checking in the past century or so may have allowed news outlets to become trusted sources of information and, meanwhile, keep citizens objectively informed.",1,-1,[],[47089]],["L'appellation fact-checking de ces dernières années a ainsi opéré un glissement pour désigner, non plus la vérification exhaustive et systématique des contenus journalistiques a priori, mais le contrôle ponctuel de citations publiques a posteriori.",1,-1,[],[15072]],["L'idée commune à tous ces sites : ne plus laisser les politiques dire n'importe quoi et pointer tout ce qui est faux, imprécis ou de mauvaise foi dans leur discours. Le but n'est pas de pinailler sur des détails pour le plaisir d'ergoter, c'est de pointer ces erreurs -volontaires ou non -quand elles servent de base à un raisonnement, une justification, une action politique.",1,-1,[],[15072]],["Le but n'est pas de pinailler sur des détails pour le plaisir d'ergoter, c'est de pointer ces erreurs -volontaires ou non -quand elles servent de base à un raisonnement, une justification, une action politique.",1,-1,[],[15072]],["Le fact-checking vient des États-Unis. Le site américain PolitiFact.com est un modèle du genre.",1,-1,[],[15072]],["Le travail de vérification ainsi désigné n'est plus exhaustif, mais aléatoire ; autrefois systématique, il est devenu ponctuel ; auparavant interne (appliquée aux seuls contenus de la publication à laquelle appartient le journaliste), il est aujourd'hui potentiellement appliqué à l'ensemble des propos tenus dans la sphère médiatique ; travail collectif pratiqué à l'échelle de chaque média, il s'est mué en une tâche spécialisée, effectuée par quelques journalistes seulement ; le travail avant publication est désormais réalisé après coup (après publication ou diffusion des déclarations par les médias) ; de discrète (réalisée en back-office), cette vérification est passée sur le devant de la scène (affichée comme un avantage concurrentiel) ; de pratique professionnelle d'excellence (le fait des seuls médias soucieux d'asseoir leur crédibilité), elle est devenue une pratique relativement commune",1,-1,[],[15072]],["Le travail de vérification présenté sous cette appellation anglo-saxonne est généralement ponctuel, appliqué à des contenus externes issus d'autres médias et de la sphère publique plus globalement, a posteriori (c'est-à-dire après qu'ils ont été publiés ou diffusés) et avec un maximum d'affichage, afin d'attirer un grand nombre de lecteurs/auditeurs/téléspectateurs.",1,-1,[],[15072]],["O público mostrou uma percepção positiva sobre o fact-checking e, quando exposto randomicamente a ele, aprovou ainda mais o formato, tendo acesso a um conteúdo que aumenta o conhecimento sobre as questões em debate.",1,-1,[],[17701]],["Once we have identified the factual and relevant sentences (claims) the next step is to determine the veracity of them. Here we find two main approaches, on the one hand we can transform the sentences into triplets (subject, predicate, object) and somehow verify these triplets against an existing knowledge base, and on the other hand we can try to verify the claim using some measure of similarity with respect to given evidence.",1,-1,[],[58066]],["Os métodos de checagem não mudam muito entre as agências, mas todas explicam como chegaram à conclusão sobre a veracidade das informações publicadas, destacando as fontes originais de informação com links e referências.",1,-1,[],[17701]],["Other risks involved with fact-checking can be using inaccurate or outdated data, appearing to be biased towards a",1,-1,[],[45584]],["Outro ponto importante para assegurar a qualidade é a busca pela diversidade de personalidades checadas e uma política clara de erros.",1,-1,[],[17701]],["Se trata de un filtro que garantiza que los textos periodísticos están contrastados a partir de fuentes fiables, documentos oficiales y resultados de investigaciones solventes",1,-1,[],[13721]],["Se trata de un filtro que garantiza que los textos periodísticos están contrastados a partir de fuentes fiables, documentos oficiales y resultados de investigaciones solventes, en un momento en el que la profesión periodística está lastrada por la precariedad laboral",1,-1,[],[13721]],["Strengthening people's trust in information",1,-1,[],[52428]],["Sustained exposure to fact-checks-one popular method of combating misinformation-leverages complementarities between debunking and prebunking.",1,-1,[],[45044]],["The aim of factchecking is to grow media information literacy in the general public so that people don't consume information at face value.",1,-1,[],[27262]],["The fact-checking task is commonly manually performed by journalists",1,-1,[],[1009]],["The news content and retrieved evidence are then input into a detection model for verification.",1,-1,[],[42239]],["The process of fact checking requires researching and identifying evidence, understanding the context of information and reasoning about what can be inferred from this evidence. The goal of automated fact checking is to reduce the human burden in assessing the veracity of a claim.",1,-1,[],[25586]],["The result is that the media content/information consumer is empowered to make quality decisions about their news and information consumption.",1,-1,[],[34939]],["The role of fact-checkers is not just to debunk false information, but also to provide context and clarification for statements that may be partially true or open to interpretation.",1,-1,[],[1494]],["These initiatives can be independent, be part of a consolidated media group, or be part of legitimate media outlets in the form of an integrated and specialized section.",1,-1,[],[32114]],["They are structured and presented in a very similar way to traditional journalism pieces that address a specific question, explain data, or assess specific claims.",1,-1,[],[3123]],["This is not only because journalism -as the term in itself implies -has to inform the public and this only works if the facts are correct: Even a tabloid will make sure that Kate Middleton's name is spelt correctly so as not to discredit itself in the eyes of its readers. If errors regularly occur in a publication, its reputation suffers in the long run and thus potentially also its circulation; in some cases this can even result in claims which threaten the very existence of the publication. Fact checking is thus not merely a luxury but rather of essential significance for quality journalism.",1,-1,[],[25441]],["Traditionally, this task has been manually performed by journalists and researchers who cross-reference claims with credible sources.",1,-1,[],[43615]],["Unlike the conventional verification process, which requires checking information before it is published, fact-checking is dedicated to post-hoc checking, or in other words, verifying after statements and alleged facts after they have been published.",1,-1,[],[45584]],["Unlike the traditional journalistic process-which contrasts the information before it is published-this verification takes place after it is published.",1,-1,[],[30648]],["When immediacy and the search for a scoop are the focal points, the checker tends to publish more superficial information. You can label a sentence as being true or false without taking into account the broader scenario in which it fits. The loss of context is always a risk.",1,-1,[],[45584]],["While fact-checking does help people discover untruthful reporting, fact-checking cannot eliminate the fact that the media environment is infested with fake news.",1,-1,[],[56199]],["a counter-offensive to false and misleading information",1,-1,[],[35741]],["a form of \"niche journalism\"",1,-1,[],[35741]],["a new democratic institution or tool",1,-1,[],[35741]],["a practice linked to traditional journalism, as a counter-offensive to false and misleading information",1,-1,[],[35741]],["a professional reform movement that has reached the heart of US elite media",1,-1,[],[35741]],["a specific form of knowledge about current events that attests to facts",1,-1,[],[47927]],["a través de profesionales que se dedican en exclusiva a ello",1,-1,[],[59544]],["ability to uncover and debunk hoaxes on social media platforms to facilitate the exposure of stories that are in the public interest",1,-1,[],[54156]],["an innovative tool aimed at improving democratic well-being",1,-1,[],[35741]],["apuesta por la excelencia en los procesos de verificación periodística",1,-1,[],[16490]],["aunque también se puede ocupar de contenidos sin autoría identificable distribuidos a través de redes sociales y herramientas de mensajería",1,-1,[],[55330]],["both fact-checkers and journalists are involved in verifying and determining the accuracy of information shared publicly (e.g., verifying posts made by social media users) or content created internally to be disseminated by the media house (i.e., checking the accuracy of claims before publishing).",1,-1,[],[27262]],["by idealizing the verification of factual details to the detriment of broader contextualization, is at pains to give full due to the narrative dimension that allows for differing and conflicting journalistic readings of a single reality",1,-1,[],[47927]],["can be divided into human-based and automated systems of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning",1,-1,[],[47089]],["can be used as the first step of a detection system",1,-1,[],[28625]],["can censure political figures' missteps, but it is found wanting in the question of addressing the issues underpinning political discourse",1,-1,[],[47927]],["clarify false information by checking original sources",1,-1,[],[32114]],["committed to publicizing errors of falsehoods regardless of the source",1,-1,[],[45584]],["comprehensive analysis, comparing original elements such as logos and broadcast languages with falsified visual or audio inserts",1,-1,[],[53636]],["constituyendo la herramienta más eficaz para combatir la expansión de las informaciones falsas",1,-1,[],[52542]],["constituyendo la herramienta más eficaz para combatir la expansión de las informaciones falsas (Amorós, 2018).",1,-1,[],[52542]],["correcting misinformation",1,-1,[],[52428]],["corrections, verification, and fact-checking are simple yet powerful antidotes to misinformation [11], and several newsrooms employ these techniques to vet the information they publish. Moreover, in recent years, several independent fact-checking organizations have emerged with the goal of debunking widely circulating claims online.",1,-1,[],[51843]],["crucial global tool for combating misinformation",1,-1,[],[27262]],["cuando un mensaje acumulaba más de 1.000 interacciones en Twitter o Facebook, se convertía en uno de sus objetivos de fact-checking.",1,-1,[],[13302]],["dedicated to post-hoc checking, or in other words, verifying after statements and alleged facts after they have been published.",1,-1,[],[45584]],["democracy-building tool",1,-1,[],[52428]],["disproving a statement is often more feasible than definitively proving its accuracy, given the more straightforward nature of evidence required to refute a falsehood as opposed to the extensive and sometimes ambiguous evidence needed to confirm the truth",1,-1,[],[43615]],["distintos protocolos de actuación y modelos de negocio",1,-1,[],[56611]],["effective tool of fighting misinformation",1,-1,[],[27262]],["enabling citizens to be well-informed",1,-1,[],[52428]],["encargadas de desmentir rápidamente las informaciones falsas",1,-1,[],[14726]],["encourages readers to develop journalistic aptitudes in order to gauge the veracity of public statements; at the same time, however, it encourages them to rely on verification work already performed by media, to whom the time-consuming process is commonly delegated",1,-1,[],[47927]],["ensuring the veracity of information, scrutinizing power and transforming information into knowledge that citizens can assume",1,-1,[],[30648]],["es reactivo, requiere tiempo y actúa una vez la información falsa ya se ha viralizado",1,-1,[],[11365]],["essential part of political journalism",1,-1,[],[9526]],["established journalistic genre and an objectified practice",1,-1,[],[47927]],["explicitly and overtly weigh evidence, claims, and counter-claims",1,-1,[],[52428]],["fact checking can correct biases in factual knowledge introduced by politically-charged alternative facts.",1,-1,[],[34205]],["fact checking's success in correcting factual knowledge does not translate into an impact on voting intentions.",1,-1,[],[34205]],["fact-checkers need to develop new fact-checking techniques, collaborate with AI researchers to develop more fair and unbiased AI tools.",1,-1,[],[30648]],["fact-checking by professional organisations",1,-1,[],[52798]],["fact-checking is effective in preventing citizens from being influenced by disinformation, it can, paradoxically, induce more severe skepticism of the media because fact-checking raises citizens' awareness of the inundation of fake news.",1,-1,[],[56199]],["fact-checking is not limited to technical verification but includes exposing motives",1,-1,[],[53636]],["fact-checking itself can reduce the cost of information processing because it makes it easier for people to verify the truthfulness of information of fake news.",1,-1,[],[56199]],["fact-checking may be understood as a democracy-building tool that emerges where democratic institutions are perceived to be weak or are under threat",1,-1,[],[1494]],["fact-checking provides a service by clarifying the assessment of a claim by delivering context and background information in a situation that any little bit makes a difference",1,-1,[],[54156]],["fact-checking seeks to \"unmask the errors, ambiguities, lies, lack of rigor or inaccuracies of some contents published in the media\"",1,-1,[],[30648]],["fact-checking should be a multistakeholder process that does not infringe on peoples' freedom of speech even as it helps mitigate the spread of misinformation",1,-1,[],[27262]],["factcheckers analyze information that third parties have already released and disprove it if it is false",1,-1,[],[30648]],["has established itself through the adoption of joint standards, such as the Code of Principles established in 2015 by the Poynter Institute's International Fact-checking Network (IFCN), and through collaborative efforts in the form of digital platforms",1,-1,[],[47927]],["herramienta clave en la lucha contra los contenidos falsos",1,-1,[],[32190]],["improve the public debate with quality information",1,-1,[],[52428]],["it can correct misperceptions and create reputational costs for elites who make false claims.",1,-1,[],[27964]],["it is conducted after the dissemination of misinformation",1,-1,[],[45139]],["it is the job of fact-checkers to refute and correct mistakes so as to prevent the public from being subjected to erroneous perceptions",1,-1,[],[32114]],["it occurs after claims have been made, making it inherently reactive.",1,-1,[],[27262]],["journalistic phenomenon",1,-1,[],[9526]],["journalists tend to focus on accurately reporting what was said, while fact-checkers are more interested in judging the veracity of the statement.",1,-1,[],[52428]],["la aparición de nuevos perfiles profesionales en el ámbito de la Comunicación y el Periodismo, especialmente en el área de la verificación de hechos o fact-checking",1,-1,[],[56611]],["la labor periodística desarrollada por las plataformas de fact-checking, encargadas de desmentir rápidamente las informaciones falsas",1,-1,[],[14726]],["lejos de tener una actividad exclusivamente centrada en contrastar noticias y rumores, también publican como medios generalistas y educadores en materia periodística.",1,-1,[],[52542]],["les rubriques de fact-checking, dédiées à la vérification de l'information et des propos des gouvernants ou des personnalités dans l'espace public",1,-1,[],[13297]],["media literacy for users and journalists is nurtured, by showing them a simple and replicable method for verifying information published in the media and on the social networks, prior to sharing them",1,-1,[],[42063]],["media professionals in both Senegal and Kenya employ fact-checking strategies such as cross-checking of information from primary, secondary, and expert sources and verifying images and videos using reverse image search as reactive strategies.",1,-1,[],[27262]],["mettent l'information en forme et la remettent dans son contexte",1,-1,[],[15072]],["multi-faceted verification that goes beyond simple disproving",1,-1,[],[53636]],["ne plus laisser les politiques dire n'importe quoi et pointer tout ce qui est faux, imprécis ou de mauvaise foi dans leur discours.",1,-1,[],[15072]],["not a clearly defined procedure: people can only assume that they can check information, due to the potential complexity of fact-checking and other obstacles such as value patterns.",1,-1,[],[42482]],["not only because journalism -as the term in itself implies -has to inform the public and this only works if the facts are correct",1,-1,[],[25441]],["once the verified statement has been cited and an assessment declared, supporting argumentation is systematically presented to corroborate the degree of veracity",1,-1,[],[47927]],["os métodos de checagem são públicos.",1,-1,[],[17701]],["panorama internacional del fact-checking",1,-1,[],[56611]],["practical and effective solution to deal with misinformation",1,-1,[],[27262]],["process for verifying the claim (which typically involved investigating its source, cross-checking, and consulting experts) and ultimately concluding whether the claim was true or false",1,-1,[],[45044]],["práctica que posee sesgos partidistas",1,-1,[],[33397]],["recapitulating the facts that form the common ground on which no political figure can avoid treading",1,-1,[],[47927]],["represents only one aspect of scientific fact-checking",1,-1,[],[34031]],["response to concerns about another democratic institution: journalism itself",1,-1,[],[52428]],["rhétorique classique du fact-checking: « raccourcis, exagérations et contre-vérités »",1,-1,[],[15072]],["scientific research topic",1,-1,[],[9526]],["some authors refer to fact-checking as a professional reform movement that has reached the heart of US elite media (Graves, 2013)",1,-1,[],[35741]],["starts with the selection and verification of sources.",1,-1,[],[5172]],["strategy of identifying false information",1,-1,[],[27262]],["su estrategia para combatir la desinformación es simple: señalar y desmentir las falsedades que circulan en la esfera pública",1,-1,[],[16490]],["su función principal es verificar contenidos",1,-1,[],[10823]],["the contemporary practice of political fact-checking entails publicly reporting on the accuracy of a claim or text already circulating in the media.",1,-1,[],[43601]],["the emergence of fact-checking as a new business in journalism, with traditional newsrooms in Latin America embracing this genre",1,-1,[],[9481]],["the empowerment of readerships is limited to the verification of numbers, laws, and regulations, and does not extend to the substantive issues under debate which, ultimately, involve not facts in isolation, but rather their interpretation",1,-1,[],[47927]],["the fact checker only examines whether two statements correspond in terms of content: those in the article he has to examine and the relevant statements in the sources.",1,-1,[],[25441]],["the latter the sharing of fake news",1,-1,[],[1369]],["the media community has a networked, coordinated system for responding to disinformation",1,-1,[],[53636]],["the need to justify their decisions using evidence",1,-1,[],[25586]],["the task is performed by journalists",1,-1,[],[25586]],["there is no one-size-fits-all solution to fake news",1,-1,[],[54156]],["tool for democracy-building",1,-1,[],[9526]],["una forma de control a los políticos y generar un debate saludable en términos democráticos",1,-1,[],[37754]],["una operación que aplica técnicas del periodismo de datos para desenmascarar los errores, ambigüedades, mentiras, falta de rigor o inexactitudes de algunos contenidos publicados en los medios de comunicación",1,-1,[["una operación que aplica técnicas del periodismo de datos para desenmascarar los errores, ambigüedades, mentiras, falta de rigor o inexactitudes de algunos contenidos publicados en los medios de comunicación",1],["una operación que aplica técnicas del periodismo de datos para desenmascarar los errores, ambigüedades, mentiras, falta de rigor o inexactitudes de algunos contenidos publicados en los medios de comunicación.",1]],[13721]],["unlike fake detection, fact-checking works at the level of a particular statement or claim",1,-1,[],[16582]],["verificación de información y desmentidos",1,-1,[],[52542]],["verificar contenido",1,-1,[],[10823]],["verifying everything in a more common way, in a more systematic way and, I want to believe, in a more truthful way.",1,-1,[],[35741]],["verifying the truthfulness of a statement often requires a comprehensive understanding and cross-referencing of facts",1,-1,[],[43615]],["vérifient déclarations, assertions et rumeurs en tous genres",1,-1,[],[15072]],["whereas factual consistency checking focuses on adherence of facts to information provided by a source document without guarantee that the information is true.",1,-1,[],[11577]]],"sy":[["verificación de datos",4,25430,[],[13721,16490,49604,55330]],["verificación",2,24376,[],[16490,37754]],["chequeo de hechos",1,-1,[],[14726]],["chequeo de información",1,-1,[],[33397]],["claim validation",1,8732,[],[6350]],["crosschecking",1,-1,[],[27489]],["debunking",1,27730,[],[45139]],["information verification",1,27663,[],[32114]],["manual fact-checking",1,13952,[],[7139]],["modern political fact-checking",1,18326,[],[15072]],["modern-day fact checking movement",1,-1,[],[15072]],["plataformas de comprobación",1,-1,[],[32190]],["plataformas de verificación",1,-1,[],[32190]],["post-hoc checking",1,25878,[],[45584]],["rumour verification",1,27997,[],[41334]],["separate genre of journalism",1,-1,[],[53636]],["verificación de hechos",1,26971,[],[56611]],["verificación de la información",1,-1,[],[54554]],["verificación de los hechos",1,-1,[],[59544]],["verificación de noticias",1,-1,[],[52542]],["verificación mediática",1,-1,[],[33397]],["verificadores de contenidos",1,-1,[],[13302]],["vérification des faits",1,-1,[],[15072]]],"rt":[["debunking",5,27730,[],[9481,16490,37754,38774,54156]],["fake news",4,33960,[],[17701,20170,47927,54156]],["verification",4,13930,[],[25586,30648,51843,52775]],["disinformation",3,17423,[],[27262,42063,54156]],["misinformation",3,10315,[],[27262,32114,54156]],["Fake news detection",2,15605,[["Fake news detection",1],["fake news detection",1]],[7079,28625]],["accountability journalism",2,-1,[],[29974,45584]],["desinformación",2,20072,[],[10823,55053]],["International Fact-checking Network -IFCN",1,-1,[],[17701]],["Knowledge-based approaches",1,3753,[],[28330]],["MIL",1,28928,[],[34939]],["Media Accountability Systems (MAS)",1,8001,[],[47682]],["Media and Information Literacy (MIL)",1,25540,[],[54833]],["Satire",1,9893,[],[22385]],["adjudication role",1,-1,[],[52428]],["alfabetización mediática",1,10962,[],[10823]],["automated fact-checking",1,34400,[],[8185]],["automatic fact-checking",1,9291,[],[7139]],["check-worthiness",1,18855,[],[58066]],["citizen-driven fact-checking",1,-1,[],[52798]],["computational fact-checking",1,24790,[],[1494]],["computer-assisted fact-checking",1,-1,[],[9526]],["corrections",1,34305,[],[51843]],["crowdsourcing",1,34702,[],[28330]],["data journalism",1,28520,[],[45584]],["data verification",1,-1,[],[34941]],["debunking strategy",1,29169,[],[56199]],["digital disinformation",1,33983,[],[47089]],["fact finding",1,31836,[],[25441]],["factual consistency",1,11908,[],[11577]],["fake detection",1,5874,[],[16582]],["hoaxes",1,13150,[],[54156]],["information verification",1,27663,[],[32114]],["inoculation",1,14922,[],[1369]],["internal fact-checking",1,23069,[],[8185]],["journalisme traditionnel",1,-1,[],[15072]],["journalistic practice of fact-checking",1,-1,[],[9526]],["journalistic practices involved in fact-checking",1,-1,[],[9526]],["media literacy",1,27668,[],[27262]],["periodismo de datos",1,18928,[],[13721]],["political fact-checking",1,27105,[],[9526]],["political journalism",1,13451,[],[47927]],["professional fact-checking",1,14434,[],[52798]],["stance detection",1,25533,[],[12240]],["style-based approaches",1,232,[],[28330]],["traditional verification",1,-1,[],[52775]],["uncertainty estimation",1,437,[],[7610]],["verificación",1,24376,[],[56611]],["verificación de los hechos",1,-1,[],[33397]],["vérification d'une déclaration",1,-1,[],[15072]],["vérification de la parole des politiques",1,-1,[],[15072]],["vérification de la véracité de citations politiques",1,-1,[],[15072]],["vérification des contre-vérités",1,-1,[],[15072]],["vérification journalistique des faits",1,-1,[],[15072]]],"sb":[["Crowdsourced fact-checking",2,16730,[["Crowdsourced fact-checking",1],["crowd-sourced fact-checking",1]],[1494,7139]],["Expert-based fact-checking",2,12617,[["Expert-based fact-checking",2],["Expertbased fact-checking",1]],[7139,23118]],["claim verification",2,13618,[],[7468,12051]],["\"Expertbased fact-checking\" uses credible fact-checkers to manually assess the accuracy of the news.",1,-1,[],[23118]],["Analysis of visual evidence (forensic media expertise)",1,-1,[],[53636]],["Automated fact-checking",1,34400,[],[1494]],["Comprehensive verification (networked)",1,-1,[],[53636]],["Computational-oriented fact-checking",1,25614,[],[6764]],["Contextual verification (normalisation)",1,-1,[],[53636]],["Crowdsource based Fact-checking",1,17224,[],[23118]],["Crowdsource-based (Manual)",1,-1,[],[23118]],["Crowdsourcing",1,34702,[],[28330]],["Crowdsourcing-oriented fact-checking",1,26827,[],[6764]],["Expert-based (Manual)",1,-1,[],[23118]],["Expert-oriented fact-checking",1,1133,[],[6764]],["External factchecking",1,31420,[],[29307]],["Fact checking by domain experts",1,-1,[],[28330]],["Human-in-the-loop",1,20250,[],[1494]],["Knowledge graphs",1,11013,[],[28330]],["Professional fact-checking",1,14434,[],[1494]],["Source verification",1,4104,[],[53636]],["Verification of timeline and identifiers",1,-1,[],[53636]],["ante hoc fact checking",1,15064,[],[45584]],["assessment sites for fact-checking",1,-1,[],[16582]],["claim detection",1,14574,[],[24911]],["collaborative-facilitative",1,-1,[],[29974]],["computational (automated) fact-checking",1,21853,[],[23118]],["contrôle ponctuel de citations publiques a posteriori",1,-1,[],[15072]],["crowd evaluation as in crowdsourced fact-checking",1,-1,[],[16582]],["debunking hoaxes",1,-1,[],[35741]],["desmentido",1,6041,[],[32190]],["evidence retrieval",1,10772,[],[24911]],["expert-oriented, crowdsourcing-oriented, and computational-oriented",1,-1,[],[6764]],["experts",1,25095,[],[29974]],["fact extraction, which involves extracting independent factual statements within the model's outputs",1,-1,[],[7610]],["fact verification, which aims at verifying the correctness of these factual statements against trusted knowledge sources",1,-1,[],[7610]],["fact-checking colaborativo",1,-1,[],[56611]],["human-based and automated systems of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning",1,-1,[],[47089]],["informe -reportaje de verificación",1,-1,[],[32190]],["inspect claims stated by public figures to safeguard accountability and correctness in the public debate",1,-1,[],[9481]],["justification generation",1,-1,[],[24911]],["knowledge evidence selection",1,-1,[],[7468]],["manual fact-checking",1,13952,[],[43615]],["manual verification through expert-oriented fact-checking",1,-1,[],[16582]],["post-hoc checking",1,25878,[],[45584]],["reformers",1,14921,[],[29974]],["reporters",1,8820,[],[29974]],["using computational tools (e.g., knowledge graphs and open web sources) for computational fact-checking",1,-1,[],[16582]],["verdict prediction",1,33163,[],[24911]],["verifying political claims",1,-1,[],[35741]]],"sp":[["Factuality Hallucination Detection",1,9199,[],[7610]],["media literacy",1,27668,[],[27262]]],"ex":[["Les Décodeurs",2,-1,[["Les Décodeurs",1],["« Les Décodeurs »",1]],[15072,32114]],["\"Drinking bleach or pure alcohol can cure the coronavirus infections\"",1,-1,[["\"Drinking bleach or pure alcohol can cure the coronavirus infections\"",1],["Drinking bleach or pure alcohol can cure the coronavirus infections",1]],[45785]],["BBC Reality Check",1,-1,[],[32114]],["Factcheck.org",1,-1,[],[15072]],["Fakt is Fakt",1,-1,[],[32114]],["Faktograf",1,-1,[],[32114]],["For instance, the article in newspaper Le Monde which fact checked the statement by Marine Le Pen on the proportion of men among refugees, embedded true facts in a short narrative containing several paragraphs.",1,-1,[],[34205]],["Full Fact",1,-1,[],[32114]],["Le site américain PolitiFact.com est un modèle du genre.",1,-1,[],[15072]],["PolitiFact.com",1,-1,[],[15072]],["Verificado en México",1,-1,[],[49604]],["When we're on the hunt for evidence, we use a checklist to make sure we don't miss anything. While every fact-check is different, you can use the same techniques to ferret out facts and get to the truth.",1,-1,[],[15072]],["during a sit down with journalists to explain his government policies over the annual budget, the president of Kenya, William Ruto made twelve claims of which four were proven correct, one exaggerated, one unproven, and six proven incorrect by Africa Check (Africa Check, 2023)",1,-1,[],[27262]],["evaluations of news reports by credible news media, such as the Washington Post",1,-1,[],[27416]],["stand-alone websites that evaluate the factual claims of news reports, such as Politifact and Snopes",1,-1,[],[27416]],["warnings on content placed by informational intermediaries, such as Facebook",1,-1,[],[27416]],["« Désintox »",1,-1,[],[15072]],["« Désintox » de Libé",1,-1,[],[15072]]]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["Nowadays the theory is widely used to assess individual behaviour with social media viz. Facebook, twitter, microblogging",1,-1,[],[27459]],["The theory has heuristic value as it facilitates intellects with clues on adoption of media and consumption",1,-1,[],[27459]],["experiences based on sharing COVID-19 news",1,-1,[],[27459]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["gratification theory",1,-1,[],[27459]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["Seeding or network targeting has emerged as the primary marketing strategy designed to leverage the WOM effect",1,-1,[],[19078]]],"sy":[["network targeting",1,-1,[],[19078]]],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["focusing on the experiences of common people and seeking to create an understanding of the human costs of war",1,-1,[],[39804]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["traditional war reporting",1,-1,[],[39804]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[["They split or dissociate online fiction from offline fact.",1,-1,[],[5482]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["dissociative anonymity",1,8785,[],[5482]]],"sb":[],"sp":[["online disinhibition",1,7942,[],[33451]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["trust in institutions on social media may relate to reasons for sharing unverified information on social media through a reduced motivation to authenticate information",1,-1,[],[45950]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":7,"df":[],"de":[["metaphorical framing directs them to an external viewpoint (\"Building on your partner's materials\") than when it directs them to an internal viewpoint (\"Building with your materials\")",1,-1,[],[38708]],["metaphorical framing highlights certain aspects of a situation, making them more salient than others",1,-1,[],[38708]],["the influence of metaphorical framing is consistent with the inferences evoked by the metaphor",1,-1,[],[38708]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["conceptual metaphor theory",1,21286,[],[26951]],["non-metaphorical framing",1,-1,[],[38708]],["source domain",1,3883,[],[26951]],["target domain",1,19075,[],[26951]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[["BRIDGE-BUILDING",1,-1,[],[38708]],["FIGHT",1,-1,[],[38708]]]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["Propounded by Willian Benoit in 1999, the functional theory of political campaign posits that during electoral campaigns, political candidates perform three major functions: acclaim, attack, or defence (Gyasi and Sarfo-Kantankah, 2022).",1,-1,[],[29680]],["The core principles of the theory state that (i) voting is a comparative act where candidates must be seen as a preferable choice, (ii) a candidate must be distinguished from opponents to be considered preferable, (iii) campaign messages are means through which a candidate can be distinguished, (iv) campaign discourse creates preference ability through three functions-acclaim, attack and defence, and (v) candidates set themselves apart from opponents by emphasising differences in character (image) and policy (issues).",1,-1,[],[29680]],["The theory provides a political analysis, enabling media scholars and linguists to understand the frame of argument in political debate, and it proposes the impact the message would have on the target audience.",1,-1,[],[29680]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":5,"df":[],"de":[["'Adverbial' is a function, like 'subject' and 'object', rather than a form. Thus, different kinds of phrases and clauses, like adverbs and prepositional phrases, can perform the role of adverbial.",1,-1,[],[42084]],["Stance adverbials, among the linguistic features employed by editorial writers, play a significant role in expressing the writers' opinions towards a particular issue or situation.",1,-1,[],[58093]]],"sy":[["boosters",1,15862,[],[58093]],["hedges",1,3780,[],[58093]]],"rt":[["boosters",1,15862,[],[58093]],["hedges",1,3780,[],[58093]]],"sb":[["attitudinal stance",1,22223,[],[58093]],["epistemic stance",1,14609,[],[58093]],["style stance",1,6748,[],[58093]]],"sp":[],"ex":[["basically and frankly",1,-1,[],[58093]],["certainly and maybe",1,-1,[],[58093]],["effectively and properly",1,-1,[],[58093]]]},{"nd":6,"df":[],"de":[["specifically; a. Avoid obscurity b. Avoid ambiguity c. Be brief d. Be orderly",1,-1,[],[31036]],["the information to be brief and orderly avoids obscurity and ambiguity as well.",1,-1,[],[31036]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["Grice's pragmatic maxims",1,-1,[],[24417]],["Relevance Maxim",1,30288,[],[31035]],["maxim of relation",1,8952,[],[24417]],["quality maxim",1,9346,[],[31035]]],"sb":[],"sp":[["Cooperative Principle",1,27412,[],[31035]],["Grice's Cooperative Principle",1,646,[],[31036]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":9,"df":[],"de":[["Polarity reflects the direction of evaluative language",1,-1,[],[51701]]],"sy":[["orientation",1,13734,[],[24874]]],"rt":[["frame identification",1,21336,[],[60781]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["disinformation",1,17423,[],[37362]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["They regulate behavior, transmit cultural values, and shape collective consciousness",1,-1,[],[26630]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["causal attributions of responsibility that attribute negative qualities to the elites on the national and European levels of governance drawing on the emotions of anger and fear.",1,-1,[],[8298]],["the core element of populist communication",1,-1,[],[8298]],["they communicate this message in an emotional style that reflects hostility toward these elites, for example, by emphasizing the outrage of the common people toward the corrupt government or by stressing the people's fear of the threatening EU.",1,-1,[],[8298]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[["branded content",1,32777,[],[15253]],["product placement",1,-1,[],[15253]]],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":23,"df":[],"de":[["\"In a world of concentrated wealth and major conflicts of class interest, to fulfil this role requires systematic propaganda\"",1,-1,[],[34773]],["1. High-volume and multichannel: propaganda messages are delivered to audiences across a wide range of platforms and genres, not only through all possible forms of media channels but through educational and cultural institutions as well. Messages are essentially the same across all platforms and formats.",1,-1,[],[47147]],["2. Rapid, continuous, and repetitive: the propaganda machine can react very quickly to new situations, changing topics, picking up and releasing narratives in a matter of seconds. The rapid changes of topics also mean that this communication dominates public discourse at any given moment, continually diverting the audience's attention to newer and newer topics, leaving no room for refuting certain falsehoods or for any real debate.",1,-1,[],[47147]],["3. Lacks commitment to objective reality: propaganda messages use the truth according to their own intentions. They are not necessarily based on blunt lies, although they do not shy away from them. The messages are usually truthful, but the real elements are framed and taken out of context. The selective and manipulative use of reality makes propaganda messages even more difficult to refute.",1,-1,[],[47147]],["4. Lacks commitment to consistency: just as conspiracy theories are generally inconsistent, and believers in them do not expect consistency, so are government narratives composed of partially contradictory elements.",1,-1,[],[47147]],["According to the model, either by millionaire advertising contracts, controlling the sources or generating flack against opposed views, the government always tries to control the discourse.",1,-1,[],[42229]],["Each consultation focuses on the latest political enemy or political success, yet often repeats themes from previous consultations.",1,-1,[],[47147]],["Herman and Chomsky's propaganda model concentrates on wealth and power and how they influence the mass media.",1,-1,[],[29946]],["It produces insights concerning the relationship between political and economic power, mainly due to its substantial predictive power.",1,-1,[],[29946]],["The associated media campaigns flood all communication platforms, from street posters to talk shows on pro-government television to Facebook.",1,-1,[],[47147]],["The filters are; (1) size, ownership and profit orientation of the dominant mass-media, (2) advertising as primary income, (3) the reliance of media on elite sources, (4) 'flak' as a means of disciplining the media, and (5) anti-communism as a control mechanism.",1,-1,[],[48096]],["The propaganda model describes how the mass media can produce and communicate the dominant ideology and shape people's consciousness.",1,-1,[],[29946]],["The propaganda model is the most comprehensive conceptual model in political economy for understanding cultural hegemony. It produces insights concerning the relationship between political and economic power, mainly due to its substantial predictive power.",1,-1,[],[29946]],["The wording of the questionnaires sent to all households is inherently highly propositional, pushing a single correct position.",1,-1,[],[47147]],["They argue that the mass media's purpose is to entertain and inform but, more importantly, familiarize people with the ideas, beliefs, and codes of conduct that will integrate them into society's institutional structures.",1,-1,[],[29946]],["This model determines what media outlets will broadcast or print.",1,-1,[],[29946]],["describes the political elite, and the government in particular, as a very influential actor.",1,-1,[],[42229]],["media narratives may reflect filters that delegitimise states challenging hegemonic interests, as evidenced in source biases cf. (see Figure5)",1,-1,[],[50684]],["media, for the most part, reflect the position held by the government, and are not trying to reveal the complex reality behind it.",1,-1,[],[31856]],["raises a significant issue concerning the role of media outlets as \"passive transmitters\" or \"active interveners\" in shaping the news and information",1,-1,[],[29946]],["suggesting that media narratives may reflect filters that delegitimise states challenging hegemonic interests",1,-1,[],[50684]],["the PM emphasises how ownership, corporate control and advertising funding as well as market forces shape the respective behavior of managers, journalists and external actors/institutions that provide information to or put pressure on the news media",1,-1,[],[8567]],["the PM proposes that news media content is generally aligned with state-corporate elite interests at various time/space contexts",1,-1,[],[8567]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["Gatekeeper researchers",1,-1,[],[8567]],["conspiracy theorising",1,8223,[],[47147]],["news filters",1,18200,[],[29946]],["ownership and control of cultural production",1,-1,[],[29946]],["political economy of the news",1,-1,[],[8567]]],"sb":[["advertising, the media's principal source of revenue",1,-1,[],[29946]],["anti-communism",1,21259,[],[29946]],["concentration of media ownership, distribution of wealth, and profitseeking mainstream media organizations",1,-1,[],[29946]],["firehose of falsehood",1,24076,[],[59061]],["news 'filters'",1,18200,[],[8567]]],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["An adequate critical thinker tends to examine and evaluate the accuracy of the news they encounter on SM (Lewis & Smith, 1993) and they are unwilling to share this news with others until they make sure about the sensibility and accuracy of it (Mason, 2008).",1,-1,[],[9987]],["CT dispositions equip individuals with the necessary skills to examine and evaluate the quality and accuracy of ideas, claims, and judgments as well as of their source.",1,-1,[],[9987]],["CT not only helps individuals not to fall into traps of FN but also works as a barrier against the dissemination of FN produced by others on SM which makes CT an important and effective weapon to combat FN",1,-1,[],[9987]],["Individuals wear CT as armor and protect themselves against fake information",1,-1,[],[9987]],["individuals with high CT dispositions are open to new ideas and they are willing to modify their ideas and arguments when a piece of convincing evidence appears.",1,-1,[],[9987]],["individuals with high CT dispositions are skeptical of any information they encounter in their daily life and they habitually tend to evaluate the veracity of information itself as well as the source of this information.",1,-1,[],[9987]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["perspective",1,23315,[],[6899]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":4,"df":[],"de":[["The proponents of the maximal form of this thesis describe the term Assyrian as \"false\" or even as orientalist propaganda.",1,-1,[],[33050]]],"sy":[["East Syrian",1,-1,[],[33050]],["Nestorian",1,-1,[],[33050]],["Syriac Christian",1,-1,[],[33050]],["suraye",1,-1,[],[33050]],["suryoye",1,-1,[],[33050]]],"rt":[["Aramaic",1,-1,[],[33050]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":15,"df":[],"de":[["Changes in form of presentation comprise tendencies toward shorter stories, more pictures (Djupsund & Carlson, 1998), and simpler vocabulary and syntax (Schönbach, 2000).",1,-1,[],[6170]],["Finally, changes in the mode of address, also labeled as style (McLachlan & Golding, 2000), are understood as a different way of addressing the viewer or reader, for instance, by a tone that becomes more \"street talk\"-like (Esser, 1999, p. 293).",1,-1,[],[6170]],["In short, the multidimensional concept of tabloidization comprises a spillover of topics, forms, and styles from the popular to traditional news media, and is therefore anchored on the type of media level.",1,-1,[],[6170]],["Range refers to changes in content, for example, a shift from political to human interest topics (Djupsund & Carlson, 1998;Schönbach, 2000) or a decline of foreign news relative to domestic news (Kolmer & Semetko, 2010;McLachlan & Golding, 2000).",1,-1,[],[6170]],["most researchers agree on at least three dimensions that characterize the process of tabloidization (Esser, 1999;Landmeier & Daschmann, 2011;McLachlan & Golding, 2000): changes in range, form, and mode of address.",1,-1,[],[6170]],["quality outlets have adopted characteristics of the tabloid press, which is referred to as tabloidization in the media theoretical context",1,-1,[],[35666]],["softening on the type of media level",1,-1,[],[6170]],["the multidimensional concept of tabloidization comprises a spillover of topics, forms, and styles from the popular to traditional news media, and is therefore anchored on the type of media level.",1,-1,[],[6170]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["Tabloidization of politics",1,10450,[],[27241]],["tabloid media",1,22099,[],[23716]]],"sb":[["Tabloidization of politics",1,10450,[],[27241]]],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["a category that police were required to record, thus implying that those in authority considered this to be an important distinguishing characteristic",1,-1,[],[53092]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[["broad-spectrum inoculations that focus on conferring resistance against a range of common techniques used in the production of misinformation",1,-1,[],[2753]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["inoculation",1,14922,[],[2753]]],"sb":[],"sp":[["inoculation theory",1,18397,[],[2753]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":8,"df":[],"de":[["a grandiose self image and seeking external admiration are among its defining features",1,-1,[],[2661]],["grandiose self image and seeking external admiration are among its defining features.",1,-1,[],[2661]],["individual narcissism is positively, although moderately, related to ethnocentrism",1,-1,[],[2661]],["narcissists put the goal of self-worth above other goals and are caught up in the question of whether they are worthless or wonderful",1,-1,[],[2661]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["collective narcissism",1,33998,[],[2661]],["defensive personal self-esteem",1,-1,[],[2661]],["interpersonal 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strategies",1,-1,[],[60603]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["the media can be privately or publicly owned. Additionally, in the Authoritarian media system, media is used more to maintain the status quo rather than to bring change.",1,-1,[],[41735]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":7,"df":[],"de":[["a four-item scale was elaborated to evaluate whether the narrative does (1) or does not (0) mention or refers to the following aspects",1,-1,[],[45871]],["coverage of politics as a debate that seeks to solve problems through consensus and agreement between actors",1,-1,[],[45871]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["news frame",1,21144,[],[45871]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["accountability",1,33836,[],[58664]],["algorithmic explainability",1,-1,[],[58664]],["traceability",1,20125,[],[58664]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":28,"df":[],"de":[["Digital and media literacy is about developing people's critical and creative abilities.",1,-1,[],[23708]],["Digital literacy as media literacy aims to develop both critical understanding of and active participation in the media.",1,-1,[],[23708]],["Digital literacy becomes a vital element of digital citizenship.",1,-1,[],[7832]],["Digital literacy was the first foundation to become an internetresponsible citizen.",1,-1,[],[7832]],["Higher levels of digital literacy, on the other hand, empower customers to evaluate marketing communications critically.",1,-1,[],[27739]],["In a broad sense the concept of digital literacy is a way of thinking but it can also be understood as complementary to the concept of media education and even synonymous with media literacy.",1,-1,[],[23708]],["In essence, digital literacy is a complicated process that consists of acquiring a new tekne, ability of art or craft.",1,-1,[],[23708]],["Using a computer requires diverse and complex previous knowledge. It also introduces the individual and humanity to new contexts, which demands mental, intellectual, profound and complex changes.",1,-1,[],[23708]],["a way of thinking but it can also be understood as complementary to the concept of media education",1,-1,[],[23708]],["digital literacy includes media, news, and information literacy",1,-1,[],[40368]],["digital literacy is essential for navigating the complexities of the digital world, from discerning the reliability of online sources to engaging in productive online discourse",1,-1,[],[61843]],["digital literacy skills are vital for effective communication, problem-solving, and lifelong learning.",1,-1,[],[61843]],["empower users",1,-1,[],[58787]],["necessary aspects to access, analyse, evaluate, and create online information",1,-1,[],[50049]],["reduces their susceptibility to false claims",1,-1,[],[39961]]],"sy":[["digital citizenship",1,19080,[],[7832]],["digital competence",1,12553,[],[7832]],["information literacy",1,8985,[],[45092]],["media literacy",1,27668,[],[23708]]],"rt":[["media literacy",3,27668,[["media literacy",2],["Media literacy",1]],[23708,42294,47500]],["media education",1,30536,[],[23708]]],"sb":[],"sp":[["Media literacy",2,27668,[["Media literacy",1],["media literacy",1]],[42294,47624]],["digital citizenship",1,19080,[],[7832]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["epistemic reputation must be lost more easily than it is gained.",1,-1,[],[9167]],["the reputational costs associated with being wrong are higher than the reputational benefits of being right (Yaniv & Kleinberger, 2000).",1,-1,[],[9167]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":4,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["dimensions of truthfulness",1,-1,[],[43973]],["information quality",1,5092,[],[43973]]],"ex":[["Example (which label is: +2 Completely Agree): \"It's illegal to treat a minor without parental consent in the U.S. Even as hospitals are limiting visitors, minors will always be allowed to have one guardian present.\"",1,-1,[],[43973]],["It's illegal to treat a minor without parental consent in the U.S. Even as hospitals are limiting visitors, minors will always be allowed to have one guardian present.",1,-1,[],[43973]]]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["Illusory Truth Effect (ITE)",1,29300,[],[24001]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["FUEL CONFLICT",1,33006,[],[51300]],["FUEL RESOLUTION",1,-1,[],[51300]],["PREVENT CONFLICT",1,21126,[],[51300]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":5,"df":[],"de":[["to be liked and/or accepted by the community, normal users are encouraged to engage in fake news activities when many users have done so (i.e., peer pressure)",1,-1,[],[7121]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["availability heuristic",1,20980,[],[58445]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":9,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["Passive injustice",1,1111,[],[20363]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["masculinidad tóxica geek, que Newton y Stanfill (2020) han descrito como una forma de poder que margina y subyuga a las mujeres",1,-1,[],[61776]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":4,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["The border is a bilingual mechanism, translating external communications into the internal language of the semiosphere and vice versa.",1,-1,[],[10200]],["the border points of the semiosphere may be likened to sensory receptors, which transfer external stimuli into the language of our nervous system, or a unit of translation, which adapts the external actor to a given semiotic sphere.",1,-1,[],[10200]]],"sy":[["boundary",1,6193,[],[10200]]],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["persona biases",1,17447,[],[20103]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["topics associated with compassion and kindness",1,-1,[],[31112]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["A common theme in the framing of exemplary Muslim converts is that of the move from petty criminal to virtuous civilian.",1,-1,[],[35190]],["From the perspective of converts, as inferred from interviews, it rather means: following the five pillars, deepening faith, becoming a better Muslim in general.",1,-1,[],[35190]],["From the perspective of the journalist, 'exemplary' seems to mean \"harmless, socially engaged, timid\".",1,-1,[],[35190]],["exemplary converts are just about equally talked with (46%) as they are talked about (54%)",1,-1,[],[35190]]],"sy":[["exemplary believer",1,-1,[],[35190]]],"rt":[["bridge builders",1,7727,[],[35190]],["professional Muslim",1,-1,[],[35190]]],"sb":[["bridge builders",1,7727,[],[35190]],["exemplary Muslim convert",1,-1,[],[35190]],["professional Christians",1,-1,[],[35190]]],"sp":[["Convert Figure",1,21457,[],[35190]]],"ex":[["Billy Graham and George Bush",1,-1,[],[35190]],["Yusuf/Cat Stevens",1,-1,[],[35190]],["modern martyrs who are or who would be willing to face violence, exclusion and the death penalty for their convictions",1,-1,[],[35190]]]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["negative impoliteness",1,13383,[],[17536]]],"sb":[],"sp":[["impoliteness",1,27621,[],[17536]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["evaluative bases of blaming",1,-1,[],[9885]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["Media literacy education was understood as a 'cognitive defense' against the most overt and disturbing forms of sensationalism and propaganda pouring out of the rapidly growing culture industries.",1,-1,[],[17796]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[["Cross-cutting discussions on social media are often employed in literature as proof to contradict the argument of online echo chamber effects",1,-1,[],[48507]],["can mitigate political bias by exposing people to opinion-challenging ideas",1,-1,[],[48507]]],"sy":[["cross-partisan discussions",1,-1,[],[48507]]],"rt":[["echo chamber",1,7363,[],[48507]],["online echo chambers",1,30405,[],[48507]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["it describes how so-called information autocracies use different types of covert and overt measures to balance risks and benefits that come with tolerating some critical publics",1,-1,[["it describes how so-called information autocracies use different types of covert and overt measures to balance risks and benefits that come with tolerating some critical publics",1],["it describes how so-called information autocracies use different types of covert and overt measures to balance risks and benefits that come with tolerating some critical publics.",1]],[12743]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["gardening authoritarian institutions",1,-1,[],[12743]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["In this way, they serve as thematic signposts in speeches, slogans, and headlines.",1,-1,[],[48343]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["poetic formulas",1,27521,[],[48343]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["journalistic interventionism",1,24446,[],[15389]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[["In this frame-building process, the portrayal of a confict combines both juxtaposing stakeholder frames and journalists' agency.",1,-1,[],[15389]]]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["LLMs do not truly understand human preferences.",1,-1,[],[12177]],["the model's safety training not effectively covering the scope of its pre-training capabilities.",1,-1,[],[12177]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["mismatched generalization",1,-1,[],[12177]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[["unworthy",1,-1,[],[39717]]],"rt":[["hierarchy of victimisation",1,2758,[],[39717]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["Public risk communication is a multi-faceted interaction among information sources, message features, and audience characteristics.",1,-1,[],[52766]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["Hate Speech Intensity Scale",1,33129,[],[52883]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["Publicity -Glasnost is based on historical tradition of Russia.",1,-1,[],[59265]],["Publicity -Glasnost is based on historical tradition of Russia. The need of publicity was declared by the CPSU leadership at the XXVII Congress of the party on 25 February-6 March 1986: \"The principal issue for us is the development of publicity\", M. Gorbachev.",1,-1,[],[59265]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["Perestroika",1,173,[],[59265]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["Horse-race polling coverage",1,-1,[],[61722]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[["economic news tends to report (uncertain) leading indicators of future economic performance more often than observable concurrent or lagging indicators of current economic performance",1,-1,[],[61722]]]},{"nd":6,"df":[],"de":[["A sense of the self as independent versus interdependent with others is a dimension of cultural variation 75",1,-1,[],[2828]],["Independents are perceived as 'free thinkers' who are 'more open to the truth' and able to set aside the 'dogma' of partisanship",1,-1,[],[59016]],["can guarantee objectivity, rigour, and factuality",1,-1,[],[59016]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["interdependent",1,28965,[],[2828]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":24,"df":[["any aspect of the choice architecture that alters people's behavior in a predictable way without forbidding any options or significantly changing their economic incentives",2,-1,[],[22454,35704]]],"de":[["Even nudging in truly good faith may have negative consequences.",1,-1,[],[30997]],["Instruments for guiding information management can create nudges toward desirable content, promoting either slow or fast thinking and the regulation of the speed of content consumption.",1,-1,[],[39509]],["More simply put, nudging refers to the 'use of flaws in human judgment and choice to influence people's behavior' Hausman & Welch 2010.",1,-1,[],[22454]],["Nudges are not mandates.",1,-1,[],[35704]],["Nudging does not block, fence off, or significantly burden choices (as laws can do); rather, it proposes interventions that are meant to be easy, reversible, and cheap to implement.",1,-1,[],[9601]],["Nudging interventions primarily target behaviour, such as sharing behaviour on social media.",1,-1,[],[17685]],["Nudging is based on the insight that it is possible to change people's behavior-via their environment-without changing their minds.",1,-1,[],[9601]],["Nudging is based on the insight that it is possible to change people's behavior-via their environment-without changing their minds. Nudging does not block, fence off, or significantly burden choices (as laws can do); rather, it proposes interventions that are meant to be easy, reversible, and cheap to implement.",1,-1,[],[9601]],["Nudging is motivated to be in the interest of users, but it is not obvious if the design decisions behind nudges and users' interests are always aligned.",1,-1,[],[30997]],["The line between nudging and manipulating can be very blurred.",1,-1,[],[30997]],["To count as a mere nudge, the intervention must be easy and cheap to avoid.",1,-1,[],[35704]],["Users might feel belittled by constant interventions such as warning messages. This, in turn, might make users more \"rebellious\" and actually increase their risky sharing behavior",1,-1,[],[30997]],["We can think of a nudge as controlling the speed through which choices are made.",1,-1,[],[39509]],["nudges are small changes in the choice architecture that work with cognitive biases in decision making",1,-1,[],[35704]],["the 'use of flaws in human judgment and choice to influence people's behavior'",1,-1,[],[22454]]],"sy":[["empujón",1,-1,[],[30436]],["libertarian paternalism",1,25177,[],[9601]],["soft paternalism",1,-1,[],[9601]]],"rt":[["choice architectures",1,11649,[],[9601]],["digital nudge",1,12645,[],[35664]],["framing",1,22777,[],[22454]],["time architecture",1,33542,[],[39509]]],"sb":[["accuracy prompts",1,26096,[],[17685]],["educative nudges",1,6765,[],[9601]],["friction",1,30449,[],[17685]],["hypernudging",1,23560,[],[28793]],["noneducative nudges",1,-1,[],[9601]],["social norms",1,2565,[],[17685]]],"sp":[["soft paternalism",1,-1,[],[9601]]],"ex":[["Putting fruit at eye level",1,-1,[],[35704]],["Rearranging food options in a cafeteria",1,-1,[],[9601]],["The preselected default option",1,-1,[],[9601]],["automatic [default] privacy-respecting settings",1,-1,[],[9601]],["keeping the status quo",1,-1,[],[35704]],["the ordering of items in a list",1,-1,[],[35704]],["the usage of clickbait to convince users towards the fulfillment of their social responsibility (e.g., by reading certain hard news) can be seen as a digital nudge.",1,-1,[],[35664]],["varying the order in which options are presented",1,-1,[],[9601]]]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["master narratives are still at work below the surface, providing \"schematic narrative templates\" (Wertsch 2008) for the organization of specific narratives.",1,-1,[],[56979]],["specific narratives will differ in terms of the historical events that they focus on, but the abstract core idea (e.g., the freedom-seeking nation) will remain relatively constant.",1,-1,[],[56979]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["master narratives",1,10827,[],[56979]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[["territorial stigma",1,18424,[],[6077]]],"rt":[["degraded housing",1,-1,[],[6077]],["imputed immorality",1,-1,[],[6077]],["stain of poverty",1,-1,[],[6077]],["street crime",1,-1,[],[6077]],["subaltern ethnicity",1,2980,[],[6077]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[["'Gypsies, get out of Traian Square!'",1,-1,[],[6077]]]},{"nd":18,"df":[],"de":[["Consequently, it can be analyzed on various levels: a macro level related to media ownership, service structures, and entry costs; a meso level related to media performance and professional conduct; and a micro level of content.",1,-1,[],[43503]],["Due to ongoing digitalization and \"platformization,\" it is conceptually becoming more complex and nuanced.",1,-1,[],[43503]],["European media policies defining principles include media pluralism and transparency as core values of a media system supportive of democracy",1,-1,[],[40723]],["In many contexts, the importance of media pluralism has been acknowledged only during electoral periods, in which case the concept of media pluralism is strictly connected with ensuring that all the candidates and parties have equal and fair media access conditions.",1,-1,[],[21180]],["It enshrines a plethora of aspects, such as diversity of ownership and variety with respect to the sources of information and the available content.",1,-1,[],[43503]],["It is also meant as a feature of public media, whose remit is to provide plural information in the public interest.",1,-1,[],[21180]],["Media pluralism has been conceived as a representation of geographical and cultural diversity, as well as a space reserved for minority groups.",1,-1,[],[21180]],["Media pluralism has been interpreted based on many different nuances. Media pluralism has been conceived as a representation of geographical and cultural diversity, as well as a space reserved for minority groups.",1,-1,[],[21180]],["Media pluralism is a key factor in the quality of the democratic process.",1,-1,[],[40723]],["Preserving media pluralism is a complex goal that requires various instruments.",1,-1,[],[43503]],["The Amsterdam Protocol emphasizes that the system of public broadcasting in the Member States is directly related to the democratic, social, and cultural needs of each society and the need to preserve media pluralism.",1,-1,[],[43503]],["The activities of public broadcasters that undermine media pluralism should be monitored by an independent authority.",1,-1,[],[43503]],["The political life of a democratic society, which, as has been said, is by its very nature plural, can only develop qualitatively in the presence of a branched and diversified media space",1,-1,[],[33809]],["The state is the ultimate guarantor of the principle of media pluralism, and a monopoly in the broadcasting market (private or public) is, per se, harmful to that end.",1,-1,[],[43503]],["They are central to the functioning of a democratic society as they help to ensure the availability and accessibility of diverse information and views, based on which individuals can form and express their opinions and exchange information and ideas.",1,-1,[],[21180]],["While it is agreed that media pluralism constitutes a pillar of modern, liberal democracies, the concept itself is widely debated.",1,-1,[],[43503]],["With media pluralism, society can be exposed to various viewpoints and have broader access to diverse information.",1,-1,[],[28529]],["attaining true diversity and objectivity can only be achieved by providing a variety of stations and programs.",1,-1,[],[43503]],["current events linked with curtailing media pluralism in some Member States led to the European Media Freedom Act (MFA) proposal designed to safeguard media pluralism.",1,-1,[],[43503]],["media pluralism has meant just (external) plurality of ownership, where concentration in the media market, or even a potential concentration in a market that naturally evolves towards oligopoly or monopoly, has been seen as a risk to the democratic debate by potentially limiting the diversity of voices offered by the market itself.",1,-1,[],[21180]],["none of the analyzed countries are free from the risks of media pluralism",1,-1,[],[21180]],["respect for media pluralism is directly mentioned in Article 30 as a value NRAs should respect.",1,-1,[],[43503]],["safeguard media pluralism as enshrined in Article 11 of the Charter.",1,-1,[],[43503]],["safeguarding media pluralism resembles a \"Jenga Tower\" in which some blocks can be removed.",1,-1,[],[43503]],["the AVMSD seeks to safeguard the fundamental freedom to receive information, guaranteed under Article 11(1) of the Charter, and to promote pluralism of the media in the production and programming of information in the EU, as protected under Article 11(2) of the Charter.",1,-1,[],[43503]],["the challenge in maintaining media pluralism lies in specific groups or individuals' domination or concentration of media ownership.",1,-1,[],[28529]],["the concept of media pluralism is strictly connected with ensuring that all the candidates and parties have equal and fair media access conditions.",1,-1,[],[21180]],["the diversity and plurality of the media",1,-1,[],[43503]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["basic protection",2,-1,[],[21180,40723]],["freedom of expression",2,34794,[],[21180,43503]],["freedom of the media",2,3841,[["freedom of the media",1],["media freedom",1]],[21180,54603]],["market plurality",2,-1,[],[21180,40723]],["political independence",2,-1,[],[21180,40723]],["cultural diversity",1,22298,[],[43503]],["deliberative democracy",1,30375,[],[21180]],["diversity and transparency of media ownership",1,-1,[],[21180]],["diversity of voices",1,-1,[],[43503]],["marketplace of 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which is known\", but also does not have the ability to discover what can potentially be known.",1,-1,[],[20429]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":4,"df":[],"de":[["stance recognition, is presently regarded as the binary classification problem of deciding whether a given text conveys any attitude towards a certain target topic or not",1,-1,[],[33332]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["polarity classification",1,11088,[],[33332]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["elite rhetoric",1,-1,[],[27452]],["framing",1,22777,[],[27452]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["the models are propagating societal biases through advocating for harmful stereotypes",1,-1,[],[20112]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["offensiveness",1,415,[],[20112]]],"sb":[],"sp":[["biases in harmful 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are critical of mainstream media and established politicians, relying on dubious information or misinformation to do so. It also depends heavily on social media for its dissemination",1,-1,[],[30696]],["It could be said to push anti-system messages that are critical of mainstream media and established politicians, relying on dubious information or misinformation to do so. It also depends heavily on social media for its dissemination (Barnidge and Peacock, 2019).",1,-1,[],[30696]],["Such news is disseminated by media outlets that eschew the traditional journalistic routines and rules, and have found a broader audience on social networks.",1,-1,[],[11301]],["The effects of hyperpartisan news are indignation and the generation of partisan emotions.",1,-1,[],[11301]],["hyperpartisan media tend to exploit anger and a culture of outrage",1,-1,[],[30696]],["hyperpartisan news is typically misleading, and we therefore include it as a form of misinformation.",1,-1,[],[2118]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["misinformation",2,10315,[],[2118,2574]],["clickbait",1,6382,[],[12362]],["fake news",1,33960,[],[12362]]],"sb":[],"sp":[["Misinformation",2,10315,[["Misinformation",1],["misinformation",1]],[2118,2574]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[["enriching the simple binary {0, 1} labels of news articles that capture the subtle reasons behind why articles might be considered fake instead of just knowing whether they are fake or not",1,-1,[],[33000]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["obscurantism may be interpreted as \"betray [ing] an indirect move to confound while promising deep content\"",1,-1,[],[32227]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["argumentative bullshit",1,23062,[],[32227]]],"sb":[["subtype of bullshit",1,-1,[],[32227]]],"sp":[["bullshit",1,29347,[],[32227]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["recontextualização",1,11215,[],[46870]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[["equality of all faiths",1,-1,[],[56385]]],"rt":[["secularism",1,21543,[],[56385]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["Different from word embeddings, word association 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With these visual representations, participants could be presented as some kind of exotic, unusual phenomena.",1,-1,[],[58345]],["The two dancing men may be classified as examples of deviant visual representation, since the first one is visibly under the influence of some kind of legal or illegal drug while the camera focuses on him, while the other is wearing only his underwear and imitating intercourse while the camera also follows him in the crowd.",1,-1,[],[58345]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[["The takes may have reminded viewers of documentaries about exotic animals",1,-1,[],[58345]],["the first one is visibly under the influence of some kind of legal or illegal drug while the camera focuses on him",1,-1,[],[58345]],["the other is wearing only his underwear and imitating intercourse while the camera also follows him in the crowd",1,-1,[],[58345]]]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[["the dominant framework is the influential hypothesis",1,-1,[],[10374]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[["Justice Stevens made an appeal to a higher-level norm of justificatory neutrality.",1,-1,[],[18594]],["to appeal to special kinds of harm as a reason for the relevant exception to neutrality is itself to offer a 'neutral' and, therefore, legitimate justification for the exception",1,-1,[],[18594]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["Principle of Neutrality",1,6390,[],[18594]],["neutrality",1,3242,[],[18594]]],"sb":[],"sp":[["norm",1,13756,[],[18594]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[["within-group score reporting",1,-1,[],[7070]],["within-group scoring",1,-1,[],[7070]]],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["More specifically, the SESAM model assumes that media messages constitute one means with which recipients can activate parts of their dynamic self-concept.",1,-1,[],[8830]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["The goal is to adhere to the values of target publics and to orientate and coordinate public opinion to \"unite with all forces that can be united\" (Mao 1956, title). Thus, the protracted war strategy emphasizes two main tactics: \"offense within defence and exterior lines within interior lines\" (Mao 1967, p. 157)",1,-1,[],[3093]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[["offense within defence and exterior lines within interior lines",1,-1,[],[3093]]],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["singular and foreign to human affairs",1,-1,[],[10577]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["the economic model emphasizes the importance of being well-informed about the electorate's needs and preferences.",1,-1,[],[59553]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["conflict monitoring failures are nonetheless an important source of bias in reasoning and decision making",1,-1,[],[19663]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["la retórica de Bolsonaro y López Obrador se basa en la simplificación de los problemas sociales, la polarización social y la división entre dos grupos: (1) aquellos ciudadanos virtuosos que apoyan al presidente y (2) los críticos y disidentes del régimen, comúnmente asociados como el enemigo del pueblo.",1,-1,[],[54319]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["ciudadanos virtuosos que apoyan al presidente",1,-1,[],[54319]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["griefing",1,-1,[],[19649]],["trolling",1,5891,[],[19649]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":6,"df":[],"de":[["Extremist discourses use frequently hate speech. However, these discourses focus other topics as well [55], such as new members recruitment, government and social media demonization of the in-group and persuasion [62].",1,-1,[],[6874]],["In the context of liberal democracies this could be applied to any ideology that advocates racial or religious supremacy and/or opposes the core principles of democracy and universal human rights.",1,-1,[],[22707]],["In the context of liberal democracies this could be applied to any ideology that advocates racial or religious supremacy and/or opposes the core principles of democracy and universal human rights. The term can also be used to describe the methods through which political actors attempt to realise their aims, that is, by using means that 'show disregard for the life, liberty, and human rights of others.'",1,-1,[],[22707]],["The term can also be used to describe the methods through which political actors attempt to realise their aims, that is, by using means that 'show disregard for the life, liberty, and human rights of others.'",1,-1,[],[22707]],["such as new members recruitment, government and social media demonization of the in-group and persuasion",1,-1,[],[6874]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["hate speech",1,18278,[],[6874]],["radicalization",1,8929,[],[6874]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["Esta información es editorializada por los redactores de la nota al interpretar los gráficos en términos de quién ganó puntos, quién cayó en los sondeos, quién se mantuvo o quién ganaría con amplia ventaja",1,-1,[],[42011]],["Las noticias típicas de este encuadre son aquellas donde se reportan encuestas de intención del voto y se especula sobre los posibles resultados finales de la carrera",1,-1,[],[42011]]],"sy":[["carrera de caballos",1,14421,[],[42011]]],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["encuadre de juego estratégico",1,32272,[],[42011]]],"ex":[["las noticias típicas de este encuadre se hacen explícitas cuando se difunden resultados de sondeos y encuestas de opinión, también abarca el apoyo que reciben por parte de su partido, organización de actos, comparativas y debates entre las narrativas de los candidatos",1,-1,[],[42011]]]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["explanations that cannot be eliminated remain worth considering.",1,-1,[],[25475]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":4,"df":[],"de":[["In the past literature, the FOMO related to the investment information has been given a distinct identity (I-FoMO), to make it different from the traditional FOMO related to the social information",1,-1,[],[18055]],["The I-FoMO scale is different from the traditional FOMO scale that exists in social media setting as proposed by Przybylski et al. 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(2017) demonstrated that systems trained on biased data exacerbate that bias even further when applied to new data, and Kiritchenko and Mohammad (2018) have shown that sentiment analysis tools pick up on societal prejudices, leading to different outcomes for different demographic groups.",1,-1,[],[6335]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":4,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":4,"df":[],"de":[["As a consequence, social interaction -within the respective institutions, between institutions, and in society at large -take place via the media.",1,-1,[],[10691]],["This process is characterized by a duality in that the media have become integrated into the operations of other social institutions, 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positively or negatively, also in relation to the sentiment at event-or text-level",1,-1,[],[43722]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["aggressive repetition of specific facts",1,-1,[],[43722]],["emotional words",1,-1,[],[43722]],["loaded language",1,22124,[],[43722]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["The EJP explicitly links the environment to race, class, gender, and social justice, effectively reframing environmental issues as injustice issues.",1,-1,[],[7653]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["new environmental paradigm",1,-1,[],[7653]],["romantic environmental paradigm",1,-1,[],[7653]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["Simply labeling people with disease has negative consequences",1,-1,[],[21106]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["semantic 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news and information (Gillmor 2004).",1,-1,[],[44497]]],"sy":[["citizen journalism",1,34430,[],[44497]]],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["annotate the sentence-level bias",1,-1,[],[61878]],["has a relatively short research history and few referable resources.",1,-1,[],[61878]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":5,"df":[],"de":[["In other words, reproduction involves a self-motivated process by ordinary audiences to re-create satirical messages. This bottom-up process of collective reproduction attracts new supporters and sustains dissatisfaction with the authorities (Parsloe and Holton 2018).",1,-1,[],[56576]],["This bottom-up process of collective reproduction attracts new supporters and sustains dissatisfaction with the authorities",1,-1,[],[56576]],["this article introduces a new conceptual framework called the \"collective reproduction\" process, which includes three processes: (1) production, (2) circulation, and (3) reproduction.",1,-1,[],[56576]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[["(1) production",1,-1,[],[56576]],["(2) circulation",1,-1,[],[56576]],["(3) reproduction",1,-1,[],[56576]],["circulation",1,10274,[],[56576]],["production",1,19854,[],[56576]],["reproduction",1,17534,[],[56576]]],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["higher-level stylistic categories inspired by prior linguistic 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sphere",1,-1,[],[24218]],["As the illiberal public sphere gains in strength, PSM become co-opted by the governing elites and turn into important channels for promoting illiberal views",1,-1,[],[24218]],["As the illiberal public sphere progresses towards the advanced stage, the channels of disinformation diversify, and incorporate some of the mainstream outlets, especially public service media, if captured by the illiberal government, as we have observed in case of Poland.",1,-1,[],[24218]],["At this stage, the illiberal public sphere is able to sustain itself to some extent independently of elite support and of PSM coverage",1,-1,[],[24218]],["Finally, when the illiberal public sphere reaches the hegemonic stage, as observed in Hungary and Serbia, mainstream media assume the central role in the disinformation news ecosystem, both as amplifiers, as well as producers of propaganda and false narratives, including conspiracy theories.",1,-1,[],[24218]],["Following the previously outlined processual nature of illiberalism, we propose that the illiberal public sphere also changes its scope and character over time, depending on its level of success in setting itself against the dominant liberal public sphere.",1,-1,[],[24218]],["In the incipient stage, the disinformation news ecosystem is primarily composed of alternative, fringe media, mostly situated online but without notable audience reach.",1,-1,[],[24218]],["The concept of the illiberal public sphere also helps us to adequately capture the dual nature of illiberalism in the communicative realm, enabling us to show how illiberal media and communication practices work in tandem with mediated illiberal attitudes and narratives to undermine liberal democracy.",1,-1,[],[24218]],["The government often plays a central role within this sphere, for example by capturing public service media or by adopting illiberal media and cultural policies, but it is far from the only actor. Right-wing populist and ethno-nationalist politicians, parties and social movements, corporate and religious figures and organizations, news media (often controlled by oligarchs or government's cronies) pursuing illiberal agendas or disinformation, conspiracy news websites, social media channels, and other 'alternative' outlets spreading illiberal narratives are all key building blocks of the illiberal public sphere.",1,-1,[],[24218]],["The three stages of the illiberal public sphere and their key characteristics are summarized in Table 2.1.",1,-1,[],[24218]],["When the illiberal public sphere is at an incipient stage, independent PSM are still able to instil more liberal attitudes",1,-1,[],[24218]],["a context where the illiberal public sphere has advanced to such a degree that independent media and balanced coverage have virtually disappeared from the mainstream",1,-1,[],[24218]],["a well-established illiberal public sphere, which resonates with widespread illiberal attitudes among the citizenry",1,-1,[],[24218]],["characterized-among other trends-by the capture of public service and other mainstream news media channels by illiberal actors",1,-1,[],[24218]],["dominant political and cultural narratives are produced and disseminated by channels that adhere to illiberalism and independent journalists are subject to intimidation, hostility, and other forms of pressure",1,-1,[],[24218]],["generating a communicative environment prone to sowing distrust and division, and hence preventing the establishment of societal consensus necessary for effective health crisis management",1,-1,[],[24218]],["hegemonic illiberal public sphere where mainstream communication channels have been monopolized by illiberal elites",1,-1,[],[24218]],["independent media and balanced coverage have virtually disappeared from the mainstream",1,-1,[],[24218]],["liberal views to become increasingly marginalized and potentially ostracized in the mainstream news discourse, while illiberal opinions settle in as the norm, which arguably eases their public acceptance.",1,-1,[],[24218]],["marking a juncture after which the sphere can sustain itself even without explicit support from illiberal leaders.",1,-1,[],[24218]],["once the illiberal public sphere is fully entrenched and supported by widespread illiberal attitudes among the electorate, it has the capacity to operate as a powerful actor in its own right.",1,-1,[],[24218]],["once the illiberal public sphere is fully entrenched and supported by widespread illiberal attitudes among the electorate, it has the capacity to operate as a powerful actor in its own right. At this stage, the illiberal public sphere is able to sustain itself to some extent independently of elite support and of PSM coverage",1,-1,[],[24218]],["outlets sympathetic to the illiberal cause inevitably attract a larger audience share, making it easier for illiberal actors to promote illiberal narratives and values.",1,-1,[],[24218]],["the advance of the illiberal public sphere is concomitant with not just important shifts in news routines-exemplified in selective exposure to ideologically and politically homogeneous sources-but also with fundamental changes in the normative assumptions and criteria that guide citizens' engagement with public life.",1,-1,[],[24218]],["the data presented reveal distinct patterns of dissemination and consumption of false information across the four examined countries that can be linked to different stages of the illiberal public sphere.",1,-1,[],[24218]],["the illiberal public sphere allows us to conceptualize the processes by which a liberal public sphere gradually morphs into an authoritarian one.",1,-1,[],[24218]],["the illiberal public sphere appears as a semi-autonomous force, capable-to an extent-of reproducing illiberal attitudes irrespective of government behaviour and of the stance adopted by PSM",1,-1,[],[24218]],["the illiberal public sphere has become dominant, having colonized most mainstream news media channels, and forced the liberal public sphere into retreat.",1,-1,[],[24218]],["the illiberal public sphere has grown in size and influence to the extent that it is on par with its liberal counterpart and competes with it for dominance.",1,-1,[],[24218]],["the illiberal public sphere is at a hegemonic stage, with captured PSM",1,-1,[],[24218]],["the illiberal public sphere is explicitly set against the liberal public sphere, seeking to displace its liberal opponent.",1,-1,[],[24218]],["the illiberal public sphere is neither all-encompassing, nor fully controlled by the government.",1,-1,[],[24218]],["the illiberal public sphere is set to undermine liberal democratic rule, potentially paving the way to authoritarianism.",1,-1,[],[24218]],["the illiberal public sphere plays a more prominent role in shaping citizens' participation in public life.",1,-1,[],[24218]],["the more advanced the illiberal public sphere, the higher the proportion of mainstream media that take an active and regular part in the spreading of false information",1,-1,[],[24218]],["the progressive mainstreaming and eventually normalization of illiberal attitudes",1,-1,[],[24218]],["the transition to the ascendant phase started about five years later than in Hungary-namely, in October 2015, following the victory of the right-wing populist Law and Justice party in the parliamentary elections that were preceded by the victory of the Law and Justice candidate, Andrzej Duda, in the May 2015 presidential election. This double victory allowed the party led by the ultra-conservative politician Jarosław Kaczynśki to be in government for the second time (after the 2005-2007 coalition tenure), opening the doors for the acceleration of the illiberal turn and the ascendance of the illiberal public sphere.",1,-1,[],[24218]],["transition of the illiberal public sphere from the incipient to the ascendant stage",1,-1,[],[24218]],["underpinned by extensive government control over mainstream media",1,-1,[],[24218]],["we introduced an analytical framework centred around the concept of the illiberal public sphere, defined as a communicative space comprising both traditional and new media that promote and amplify illiberal actors, views, and attitudes.",1,-1,[],[24218]],["we propose that the illiberal public sphere also changes its scope and character over time, depending on its level of success in setting itself against the dominant liberal public sphere.",1,-1,[],[24218]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["authoritarian public sphere",1,6232,[],[24218]],["liberal public sphere",1,-1,[],[24218]],["populist or illiberal leaders and parties",1,-1,[],[24218]]],"sb":[["advanced stage",1,-1,[],[24218]],["ascendant",1,-1,[],[24218]],["ascendant stage",1,25336,[],[24218]],["fully fledged ascendant stage",1,-1,[],[24218]],["hegemonic",1,738,[],[24218]],["hegemonic stage",1,33509,[],[24218]],["incipient",1,-1,[],[24218]],["incipient stage",1,23145,[],[24218]]],"sp":[["public sphere",1,3676,[],[24218]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[["The American Dream",1,18115,[],[59865]]],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["Channels of media distribution (kiosks, transmitters, Internet) are private, apolitical, and unrestricted.",1,-1,[],[53087]],["Printing facilities are in private hands, apolitical, and unrestricted.",1,-1,[],[53087]],["Professional associations work to protect journalists' rights.",1,-1,[],[53087]],["Quality journalism degree programs that provide substantial practical experience exist.",1,-1,[],[53087]],["Short-term training and in-service training programs allow journalists to upgrade skills or acquire new skills.",1,-1,[],[53087]],["Sources of newsprint NGOs support free speech and independent media.",1,-1,[],[53087]],["Trade associations represent the interests of private media owners and provide member services.",1,-1,[],[53087]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":21,"df":[],"de":[["Generally, individuals' ability to represent the continually changing environments is limited and unique.",1,-1,[],[44020]],["Generally, individuals' ability to represent the continually changing environments is limited and unique. Thus, mental models tend to be functional and dynamic but not necessarily accurate or complete [163,165].",1,-1,[],[44020]],["In the context of XAI, explanations help users to create a mental model of how the AI works.",1,-1,[],[23678]],["Mental models also differ between various groups and in particular between experts and novices [164, 166].",1,-1,[],[44020]],["Mental models play a crucial role in understanding, interpreting, and constructing meaning; they contain the \"cognitive\" aspects of a given situation, such as the goals and knowledge of discourse participants.",1,-1,[],[49854]],["Over the course of reading, the mental model will be updated as new information is presented in the text.",1,-1,[],[15862]],["People rely on mental models to understand and predict their interactions with environments, artifacts and computing systems, as well as other individuals [163,164].",1,-1,[],[44020]],["Researchers in HCI study users' mental models to determine their understanding of intelligent systems in various applications.",1,-1,[],[23678]],["Studying users' mental models of XAI systems can help verify explanation effectiveness in describing an algorithm's decision-making process.",1,-1,[],[23678]],["These updates can be based on new information in the text itself, or on inferences made about the world represented in the mental model.",1,-1,[],[15862]],["They also indicate that individuals represent complex phenomena with somewhat abstraction based on their own experiences and understanding of the contexts.",1,-1,[],[44020]],["This explanation for belief perseverance is often referred to as the \"mental model\" explanation.",1,-1,[],[53122]],["Thus, mental models tend to be functional and dynamic but not necessarily accurate or complete [163,165].",1,-1,[],[44020]],["Typically, mental models are constructed in people's working memory, in which information from long-term memory and the environments are combined [162].",1,-1,[],[44020]],["both information present in the lexeme nurses (such as its lexical meaning and the plural mark signalling the presence of several nurses) and information drawing on background knowledge contribute to the mental model.",1,-1,[],[15863]],["help recipients situate messages within a specific cultural, historical, or social context",1,-1,[],[49854]],["influence how a text is received and understood, leading to different conclusions depending on the recipient's prior experiences and beliefs",1,-1,[],[49854]],["manipulators' target is always to gain \"control of the shared social representations of groups of people because these social beliefs in turn control what people do and say in many situations and over a relatively long period\" (repository.essex.ac.uk)",1,-1,[],[61561]],["reinforce particular narratives, especially in political, propaganda, or media discourses",1,-1,[],[49854]],["shape the perception of reality: depending on which mental models are activated, the same message may be interpreted differently.",1,-1,[],[49854]]],"sy":[["mental schemes",1,-1,[],[49854]]],"rt":[["belief perseverance",1,10114,[],[53123]],["bottom-up",1,298,[],[15862]],["context models",1,7453,[],[53734]],["discourse cognition",1,-1,[],[61561]],["top-down",1,3916,[],[15862]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[["The results revealed two mental models about vaccination: (1) heath oriented: parents who focused on health-oriented topics trusted anecdotal communication more than statistical arguments; and (2) risk oriented: parents with some knowledge about vaccine mechanisms trusted communication with statistical arguments more than anecdotal information.",1,-1,[],[44020]],["help recipients situate messages within a specific cultural, historical, or social context",1,-1,[],[49854]],["influence how a text is received and understood, leading to different conclusions depending on the recipient's prior experiences and beliefs",1,-1,[],[49854]],["reinforce particular narratives, especially in political, propaganda, or media discourses",1,-1,[],[49854]],["shape the perception of reality: depending on which mental models are activated, the same message may be interpreted differently",1,-1,[],[49854]]]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["discursive resonance",1,28294,[],[27142]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["fluxo de informação e desinformação",1,-1,[],[59653]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["enargia",1,18669,[],[13470]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["critical path of the Gantt chart",1,-1,[],[44382]]],"sb":[],"sp":[["critical path of the Gantt chart",1,-1,[],[44382]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["Positivism",1,18996,[],[30559]],["doomsday scenarios",1,-1,[],[30559]],["historical narrative",1,-1,[],[30559]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["affordance",1,3089,[],[10696]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":9,"df":[],"de":[["Characterised as self-centric and egoistic individuals, shoppers with neuroticism personality trait have more affinity for the symbolic value of products rather than the utilitarian value (Sedikides et al., 2007;Lee et al., 2013).",1,-1,[],[12583]],["Such individuals frequently feel undesirable emotions and strive to manage demanding circumstances by denial and delay",1,-1,[],[27462]],["the disposition to react more sensitive to minor stresses (i.e., Neuroticism) was found to be a more powerful predictor of high psychological distress than environmental factors (Ormel & Wohlfarth, 1991).",1,-1,[],[2614]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["big five personality types",1,-1,[],[27462]],["personality traits",1,16285,[],[12583]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["espalham-se nas redes entre os diversos grupos, migram e tornam-se conversações cada vez mais públicas, moldam e expressam opiniões, geram debates e amplificam ideias",1,-1,[],[10879]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":32,"df":[],"de":[["Do citizens perceive newspapers and television news as exposing them to primarily disagreeable political content, as predicted by the hostile media phenomenon?",1,-1,[],[27209]],["Hostile media and disinformation perceptions thus differ in the nature of the accusation (a bias vs. deliberative manipulation) and the people they address (the in-group/fellow partisans vs. citizens in general).",1,-1,[],[8329]],["The original assumption of the HMP is that partisans from different camps regarding a particular issue judge the identical balanced and neutral news coverage as biased against their own side.",1,-1,[],[47732]],["The tendency to reject a communication that does not support one's own views is shown especially strongly in the form of",1,-1,[],[17276]],["This effect increases with the extremity of party affiliation and is primarily due to the derogation of dissenting media [17,83,216], making it a cognitive bias rather than a characteristic of the media landscape.",1,-1,[],[20714]],["it defies reality: Obviously, both sides cannot be correct that the same content is biased in opposite directions. Clearly, then, judgments of media \"bias\" must emanate from characteristics of those judging the content instead of, or in addition to, the content itself.",1,-1,[],[27209]],["the same news coverage of events will be perceived as hostile to their own positions by partisans",1,-1,[],[10185]],["the stronger an individual's own group identification, the more likely that he or she perceives mediated information to be biased against his or her own side",1,-1,[],[47732]],["they perceive even balanced information as biased against their views",1,-1,[],[3562]]],"sy":[["hostile media effect",1,2410,[],[47732]]],"rt":[["disinformation perceptions",1,5857,[],[8329]],["hostile media perceptions",1,27578,[],[27208]],["relative hostile media perception",1,4010,[],[27209]]],"sb":[],"sp":[["cognitive bias",1,2728,[],[20714]],["perceptual distortions",1,5822,[],[38137]]],"ex":[["pro-Israeli and pro-Arab individuals perceived the identical news coverage of the Beirut massacre as biased against their group",1,-1,[],[47732]]]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["such a right is being used mostly in connection with environmental issues or dangerous goods.",1,-1,[],[38048]],["this right is connected purely to environmental issues.",1,-1,[],[38048]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[["In a clearer perspective, the word Japa originates from the Yoruba language which means to run, flee, or escape.",1,-1,[],[34710]],["Japa word takes its meaning or evolution from the aspiration of young Nigerians who are of the view that leaving the country is the best way to escape the many problems Nigerians are facing due to bad governance which has birthed crises such as corruption and socio-economic and sociopolitical issues thereby resulting into bad economy, unemployment, underemployment, insecurity of lives and properties etc",1,-1,[],[34710]],["the word Japa originates from the Yoruba language which means to run, flee, or escape.",1,-1,[],[34710]],["the word Japa simply means: to quickly flee a difficult situation, and this word is a simple term used by many young Nigerians who are willing to or have already left the country in search of a greener pasture.",1,-1,[],[34710]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["favoritism",1,23477,[],[25665]],["prejudice",1,23417,[],[25665]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":5,"df":[],"de":[["represented the typical liberal response",1,-1,[],[31278]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["positive frame",1,19768,[],[31278]]],"sb":[],"sp":[["news framing",1,12351,[],[55754]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["compassion",1,20838,[],[40194]],["empathy",1,31296,[],[40194]],["sympathy",1,13856,[],[40194]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["This perspective on authenticity is a middle ground between historical and cultural accuracy, and individual expression.",1,-1,[],[4603]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[["The label Sápmi Experience (http://www.fjallhasten.se/sapmi-experience/) created and controlled by members of the Sámi population, is an expression of this compromise.",1,-1,[],[4603]]]},{"nd":8,"df":[],"de":[["engaging in it can create a genuine hindrance to the discovery of truth",1,-1,[],[18553]],["perpetrates falsehoods that serve only to impede the advancement for truth",1,-1,[],[18553]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[["a spray painted \"KKK\" sign on a public wall",1,-1,[],[18553]]]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[["those that generate hatred",2,-1,[],[6815,40010]]],"de":[["Knapp classifi ed stories of this kind as 'wedge-driving rumours'",1,-1,[],[49264]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["rumour",2,17712,[["rumour",1],["rumours",1]],[40010,49264]]],"ex":[["decorations for service in the fi eld of battle had been doled out unjustly because the army was consumed by corruption and cronyism",1,-1,[],[49264]]]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":4,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[["peer effects",1,6098,[],[10654]]],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":30,"df":[],"de":[["A menudo se disfrazan de libertad de expresión, pero en realidad buscan excluir y reforzar jerarquías sociales de dominación.",1,-1,[],[60886]],["Así, los discursos de odio se articulan con las desigualdades sistémicas presentes en la vida cotidiana para legitimar su efecto sobre aquellos sectores vulnerados.",1,-1,[],[49416]],["Bustos-Martínez et al. (2019) consideran que un discurso puede considerarse de odio si cumple determinados criterios: 1) que se refiera a un grupo vulnerable o discriminado; 2) que haya símbolos representativos que humillan a este grupo social; 3) que exista maldad y se invite a denigrar a estas personas; y 4) que quede patente la intención de discriminar, humillar y excluirlas.",1,-1,[],[41281]],["Convierte al grupo en cuestión en blanco de odio sobre la base de narrativas prejuiciosas, o leyendas negras, que pretenden justificar la incitación al desprecio y creen que la sociedad debe sentir hacia sus objetivos.",1,-1,[],[60886]],["El discurso de odio recibido consistió principalmente en burlas en un 34,4% de los casos (n=22).",1,-1,[],[41281]],["El discurso de odio, compuesto generalmente de comentarios negativos, insultos, menosprecios y burlas (Martínez-Valerio, 2022), favorece la perpetuación de estereotipos, estigmatización, marginación e, incluso, deshumanización de ciertos colectivos",1,-1,[],[41281]],["El discurso del odio estigmatiza o denigra a un grupo atribuyéndole actos considerados perjudiciales para la sociedad, incluso cuando es difícil, si no imposible, demostrarlo.",1,-1,[],[60886]],["El odio conduce a una dinámica de destrucción, donde lejos de alimentar un sentido de la justicia y el propósito de construir un mundo mejor, acaba inculpándose a determinadas personas y colectivos de los males que aquejan a las sociedades.",1,-1,[],[60886]],["El primer criterio se refiere a grupos históricamente discriminados. El segundo tiene que ver con la agresión o humillación a símbolos representativos de un determinado grupo social. El tercer criterio implica una invitación para humillar y denigrar a personas de grupos en situaciones de vulnerabilidad. Finalmente, el criterio de intencionalidad comprende la intención de humillar o excluir.",1,-1,[],[16009]],["Esta última definición es la que se considerará pertinente para la elaboración del instrumento en esta investigación, más específicamente el odio racial considerado la forma de ciberodio más común (Douglas et al., 2005).",1,-1,[],[29623]],["Este tipo de mensajes suelen adoptar la forma de diatribas en las que no se hace ningún esfuerzo por aportar argumentos coherentes, sino que se hace hincapié en expresar desprecio y animar a otros a difundir el mensaje",1,-1,[],[60886]],["Estos discursos aglutinan tanto las expresiones que inducen a cometer actos discriminatorios o violentos por alguna razón xenófoba, racial, de orientación sexual o discapacidad (Cabo-Isasi y García-Juanatey, 2016)",1,-1,[],[41281]],["Estos discursos pueden difundirse de forma oral, escrita, audiovisual, en los medios de comunicación o en internet y buscan apelar a la emoción más que a la razón y resaltar cierta actitud de dominio de uno sobre otro y de esta forma silenciar a determinados grupos sociales.",1,-1,[],[16011]],["Kaufman (Cfr. 2015) destaca que un discurso puede ser considerado de odio si cumple cuatro criterios básicos: criterio de un grupo en situación de vulnerabilidad tipificado, criterio de humillación, criterio de malignidad y criterio de intencionalidad.",1,-1,[],[16009,16011]],["Los discursos de odio deshumanizan porque suprimen a nivel simbólico y fáctico los derechos humanos de las víctimas, situándolas en una posición de inferioridad/subalternidad",1,-1,[],[49416]],["No se ataca a las víctimas por su identidad personal, sino por su pertenencia a un determinado colectivo dotado de un rasgo que incita al agresor a sentir repulsión y desprecio.",1,-1,[],[60886]],["Quienes promueven mensajes de odio y cometen delitos de odio están convencidos de que existe una desigualdad estructural entre ellos y la víctima.",1,-1,[],[60886]],["Su principal eficacia política es esta capacidad de hacer verosímil el modo en que interpela, y a partir de allí estructurar una escena política y crear nuevas subjetividades que (des)hacen los lazos comunitarios.",1,-1,[],[11175]],["comentarios negativos, los insultos, los menosprecios o las burlas (Martínez-Valerio, 2022), se suman otros como el capacitismo o la negación de la discapacidad",1,-1,[],[41283]],["como las manifestaciones que promueven la intolerancia y los prejuicios hacia determinados grupos sociales, ya que crean un clima hostil que puede fomentar la discriminación y la violencia (Gagliardone et al., 2015).",1,-1,[],[41281]],["compuesto generalmente de comentarios negativos, insultos, menosprecios y burlas (Martínez-Valerio, 2022)",1,-1,[],[41281]],["constituye en el sentido de que habilita, predispone, configura imaginariamente y pre-figura el acto violento: sin embargo, no es el acto violento en sí.",1,-1,[],[11175]],["debe ser \"peyorativo o discriminatorio\", es decir que tiene connotaciones negativas o que dirige un insulto a otro. Y por último, el objeto o la víctima del discurso de odio sea individual o colectivo pertenece a un cierto tipo de grupo, es decir que se dirige a alguien en virtud de su pertenencia a una identidad.",1,-1,[],[11175]],["discurso de odio explícito o directo, el cual instiga a la violencia física y puede ser considerado delito, de aquel más sutil que, aunque supone una ofensa y rechazo hacia ciertos individuos o grupos vulnerables, se mantiene dentro de los márgenes de la libertad de expresión",1,-1,[],[29623]],["discursos de carácter lingüístico pero también icónico que están orientados a producir un daño en aquellos grupos más heridos por la historia de desigualdad, dominación, marginalización y demonización",1,-1,[],[11175]],["discursos de odio de distinto tipo e intensidad",1,-1,[],[37015]],["el discurso de odio es objeto de políticas públicas en las cuales se plantean la defensa de minorías y de la libertad de expresión.",1,-1,[],[11175]],["el discurso no representa el odio, en cierta forma, lo escenifica, y fundamentalmente, hace posible la constitución de las subjetividades en una interlocución expulsiva.",1,-1,[],[11175]],["el discurso no representa lo que odia, no ilumina una realidad preexistente, sino que establece el distrito (es decir, el alcance) 8/15 de su afecto negativo al nominar interpelativamente de manera ofensiva a otros.",1,-1,[],[11175]],["este discurso debe ser \"peyorativo o discriminatorio\", es decir que tiene connotaciones negativas o que dirige un insulto a otro.",1,-1,[],[11175]],["expresiones que inducen a cometer actos discriminatorios o violentos por alguna razón xenófoba, racial, de orientación sexual o discapacidad (Cabo-Isasi y García-Juanatey, 2016)",1,-1,[],[41281]],["los discursos de odio que han recibido (in) directamente se construyen desde una mirada cisheteronormada y se articulan con marcos religiosos, en su mayoría católicos, dada su relevancia sociocultural en México.",1,-1,[],[49416]],["los discursos de odio y la otrificación son desarticulados simbólicamente por el anonimato de su emisor, la fortaleza/debilidad del vínculo con el joven LGBT+ y las lógicas operativas que éstos aprovechan en Internet.",1,-1,[],[49416]],["manifestaciones que promueven la intolerancia y los prejuicios hacia determinados grupos sociales, ya que crean un clima hostil que puede fomentar la discriminación y la violencia",1,-1,[],[41281]],["manifestaciones que promueven la intolerancia y los prejuicios hacia determinados grupos sociales, ya que crean un clima hostil que puede fomentar la discriminación y la violencia (Gagliardone et al., 2015)",1,-1,[],[41281]],["mensajes de odio incitan directa o indirectamente a la comisión de actos de discriminación o violencia por motivos de odio racial, xenófobo, orientación sexual, u otras formas de intolerancia.",1,-1,[],[60886]],["según Miró Llinares (2016), tienen una intensidad baja",1,-1,[],[37015]],["si los discursos de odio tienen un núcleo ideológico, entonces su construcción parte de un marco de referencia que le otorga un sentido y 'coherencia'",1,-1,[],[49416]],["son un problema global",1,-1,[],[16009]],["todas las ideologías intolerantes han encontrado en estas plataformas un espacio de expresión privilegiado, donde gozan de impunidad para la ira y el odio",1,-1,[],[41283]],["un discurso puede considerarse de odio si cumple determinados criterios: 1) que se refiera a un grupo vulnerable o discriminado; 2) que haya símbolos representativos que humillan a este grupo social; 3) que exista maldad y se invite a denigrar a estas personas; y 4) que quede patente la intención de discriminar, humillar y excluirlas.",1,-1,[],[41281]],["una de las características principales de los discursos del odio es que anula la identidad personal de las víctimas considerándolas como parte de un determinado colectivo. A dicho colectivo se le dota de un rasgo que lleva al agresor a sentir desprecio por él.",1,-1,[],[60886]]],"sy":[["hate speech",2,18278,[],[16009,16011,37015]],["discursos del odio",1,34119,[],[60886]],["lenguaje de odio",1,29155,[],[11175]],["lenguaje del odio",1,4654,[],[11175]],["mensajes de odio",1,-1,[],[16009]]],"rt":[["xenofobia",2,-1,[],[16009,16011,29623]],["capacitismo",1,19534,[],[41283]],["ciberodio",1,24903,[],[29623]],["comentarios negativos, insultos, menosprecios y burlas",1,-1,[],[41281]],["desconfianza",1,-1,[],[60886]],["discriminación",1,-1,[],[16009,16011]],["el objeto o la víctima del discurso de odio sea individual o colectivo pertenece a un cierto tipo de grupo, es decir que se dirige a alguien en virtud de su pertenencia a una identidad.",1,-1,[],[11175]],["homofobia",1,-1,[],[16009,16011]],["ignorancia",1,-1,[],[60886]],["intolerancia",1,-1,[],[29623]],["matriz significante",1,-1,[],[11175]],["miedo",1,17809,[],[60886]],["negación de la discapacidad",1,-1,[],[41283]],["núcleo ideológico",1,-1,[],[49416]],["odio racial",1,-1,[],[29623]],["orientación sexual",1,-1,[],[29623]],["otredad negativa",1,-1,[],[11175]],["otrificación",1,8902,[],[49416]],["racismo",1,-1,[],[16009,16011]],["subjetividades",1,-1,[],[11175]],["violencia simbólica",1,2385,[],[11175]],["violencia verbal",1,32698,[],[11175]]],"sb":[["insultos",3,6174,[["insultos",2],["insulto",1]],[11175,15246,41281]],["amenaza",2,6375,[["amenaza",1],["amenazas",1]],[11175,15246]],["burlas",2,6602,[],[15246,41281]],["críticas",2,14800,[],[15246,41281]],["menosprecio",2,1404,[],[15246,41281]],["Argumento trampa",1,-1,[],[37015]],["Estereotipo-Prejuicio",1,-1,[],[37015]],["Hechos falsos",1,-1,[],[37015]],["Justificación, bromas, trivialización de la violencia hacia 'los otros'",1,-1,[],[37015]],["Lenguaje divisorio o de otredad",1,-1,[],[37015]],["Lenguaje insultante o degradante",1,-1,[],[37015]],["Metáforas y comentarios deshumanizadores",1,-1,[],[37015]],["los que constituyen violencia moral",1,-1,[],[29623]],["los que incitan a la violencia física",1,-1,[],[29623]],["negación de la discapacidad",1,-1,[],[41281]],["odio extremo",1,-1,[],[37015]],["odio por género u orientación sexual",1,-1,[],[16009,16011]],["odio por nacionalidad o religión",1,-1,[],[16009,16011]],["odio racial y étnico",1,-1,[],[16009,16011]]],"sp":[],"ex":[["discursos de odio recibidos de manera (in)directa en Internet provienen de: 1) personas con un vínculo social débil hacia los jóvenes LGBT+ (familiares externos a su núcleo, contactos exclusivos de Internet o cuya interacción disminuyó con el tiempo por diversas razones), 2) casos contados de personas LGBT+ que replican los discursos de odio que han internalizado de manera (in)consciente, y 3) como la mayoría refiere, usuarios anónimos.",1,-1,[],[49416]],["me acuerdo cuando jugaba al Mario Bros te pareces",1,-1,[],[41281]],["parece un transformer",1,-1,[],[41281]],["se excedió al cigarro por eso",1,-1,[],[41281]],["vigílame la bici",1,-1,[],[41281]]]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[["emotional color of the text",1,-1,[],[36072]]],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[["one interviewee says 'I don't think there are any Protestants around now -but in my youth there was a lot of Protestants' ('The Far West'/ Joel Smith)",1,-1,[],[42150]]]},{"nd":27,"df":[],"de":[["Adolescents' fear to miss out on events, in turn, likely drives their Facebook use, as Facebook enables adolescents to stay continually connected with their peers",1,-1,[],[1309]],["Baumeister and Tice have argued that FoMO is more or less a psychological need as people feel baffled whenever they are asked to refrain from it (1990) as they seek to be popular and to relate with someone (Beyens et al., 2016), however it predicts greater negative emotions (Elhai et al., 2020)",1,-1,[],[27458]],["FOMO is a mental health-related construct that may drive some negative emotion, but PTSD remains the dominant concept because it can drive both excessive Internet usage and misinformation.",1,-1,[],[9941]],["FoMO allowed members of Gen Z to gain psychological comfort from social media use during lockdown and buffered the effects of negative emotions drawn from social media information overload on Gen Z changing its social media usage.",1,-1,[],[2054]],["FoMO in the relationship between college students' academic motivations and social media engagement.",1,-1,[],[1309]],["FoMO influences the deliberative process, leading individuals to form opinions and make decisions based on perceived trends and peer behaviors rather than critical evaluation.",1,-1,[],[55217]],["FoMO was the mechanism linking adults' need satisfaction with social media engagement.",1,-1,[],[1309]],["In elections, FoMO is a compulsion to stay constantly updated on political trends, candidate movements, and peer discussions.",1,-1,[],[55217]],["In the social media context, FoMO is the anxiety about losing the opportunity to participate in social interactions and acquire meaningful experiences",1,-1,[],[37322]],["Individuals who fear to miss out on social opportunities want to stay continually connected with others and updated about what others are doing",1,-1,[],[1309]],["Przybylski et al. [2] identified two key components of FoMO: the cognitive perception of exclusion and the compulsive behavior aimed at alleviating such anxiety by staying socially connected.",1,-1,[],[55217]],["Therefore, we may assume that FoMO is not a unitary phenomenon, but rather a more complex construct that could reflect a certain personal predisposition, but also a specific cognition regarding the fear of missing out on something that occurs online.",1,-1,[],[1258]],["They tend to be afraid of missing out on events, news, and status updates in social networks and tend to urgently keep an eye on them",1,-1,[],[37322]],["This digital activity-driven flood of updates has given rise to a relatively new phenomenon known as FOMO [9,11,17].",1,-1,[],[9941]],["allowed members of Gen Z to gain psychological comfort from social media use during lockdown and buffered the effects of negative emotions drawn from social media information overload on Gen Z changing its social media usage",1,-1,[],[2054]],["deficits in psychological need satisfaction may predict a fear of missing out.",1,-1,[],[1309]],["deficits in psychological needs may increase people's sensitivity to fear missing out",1,-1,[],[1309]],["highlighted as a key driver of the younger generation's social media use",1,-1,[],[2054]],["individuals experiencing high levels of FoMO are more susceptible to misinformation and impulsive decision-making, as the desire to remain connected can overshadow the ability to evaluate content critically.",1,-1,[],[55217]],["individuals seek social inclusion through engaging with widely discussed news topics",1,-1,[],[37322]],["it motivates people to perform actions to maintain or enhance their social status",1,-1,[],[37322]],["reflects people's fears and worries about being out of touch with experiences across their extended social environment.",1,-1,[],[1258]],["users who fear missing out on trending news are more likely to engage in active information-sharing behaviors",1,-1,[],[37322]]],"sy":[["FoMO",1,14580,[],[2054]]],"rt":[],"sb":[["state-FoMO",1,291,[],[1258]],["trait-FoMO",1,-1,[],[1258]]],"sp":[],"ex":[["They tend to be afraid of missing out on events, news, and status updates in social networks and tend to urgently keep an eye on them",1,-1,[],[37322]],["information and news provided by media channels and agencies also transmits erratic behaviour among investors costing them money due to Investor -FoMO instead of traditional FOMO",1,-1,[],[27458]],["the fear of falling behind",1,-1,[],[37322]]]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["Framing",1,22777,[],[15435]],["Media framing",1,29447,[],[15435]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["these metaphors suggest somewhat different implications for treating crime",1,-1,[],[52710]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[["the community is seen as individual agents and crime is a contagious disease that can be passed on from one person to another forming an epidemic",1,-1,[],[52710]],["the community or population is seen as an organism, and crime is a disease that is developing inside that organism (e.g., ''Violent crime is a cancer that eats away at the very heart of society.'')",1,-1,[],[52710]]],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["In 300 examples, it only happens when there are several masked tokens.",1,-1,[],[34803]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["the ability to verbalize internal thoughts is central to personal freedom.",1,-1,[],[42752]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[["eleitoral",1,-1,[],[23076]]],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["accountability política",1,19211,[],[23076]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["psychocentrism",1,5696,[],[19404]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":4,"df":[],"de":[["As social media users engage with specific social media platforms, they provide contributor profile to these platforms, which gives more source credibility to the evaluation and participation of social media users (Hajli, 2018).",1,-1,[],[35305]],["Information produced by individuals through social media, such as online consumer reviews, is quality information presented by customers who have experienced the product; it includes their evaluations and experiences, introducing a new form of eWOM communication (Do-Hyung et al. 2007), social word of mouth (sWOM).",1,-1,[],[454]],["sWOM has the unique advantage of referability, with support for the entries being available globally for an unlimited time (Hajli, 2018).",1,-1,[],[35305]],["sWOM, arguably, relates to homophily; social media users with high homophily partake in sWOM with other social media users (Ismagilova et al., 2020).",1,-1,[],[35305]],["the credibility of sWOM could be improved by the contributions made by other social media users.",1,-1,[],[35305]]],"sy":[["Evaluations, comments and experiences generated by social media users",1,-1,[],[35305]],["sWOM",1,1058,[],[454]]],"rt":[["eWOM",1,30103,[],[454]],["electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM)",1,30309,[],[35305]],["homophily",1,12637,[],[35305]]],"sb":[],"sp":[["eWOM",1,30103,[],[454]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[["PP",1,-1,[],[45866]]],"rt":[["simulated personas",1,-1,[],[45866]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["opinion mining",1,5224,[],[7984]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":4,"df":[],"de":[["The realizations such as for example, in other words, such as, I mean, including, and that means were employed as a persuasive approach to rephrase or elaborate particular sections of discourse and help audiences have a better understanding of the topic.",1,-1,[],[16371]],["rephrase or elaborate particular sections of discourse and help audiences have a better understanding of the topic.",1,-1,[],[16371]],["the speaker intended to either give examples or explain the topics and issues under discussion in the three settings of speeches.",1,-1,[],[16371]],["were employed as a persuasive approach to rephrase or elaborate particular sections of discourse and help audiences have a better understanding of the topic.",1,-1,[],[16371]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["Interactive metadiscourse",1,34277,[],[16371]],["Resources",1,16723,[],[1944]]],"ex":[["I mean",1,-1,[],[16371]],["for example",1,-1,[],[16371]],["in other words",1,-1,[],[16371]],["including",1,-1,[],[16371]],["such as",1,-1,[],[16371]],["that means",1,-1,[],[16371]]]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["The first three analytical strategies are concerned with the structure and context of media representation.",1,-1,[],[44987]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["it is used to convey the content message and relation-based sentiment where users can click a single button and let others interpret their meaning",1,-1,[],[29544]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["non-verbal communication",1,17806,[],[29544]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":5,"df":[],"de":[["can play an important role in understanding issues and reconciling conflicts.",1,-1,[],[51864]],["deeper understanding of and engagement with political issues",1,-1,[],[51864]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["framing",1,22777,[],[42258]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[["Schizotypal traits include suspicion, magical thinking, social anxiety, and paranoia.",1,-1,[],[14262]],["Schizotypy has been defined in different ways, as a milder form of schizophrenia (Rado, 1953;Meehl, 1962), a personality dimension (Eysenck, 1960), and both a healthy variation and a predisposition to psychosis (Claridge, 1997).",1,-1,[],[14262]],["While there are different conceptualizations, schizotypy is argued to be multidimensional in nature.",1,-1,[],[27959]],["positive symptoms of schizotypy (i.e., ideas of reference, odd beliefs, magical thinking, and paranoid ideation).",1,-1,[],[14262]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["schizotypal traits",1,22111,[],[14262]]],"sb":[["positive dimension of schizotypy",1,12319,[],[27959]]],"sp":[["personality measures",1,-1,[],[14214]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["This results in unequal social locations for certain groups, thereby shaping experiences of people within these groups (Wood, 2005).",1,-1,[],[31760]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[["wohl",1,-1,[],[31551]]],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":12,"df":[],"de":[["Communication can be directed towards scientists inside or outside a research area, others within an institution, funding agencies, regulatory agencies, policymakers, the public at large, or with particular segments of the public (e.g. those most at-risk, those in a particular geographical area, or those who share a particular culture, language, or set of values).",1,-1,[],[3653]],["It includes mass media presentations, information materials, museums, festivals, events in science, and science online and in social media, but excludes formal science education and fiction",1,-1,[],[30104]],["It includes mass media presentations, information materials, museums, festivals, events in science, and science online and in social media, but excludes formal science education and fiction (Davies & Horst, 2016).",1,-1,[],[30104]],["It is about going beyond hypotheses, data and breakthroughs and looking at the scientists, their conflicts, their funding and other issues that impact the production of science",1,-1,[],[51966]],["Science communication differs from other forms of public communication, such as political communication, as it happens under the influence of (or in conflict with) the norms of science",1,-1,[],[43166]],["This type of communication deals with \"scientific issues\" as well as \"public issues involving science\" [Wynne, 2014, p. 64], and should be studied as the \"co-evolution of science, society and communication media\" [Bucchi and Trench, 2014, p. 9].",1,-1,[],[43166]],["To summarize, these are: (1) accuracy, (2) understanding, (3) predictive relevancy, (4) motivating action, (5) generating interest, and (6) facilitating trust.",1,-1,[],[3653]],["media are the primary channel for conveying knowledge about science, innovation, and technology, shaping both the content and image of science and scientists",1,-1,[],[32338]],["one set of goals concerns empowering decision-makers (individual laypersons, policymakers, funding agencies, or even other scientists) to make wellgrounded decisions with respect to science and technology",1,-1,[],[3653]],["science communication is multidimensional, processual, intergroup, mediated, and even opposed or manipulated.",1,-1,[],[32338]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["science journalism",2,13779,[],[51966,58462]],["political communication",1,26887,[],[43166]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[["events in science",1,-1,[],[30104]],["festivals",1,-1,[],[30104]],["information materials",1,-1,[],[30104]],["mass media 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A more specific reference would include mentioning proper nouns that refer to persons ('friend,' 'daughter').",1,-1,[],[13654]],["says that tangible news in which people are main actors are of higher value in comparison with abstract news.",1,-1,[],[52934]]],"sy":[["News about people",1,-1,[],[52934]],["Personalization",1,10101,[],[52934]]],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":4,"df":[],"de":[["Secrecy, it turns out, is peculiar, complex and multifaceted.",1,-1,[],[2323]],["most of the literature on secrecy in philosophy tends to be an epiphenomenal property of philosophical discussions of transparency or privacy",1,-1,[],[2323]],["this definition relativizes keeping secrets to S1; S2 might turn out to already know what S1 is attempting to keep secret from them (or may come to know it from S3, and so on)",1,-1,[],[2323]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[["active cover-up",1,-1,[],[2323]],["passive secrecy",1,-1,[],[2323]]],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[["conversations",1,-1,[],[14688]],["interviews",1,-1,[],[14688]]]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["representational harms",1,4488,[],[7515]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["faithful",1,21377,[],[23414]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["While traditionally seen as harmful, some scholars argue that incivility can increase audience engagement. 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communication",1,-1,[],[6887]],["a new field of research that looks at how computers can change the way",1,-1,[],[15796]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["persuasive design",1,-1,[],[15796]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":8,"df":[],"de":[["Explains shifts in gatekeeping authority",1,-1,[],[36043]],["Opaque logic limits auditability",1,-1,[],[36043]],["Ranking/recommendation; engagement-driven visibility",1,-1,[],[36043]],["human editors, metrics, interfaces, and business rules co-produce editorial outcomes rather than technology simply \"overriding\" journalists",1,-1,[],[36043]],["ranking and personalization do not merely route attention; they establish de facto legitimacy criteria by rewarding relevance, timeliness, and engagement signals that may or may not align with public-interest quality.",1,-1,[],[36043]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["ANT's distributed agency",1,-1,[],[36043]],["Gatekeeping",1,23978,[],[36043]],["autonomy",1,9447,[],[36043]],["epistemic authority",1,12833,[],[36043]],["gatekeeping, 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(confirmation bias) and which reinforce their position.",1]],[12650,53564]],["consumers prefer to receive information that confirms their existing views",2,-1,[["consumers prefer to receive information that confirms their existing views",1],["consumers prefer to receive information that confirms their existing views.",1]],[298,6753]]],"de":[["A defining feature of the confirmation bias process is that it is based on current attitudes",1,-1,[],[14267]],["Accepting information that aligns with our beliefs minimizes cognitive dissonance-the discomfort or tension that arises from holding conflicting beliefs. Updating our worldview with consistent information helps alleviate this discomfort",1,-1,[],[32515]],["All analyzed studies confirm that confirmation bias is a factor influencing FI spreading.",1,-1,[],[26275]],["Arguably, this confirmation bias is particularly strong when the underlying belief or attitude is also particularly strong, in which case counter-attitudinal evidence is frequently dismissed uncritically.",1,-1,[],[30272]],["Bias hinders the formation of informed beliefs, reduces people's ability to correct misconceptions, and causes them to become overconfident in their reasoning",1,-1,[],[27161]],["By contrast, we tend to avoid, discount, and forget information that challenges those beliefs and preferences",1,-1,[],[25582]],["Cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957) is a prominent way of explaining the confirmation bias.",1,-1,[],[1366]],["Cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957) is a prominent way of explaining the confirmation bias. In order to avoid or reduce cognitive dissonance, new and dissonant information may get dismissed as biased, untrustworthy or simply false, whereas consonant information may be accepted and integrated in the pre-existing knowledge (McGrath, 2017;Weeks et al., 2017).",1,-1,[],[1366]],["Confirmation bias can be checked by conscious effort.",1,-1,[],[30796]],["Confirmation bias can intensify community divisions by reducing openness to differing viewpoints",1,-1,[],[55245]],["Confirmation bias encompasses numerous distinct but closely related behaviours",1,-1,[],[41635]],["Confirmation bias hinders reliable belief formation and truth-tracking.",1,-1,[],[27161]],["Confirmation bias is the search for and assimilation of information in a way that favours the preservation of prior beliefs (Nickerson, 1998).",1,-1,[],[41635]],["Confirmation bias is typically viewed as an epistemically pernicious tendency.",1,-1,[],[538]],["Confirmation bias will be strengthened for those who are more likely to trust in their prior beliefs",1,-1,[],[1734]],["Consequently, large language models may inadvertently reinforce these biases by providing outputs that confirm or support specific viewpoints",1,-1,[],[54954]],["Echo chambers can also emerge from cognitive mechanisms, such as confirmation bias, when information propagates through centralized channels reaching a large portion of the population",1,-1,[],[1198]],["For a general tendency to think that one's views rest on good reasons even when one doesn't know them is a tendency to favor and confirm these views while resisting balanced scrutiny of their basis.",1,-1,[],[538]],["If someone has an extreme confirmation bias, he or she is likely to agree with online articles that hold standpoints similar to their initial beliefs while rejecting those contrary to their preexisting attitudes",1,-1,[],[1734]],["In addition, we tend to pay more attention to and find more credibility in news and research that support the things that we believe and want to be true, while downplaying information that opposes our worldview (Lord et al., 1979).",1,-1,[],[25582]],["In this case, they tend to accept information that conforms to their preexisting beliefs and attitudes, but ignore information that deviates them",1,-1,[],[1734]],["Information accessed by hearsay which sounds reasonable is not the best to prioritize in an effective fact-check.",1,-1,[],[32515]],["It has been described as one of the most pernicious (Nickerson, 1998) of the cognitive biases, with impacts felt in many social domains including religion (Batson, 1975;Nickerson, 1998), politics (Lord, Ross, & Lepper, 1979;Nickerson, 1998;Nyhan & Reifler, 2010;Taber & Lodge, 2006), climate change (Cook & Lewandowsky, 2016;Hart & Nisbet, 2012), health and medicine (Liberman & Chaiken, 1992;Malthouse, 2022;Nickerson, 1998), justice (Nickerson, 1998), stereotyping (Darley & Gross, 1983), conspiracy theories (McHoskey, 1995), and science (Mahoney, 1977;Nickerson, 1998).",1,-1,[],[41635]],["It plays a significant role in polarization, enabling groups in certain conditions, such as public debates, to fragment public opinion",1,-1,[],[54942]],["Jill does have a confirmation bias with respect to her beliefs and interprets the available evidence so that it supports her beliefs.",1,-1,[],[538]],["Motivation and cognitive factors are both responsible for confirmation bias and mediate the effects of one another",1,-1,[],[23644]],["Once research funding has been used to join a cascade there are further incentives to interpret results through confirmation bias",1,-1,[],[21156]],["One important evaluation criteria involves the degree to which the information confirms people's existing ideas or beliefs",1,-1,[],[3870]],["One way to overcome confirmation bias is to expose individuals to a plethora of conflicting views and engage in self-reflection to challenge their personal assumptions.",1,-1,[],[60712]],["People are more likely to accept the news that aligns with their beliefs (Scheibenzuber et al., 2021).",1,-1,[],[27161]],["People consistently perceived belief-confirming information as being more credible, useful, and convincing.",1,-1,[],[3870]],["People tend to seek and interpret information that confirms their existing beliefs",1,-1,[],[1788]],["Pre-existing beliefs and identities can shape the reception of information in ways consistent with identity-protective cognition, leading individuals to preferentially accept information that aligns with their social or ideological group and to discount contradictory evidence",1,-1,[],[35769]],["Previous research has shown that confirmation bias results from avoiding cognitive dissonance",1,-1,[],[27161]],["Previous studies have shown that having high prior beliefs on ideological issues also leads to confirmation bias [37].",1,-1,[],[23644]],["The member may then place more validity on that information which further reinforces their positive attitude (confirmation bias), making it more likely that they will notice other positive attitude-congruent aspects of their work environment, thus activating the cycle again.",1,-1,[],[14267]],["The processes of selective exposure and confirmation bias each influence the attention and weight individuals give to positive behaviors and practices in the organization environment.",1,-1,[],[14267]],["There is a widespread perception that confirmation bias is a cognitively harmful tendency.",1,-1,[],[27161]],["They also tend to overvalue arguments that are consistent with their prior beliefs",1,-1,[],[36090]],["They also tend to overvalue arguments that are consistent with their prior beliefs (Nir, 2011).",1,-1,[],[36090]],["This cognitive bias reinforces confirmation bias",1,-1,[],[35769]],["This confirmation bias is driven by the associative memory processing of System 1, which quickly searches for confirming evidence of the question posed.",1,-1,[],[41441]],["This confirmation bias was found not only with respect to message selection but also with respect to message evaluation.",1,-1,[],[3870]],["This confirmation bias was found not only with respect to message selection but also with respect to message evaluation. People consistently perceived belief-confirming information as being more credible, useful, and convincing.",1,-1,[],[3870]],["This form of confirmation bias may go beyond the selection of external sources, and Kunda (1990) also suggested a confirmation bias in the selection of memories and cognitive processes.",1,-1,[],[41635]],["This is a situation in which people have an affinity to fall for fake news that appeals to their personal beliefs.",1,-1,[],[51486]],["This is a situation in which people have an affinity to fall for fake news that appeals to their personal beliefs. They easily accept and spread this information.",1,-1,[],[51486]],["This selection bias has predominantly been applied to explain how audiences' prior attitudes determine the selection of political news that favors one position over the other (e.g., opposing or support welcoming refugees).",1,-1,[],[5148]],["This stems from the human desire to be reaffirmed, rather than accept denials of one's opinion or hypothesis. If the process of confirmation bias is repeated, a more solid belief is gradually formed, and the belief remains unchanged even after encountering logical and objective counterexamples.",1,-1,[],[44008]],["Two major factors that make consumers vulnerable or susceptible to believing false information are confirmation bias and naive realism [90].",1,-1,[],[19204]],["Under biased processing the probability that r accepts the new argument a ′ k depends on r's current opinion o r such that information that confirms the current opinion is accepted at a higher rate.",1,-1,[],[60206]],["Unmotivated confirmation bias, however, operates when people process data in one-sided, partial ways that support their predetermined views no matter whether they favor them.",1,-1,[],[538]],["We seek out, pay closer attention to, and better remember information consistent with our own preferences and beliefs.",1,-1,[],[25582]],["We seek out, pay closer attention to, and better remember information consistent with our own preferences and beliefs. By contrast, we tend to avoid, discount, and forget information that challenges those beliefs and preferences",1,-1,[],[25582]],["We seek out, pay closer attention to, and better remember information consistent with our own preferences and beliefs. By contrast, we tend to avoid, discount, and forget information that challenges those beliefs and preferences (Klayman & Ha, 1987). When information is ambiguous, we are adept at interpreting it in ways that concur with our preconceptions, attitudes, and beliefs.",1,-1,[],[25582]],["When information is ambiguous, we are adept at interpreting it in ways that concur with our preconceptions, attitudes, and beliefs.",1,-1,[],[25582]],["When information is ambiguous, we are adept at interpreting it in ways that concur with our preconceptions, attitudes, and beliefs. These processes are an inherent and often unconscious part of our human cognition.",1,-1,[],[25582]],["a form of confirmation bias where people choose messages that reinforce prior beliefs",1,-1,[],[8822]],["a general tendency",1,-1,[],[538]],["a phenomenon known as 'confirmation bias'",1,-1,[],[53980]],["a process by which prior attitude and identities function as a perceptual screen",1,-1,[],[5148]],["a subject's largely automatic and unconscious tendency to (i) seek support for her pre-existing, favored or not favored beliefs and (ii) ignore or distort information compromising them",1,-1,[],[538]],["a well-known mechanism in social science",1,-1,[],[20200]],["a widely studied filter mechanism to explain the persistent selection of ideology congruent news over incongruent information",1,-1,[],[5148]],["allows us to accumulate argumentative ammunition, which strengthens our argumentative skill",1,-1,[],[538]],["amplifies vulnerability to falsehoods by uncritically accepting them as facts because they align with pre-existing beliefs",1,-1,[],[32895]],["an element of confirmation bias can be explained within the Bayesian framework",1,-1,[],[57820]],["an important bridge between exposure patterns and belief in fake news",1,-1,[],[27161]],["an important phenomenon when considering how post-truth fits within polarised political environments",1,-1,[],[19906]],["by disregarding objections or counterevidence to one's beliefs, one can remain convinced about them, which helps align social reality (not only, e.g., people's intentions) with them",1,-1,[],[538]],["can be considered a special case of epistemic egocentrism.",1,-1,[],[41913]],["capture both the direction (agree/disagree) and the magnitude (strongly/weakly) in the fit between one's preexisting beliefs and the articles.",1,-1,[],[41441]],["common thinking flaws",1,-1,[],[56012]],["confirmation bias can strongly facilitate cyclical dynamics.",1,-1,[],[10389]],["confirmation bias changes individuals' social media activity as it is a psychological defense",1,-1,[],[27161]],["confirmation bias comes in two different flavors: \"motivated\" and \"unmotivated\" confirmation bias. And the operation of the former can be understood as motivated reasoning itself, because it too involves partial information processing to buttress a view that one wants to be true",1,-1,[],[538]],["confirmation bias compels individuals to process scientific information in ways that align with culturally congruent worldviews",1,-1,[],[27636]],["confirmation bias provides her with certainty and simpler information processing that simultaneously facilitates accurate predictions (via contributing to SFPs).",1,-1,[],[538]],["confirmation bias refers to the implicit tendency to accept evidence that coincides with our preexisting beliefs and reject evidence that contradicts with them",1,-1,[],[60712]],["confirmation bias where people seek and interpret information in ways that are consistent with their expectations and existing beliefs",1,-1,[],[44389]],["confirmation bias, where individuals seek out information that confirms their pre-existing beliefs",1,-1,[],[39959]],["confirmation bias-a tendency to prefer information that conforms to their initial beliefs",1,-1,[],[1734]],["contributes to their growth.",1,-1,[],[33463]],["domain-general tendency to confirm any of our beliefs",1,-1,[],[538]],["domain-general tendency to confirm our own beliefs",1,-1,[],[538]],["fake news confirms one's preexisting attitudes, beliefs or hypotheses (i.e., confirmation bias [Nickerson 1998]",1,-1,[],[7125]],["finding information that suits their beliefs",1,-1,[],[54942]],["generally referred to as an unconscious exercise of confirmation bias.",1,-1,[],[58552]],["has a dominant role in social media misinformation related to politics.",1,-1,[],[19859]],["how an emotional response to information can activate your confirmation bias",1,-1,[],[33385]],["human beings are generally not good at detecting what is real and what is authentic and posit that due to the gullible nature of human being, they are prone to fake news.",1,-1,[],[5415]],["if someone holds a moderate confirmation bias, he or she might be cautious on their initial beliefs and thus evaluates the online articles mainly depending on their information-use experiences (Knobloch-Westerwick, Johnson, & Westerwick, 2014), as well as the specific content characteristics (Knobloch-Westerwick & Kleinman, 2012)",1,-1,[],[1734]],["if the value locates the interval from 1 to 2 (excluding 2), it means extreme negative confirmation bias; if the value locates the interval from 2 to 3 (excluding 3), it means moderate negative confirmation bias; 3 means no confirmation bias; if the value locates the interval from 3 to 4 (excluding 4), it means moderate positive confirmation bias; if the value locates the interval from 4 to 5, it means extreme positive confirmation bias.",1,-1,[],[1734]],["impacts the way in which people search for, interpret, and recall information (Wason, 1960).",1,-1,[],[14267]],["individuals actively seek out ways to disprove new ideas",1,-1,[],[8744]],["individuals may also actively seek out and assign more weight or validity to information that supports their current attitude.",1,-1,[],[14267]],["influence users' beliefs in social media articles",1,-1,[],[41441]],["intrinsically motivated to select information that reassures prior identities and beliefs",1,-1,[],[5148]],["it is hard to realize that it is happening. It feels as if we are experiencing the world as it is-that our perceptions are objective",1,-1,[],[25582]],["it is shown that it cannot overcome the role of confirmation bias and users continue to believe what they want to believe",1,-1,[],[23105]],["leading misinformation-believing individuals to reject correction regardless of their involvement",1,-1,[],[41913]],["may be particularly pronounced during adolescence as individuals develop and solidify their identities and worldviews.",1,-1,[],[50329]],["one of the most widely discussed epistemically problematic cognitions, challenging reliable belief formation and the correction of inaccurate views.",1,-1,[],[538]],["online users end up being more susceptible to confirmation bias and thus acquire mostly information already suiting their pre-existing knowledge",1,-1,[],[34626]],["people believe what they read or confirm their bias in certain news they see or read",1,-1,[],[54942]],["people rely on subjective characteristics to determine whether a certain website provides reliable information.",1,-1,[],[3870]],["people selectively expose themselves to belief-consistent information rather than disconfirming information when they seek online information about early-childhood vaccination",1,-1,[],[3870]],["people selectively seek out information that is consistent with their prior beliefs and sometimes process it more fluently than information that is inconsistent with their prior beliefs",1,-1,[],[5697]],["people usually tend to believe something that conforms to their view",1,-1,[],[5415]],["piling up reasons that support our preconceived views is not the best way to correct them. […] [It] stop[s] people from fixing mistaken beliefs",1,-1,[],[538]],["play a critical role in the spread of falsehoods",1,-1,[],[39959]],["plays an important role in creating online echo-chambers",1,-1,[],[2015]],["reducing confirmation bias is fundamental to preventing people from being harmed by fake news on social media",1,-1,[],[27161]],["seeking and using information that conforms to their initial beliefs",1,-1,[],[1734]],["selective exposure to media to be consistent with previous viewpoints [125], further strengthening prior convictions",1,-1,[],[20690]],["selective information processing characteristic of confirmation bias",1,-1,[],[538]],["self-selected information is more likely to be congruent with people's priors, and therefore also more persuasive.",1,-1,[],[8314]],["tendency to read, search and interpret information in a way that confirms its beliefs",1,-1,[],[43670]],["the Facebook algorithm reinforces 'confirmation bias'",1,-1,[],[27751]],["the bias should be common and pronounced when (1) it comes to social beliefs, that is, beliefs (a) about oneself, (b) about other people, and (c) about social structures that the subject can determine, and when (2) social conditions are conducive to reality matching.",1,-1,[],[538]],["the combination of social influence and confirmation bias generates polarization of communities and homogeneous links, creating a rift in informational influence.",1,-1,[],[54942]],["the goal of fake news is to exploit consumers' pre-existing cognitive biases.",1,-1,[],[41746]],["the influence of the confirmation bias process does not extend to over longer time frames",1,-1,[],[14267]],["the phenomenon of confirmation bias is quite important in the context of vaccination, especially among parents with high levels of HL.",1,-1,[],[3870]],["two major factors which make consumers naturally vulnerable to fake news",1,-1,[],[6753]],["users are more likely to believe news articles-real or fake-that align with their prior beliefs (Kim and Dennis 2018).",1,-1,[],[41441]],["usually defined not only in terms of assimilating information, but also in the selection of information in a way that supports existing beliefs.",1,-1,[],[41635]],["view information consistent with their pre-existing beliefs as more persuasive than dissonant information",1,-1,[],[45582]],["we are more likely to click on and link to material which appears to confirm our own views and interests.",1,-1,[],[27751]],["we tend to pay more attention to and find more credibility in news and research that support the things that we believe and want to be true, while downplaying information that opposes our worldview",1,-1,[],[25582]],["when we automatically reinforce any of our views no matter whether we favor them",1,-1,[],[538]],["where users are only exposed to information that aligns with their existing beliefs",1,-1,[],[20216]]],"sy":[["selective exposure",3,29176,[["selective exposure",2],["Selective exposure",1]],[1479,7098,28521]],["my-side bias",2,9564,[["my-side bias",1],["myside bias",1]],[538,37961]],["Confirmation bias is the search for and assimilation of information in a way that favours the preservation of prior beliefs",1,-1,[],[41635]],["confirmation bias",1,16709,[],[54272]],["evaluator bias",1,-1,[],[56911]],["motivated cognition",1,1930,[],[5697]]],"rt":[["motivated reasoning",6,29606,[["motivated reasoning",5],["Motivated reasoning",1]],[538,17096,17138,27576,50479,54636]],["selective exposure",6,29176,[["selective exposure",5],["Selective exposure",1]],[3870,5148,8822,14267,35681,41913]],["Cognitive dissonance",2,3931,[["Cognitive dissonance",1],["cognitive dissonance",1]],[1366,8314]],["cognitive bias",2,2728,[["cognitive bias",1],["cognitive biases",1]],[4140,39959]],["echo chambers",2,7363,[],[9547,54153]],["Disconfirmation bias",1,23314,[],[2210]],["Schemas",1,34718,[],[4555]],["Selective Exposure Theory",1,25262,[],[16406]],["anchoring bias",1,5918,[],[56012]],["bias blind spot",1,8260,[],[25582]],["biased evaluation",1,9073,[],[3870]],["correlation neglect",1,5660,[],[36090]],["deductive",1,-1,[],[50479]],["epistemic distortion",1,22265,[],[538]],["fake news",1,33960,[],[41746]],["filter bubbles",1,6507,[],[9547]],["framings",1,22777,[],[37961]],["homophily",1,12637,[],[1198]],["identity-protective cognition",1,30905,[],[35769]],["information cascades",1,21412,[],[7037]],["interpretations",1,24194,[],[25582]],["motivated cognition",1,1930,[],[5697]],["motivated confirmation bias",1,7764,[],[538]],["motivated skepticism",1,10087,[],[2210]],["perceptions",1,21917,[],[25582]],["polarization",1,21850,[],[54942]],["post-truth",1,14186,[],[19906]],["reality-matching (RM) account",1,17991,[],[538]],["selective sharing",1,14357,[],[14066]],["social judgement theory",1,14475,[],[45494]],["tenacious Bayesian",1,19925,[],[57820]],["under-reporting bias",1,20844,[],[618]],["wishful thinking",1,-1,[],[538]]],"sb":[["\"unmotivated\" confirmation bias",1,18072,[["\"unmotivated\" confirmation bias",1],["Unmotivated confirmation bias",1]],[538]],["attitude polarisation",1,2439,[],[41635]],["backfire effect",1,16591,[["backfire effect",1],["the backfire effect",1]],[60712]],["belief perseverance",1,10114,[],[41635]],["biased assimilation",1,5622,[],[41635]],["biased evaluation",1,9073,[],[41635]],["confirmation bias in the selection of sources",1,10905,[],[41635]],["extreme confirmation bias",1,31538,[],[1734]],["extreme negative confirmation bias",1,-1,[],[1734]],["extreme positive confirmation bias",1,-1,[],[1734]],["moderate confirmation bias",1,29248,[],[1734]],["moderate negative confirmation bias",1,-1,[],[1734]],["moderate positive confirmation bias",1,-1,[],[1734]],["motivated confirmation bias",1,7764,[],[538]],["negative confirmation bias",1,-1,[],[54942]],["selective exposure",1,29176,[],[41913]]],"sp":[["cognitive bias",7,2728,[["cognitive bias",3],["cognitive biases",2],["Cognitive Bias",1],["Cognitive bias",1],["Cognitive biases",1]],[4140,15806,27591,30368,30796,32515,44008]],["Bias",1,30859,[],[14596]],["Bias in AI",1,9111,[],[14596]],["cognitive fallacies",1,26168,[],[41913]],["directional biases",1,-1,[],[8744]],["epistemic egocentrism",1,29933,[],[41913]],["identity-protective cognition",1,30905,[],[35769]],["logic/cognitive biases",1,-1,[],[13194]],["relevance by effect",1,20733,[],[32515]],["selective-exposure bias",1,13084,[],[5148]]],"ex":[["\"I think the challenge also is, that if you have already believed an information, it becomes harder to trust other sources and posts.\"",1,-1,[["\"I think the challenge also is, that if you have already believed an information, it becomes harder to trust other sources and posts.\"",1],["I think the challenge also is, that if you have already believed an information, it becomes harder to trust other sources and posts.",1]],[161]],["A classic study asked students from rival schools to watch a video of a football game between their teams and make a variety of assessments. Although students watched the same game, their evaluations of the behaviour of the players and officiating depended on which school they attended. Students' perceptions and interpretations of the action on the field were influenced by their pre-existing preferences and loyalties (Hastorf & Cantril, 1954).",1,-1,[],[25582]],["After the 2020 presidential elections, Donald Trump repeated false claims of electoral fraud, stating he had won the \"legal vote.\" This conspiracy theory was accepted by many fervent supporters driving the most extreme to undertake a violent invasion of the Capitol building to force legislators to reject the election of Joe Biden.",1,-1,[],[19906]],["An AI system that predicts job candidates' success based on biases held by the hiring manager.",1,-1,[],[14596]],["You trust evidence that points to despicable behavior of a politician belonging to a party you would never vote for.",1,-1,[],[32515]],["a user believes the election fraud would probably share similar news with a supportive stance, and the news asserting election is stolen would attract users with similar beliefs",1,-1,[],[17087]],["in the 2016 USA election, Pro-Trump fake news was accepted by Republicans",1,-1,[],[19859]],["those who support politicians have a significantly higher confirmation bias than those who do not",1,-1,[],[54942]],["women over men are more susceptible to finding information that suits their beliefs",1,-1,[],[54942]]]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["Individuals with a conspiracy mentality tend to deny official accounts of events (Uscinski et al., 2020), engage in a variety of strategies to maintain their worldview (e.g., Miller et al., 2016) and have a strong need for control (van Prooijen & Acker, 2015).",1,-1,[],[42947]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["Corruption is an endemic, damaging condition affecting society.",1,-1,[],[44619]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["frames",1,7860,[],[44619]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":4,"df":[],"de":[["As a form of justice it aims to restore the position of both the offender and the victim to their appropriate positions in society.",1,-1,[],[20423]],["I make a case that this category of justice is based on the principle that any normative mechanisms that are responsible for the application of justice would be hollow without an enforcement/punishment component.",1,-1,[],[20423]],["I make a case that this category of justice is based on the principle that any normative mechanisms that are responsible for the application of justice would be hollow without an enforcement/punishment component. It does not only refer to the fair and just punishment of the guilty, but also to how to transform and change existing practices and institutions as well as human behaviour.",1,-1,[],[20423]],["It does not only refer to the fair and just punishment of the guilty, but also to how to transform and change existing practices and institutions as well as human behaviour (Lötter, 2000).",1,-1,[],[20423]],["It does not only refer to the fair and just punishment of the guilty, but also to how to transform and change existing practices and institutions as well as human behaviour.",1,-1,[],[20423]],["It does not only refers to the fair and just punishment of the guilty, but also how to transform and change existing practices and institutions as well as human behaviour (Lötter 2000:231).",1,-1,[],[20423]],["It is based on the principle that any normative mechanisms that are responsible for the application of justice would be hollow without an enforcement/punishment component.",1,-1,[],[20423]],["It is based on the principle that any normative mechanisms that are responsible for the application of justice would be hollow without an enforcement/punishment component. It does not only refer to the fair and just punishment of the guilty, but also to how to transform and change existing practices and institutions as well as human behaviour (Lötter, 2000).",1,-1,[],[20423]]],"sy":[["punishable",1,-1,[],[20423]],["punishable or transformation justice",1,-1,[],[20423]],["transformation justice",1,-1,[],[20423]]],"rt":[["retributive justice",1,10327,[],[20423]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[["free riders, intellectual property theft and the question of responsibility",1,-1,[],[20423]]]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["Resources that support social subjects and institutions to accomplish their actions.",1,-1,[],[22063]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["activity",1,1657,[],[22063]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["implemented quite successfully the press functions defined by the regime",1,-1,[],[54315]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[["counter-propaganda",1,-1,[],[54315]],["educational",1,124,[],[54315]],["organizational",1,-1,[],[54315]],["propaganda",1,34203,[],[54315]],["sociological",1,-1,[],[54315]]],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[["One of them is information overload and information entropy, which have risen from previous work using CLT to understand misinformation sharing",1,-1,[],[23495]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["information overload",1,18870,[],[23495]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["rely on an understanding of the technical features of online platforms as well as of the privacy implications of how the latter operate",1,-1,[],[47621]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":15,"df":[],"de":[["Compared to expert-based fact-checking, crowd-sourced fact-checking is relatively difficult to manage, less credible and accurate due to the political bias of fact-checkers and their conflicting annotations, and has better (though insufficient) scalability.",1,-1,[],[7131]],["Crowdsourced fact-checking is based on the assumption that a non-expert fact-checker may be less reliable than an expert journalist trained in fact-checking, but the overall sum of hundreds or thousands of non-experts signals eventually leads to the same ratings of professionals.",1,-1,[],[1485]],["Scholars suggested that crowdsourced fact-checking posts can serve to correct viewer misconceptions and curtail the spread of misinformation [224,258,179], particularly when the refuting sources are reputable, or when the user who wrote the fact-checking post is perceived to be credible.",1,-1,[],[16542]],["This approach can lead to demonstrably good results in identifying false news",1,-1,[],[1485]],["aggregated crowdsourced fact-checking across entire social media platforms can be used to detect misinformation",1,-1,[],[16542]],["crowdsourced fact-checking posts are public, but platform stakeholders like community moderators may not be aware of them unless they stumble upon the related threads.",1,-1,[],[16542]],["crowdsourced fact-checking signals are public but not always easily accessible to platform admins unless they discover the comments.",1,-1,[],[16542]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["Automated fact-checking",1,34400,[],[1485]],["Professional fact-checking",1,14434,[],[1485]],["crowd signals",1,-1,[],[16542]],["crowdsourced flagging",1,27265,[],[16542]]],"sb":[],"sp":[["crowd wisdom",1,4076,[],[16542]],["manual fact-checking",1,13952,[],[7131]],["organic crowds",1,18886,[],[16542]]],"ex":[["a user replies to another user's submission and says, \"this post is fake\"",1,-1,[],[16542]],["the comments \"This is misinformation. The term refers to simultaneously getting the flu and covid. See [link]\" and \"Fake!\" are both crowdsourced factchecking comments",1,-1,[],[16542,16543]]]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["conversational roles",1,12095,[],[53671]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["islamofobia",1,21124,[],[16008]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[["aardig",1,-1,[],[58309]],["fun",1,27424,[],[58309]],["goed",1,-1,[],[58309]],["good",1,34418,[],[58309]],["grap",1,-1,[],[58309]],["joke",1,7230,[],[58309]],["leuk",1,-1,[],[58309]],["ludiek",1,-1,[],[58309]],["nice",1,-1,[],[58309]],["playful",1,-1,[],[58309]],["positief",1,-1,[],[58309]],["positive",1,26933,[],[58309]]],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["Research on language and leadership suggests that assertiveness may be interpreted as strategic resolve, contingent upon the discursive context",1,-1,[],[40667]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["the scope is varied, but usually relates to certain categories of speakers (eg, media providers or politicians) and specific types of content (eg, journalistic or political).",1,-1,[],[58387]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":4,"df":[],"de":[["By doing so, creators of \"fake news\" aim to enhance the believability of their content, making it more difficult for the audience to distinguish between authentic and false information.",1,-1,[],[46910]],["Rephrasing enables the integration of falsehoods into a familiar journalistic framework, making the fabricated information appear trustworthy.",1,-1,[],[46910]],["The process of rephrasing fabricated information often involves changing emphasis, removing critical context, or introducing emotionally charged language, all while maintaining an outward appearance of legitimacy.",1,-1,[],[46910]],["The subtle manipulation of language allows the fabricated content to blend seamlessly with genuine news, exploiting the trust that readers place in familiar journalistic formats.",1,-1,[],[46910]],["This intentional rephrasing, coupled with the strategic presentation of information, plays a critical role in the effectiveness of \"fake news, \" ensuring that the falsehoods it contains are not only believable but also likely to be disseminated widely before they are debunked.",1,-1,[],[46910]],["making \"fake news\" nearly indistinguishable from real news.",1,-1,[],[46910]],["making harmful content appear more credible or persuasive.",1,-1,[],[46910]],["manipulations frequently involve selective omission, emphasis, and pragmatic shifts that subtly alter meaning without overt contradiction",1,-1,[],[46910]],["reflects deliberate intent and purpose, aligning language with specific objectives such as promoting propaganda or influencing public opinion",1,-1,[],[46910]],["serves to obscure verification and evidence, either by masking unverifiable claims or fabricating support to enhance believability",1,-1,[],[46910]],["strategic linguistic adjustments create an illusion of authenticity while embedding misinformation",1,-1,[],[46910]],["twisting facts, selectively omitting context, or framing information in a way that heightens emotional responses",1,-1,[],[46910]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["deception",1,24454,[],[46910]],["fake news",1,33960,[],[46910]],["mimicking",1,-1,[],[46910]]],"sb":[["rephrasing is instrumental in the process of mimicking genuine news sources (i.e. it is a subcategory of mimicking-mimicking can be an effect of rephrase, and rephrasing is one way to mimic)",1,-1,[],[46910]]],"sp":[],"ex":[["the title from the unconventional news website Zero-Hedge, \"US Women's Life Expectancy is the Lowest among Developed Nations\" (Durden 2024), appears alarming, but upon closer analysis is misleading.",1,-1,[],[46910]]]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[["Nativno oglašavanje",1,-1,[],[57751]]],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":17,"df":[],"de":[["If reporting is correlated with the independent variable, the estimated effects can be strongly biased, and even lead to erroneous conclusions.",1,-1,[],[27473]],["If the reporting of violence is associated with the availability of ICT, systematic measurement error, and therefore, statistical bias can ensue.",1,-1,[],[27473]],["Journalists were concerned that AI could automate and amplify these biases, given the lack of transparency and complexity associated with algorithmic processes.",1,-1,[],[52212]],["Using items modified to fit the goals of this work, participants were asked three questions, including: (a) Do you feel that the news story was greatly biased against or in favor of your opinion about requiring vaccination to work?; (b) Do you feel that the writer of the news story was greatly biased against or in favor of your opinion about requiring vaccination to work?; and (c) Do you feel that the news outlet that published this story was greatly biased against or in favor of your opinion about requiring vaccination to work?",1,-1,[],[48068]],["biased reporting in media-based event data",1,-1,[],[27473]],["information extraction may be also subject to reporting bias",1,-1,[],[7283]],["it can fundamentally alter the conclusion we draw",1,-1,[],[27473]],["likely informed by media ownership and norms of democracy espoused by journalists in democratic nations",1,-1,[],[9790]],["media coverage is hardly objective and complete, and various biases exist when it comes to what is covered and how.",1,-1,[],[27473]],["poses a challenge to extracting knowledge from raw text",1,-1,[],[21403]],["reporting bias affects one's results",1,-1,[],[27473]],["reporting bias is less likely to 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attention given to the age of particularly young and particularly old victims is likely a reflection of the perceived vulnerability of these groups and reinforces the concept of the ideal victim (Christie, 1986).",1,-1,[],[13933]],["The increased culpability and emphasized violence of the human frame are likely because greater perpetrator culpability is associated with ideal victims",1,-1,[],[13933]],["The positive adjectives (explored in \"Victim Descriptors\" above) further humanize the victims and reinforce their status as ideal victims; i.e., as undeserving of their death by virtue of their goodness or innocence",1,-1,[],[13933]],["This framework suggests that victims are often portrayed as innocent, passive, and deserving of sympathy, reinforcing simplistic binaries.",1,-1,[],[38458]]],"sy":[["worthy",1,-1,[],[39704]]],"rt":[["hierarchy of victimisation",1,2758,[],[39704]]],"sb":[],"sp":[["Victim",1,11544,[],[38458]]],"ex":[["He singled out old women and young children to be 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What people want in commercial terms ~as evidenced by market share! and what people need in political terms ~alternative perspectives which cut through the morass of mainstream media! is represented as ultimately the same thing: a provocative and entertaining style of debate, defined as highly emotional and passionate, strongly opinionated, simple and brief and very confrontational.",1,-1,[],[2468]],["it moves effortlessly between political and market tropes in which commercial success and the public good are fused together. What people want in commercial terms ~as evidenced by market share! and what people need in political terms ~alternative perspectives which cut through the morass of mainstream media! is represented as ultimately the same thing: a provocative and entertaining style of debate",1,-1,[],[2468]],["plays a key role in helping establishing the political preferences and views privileged by the program",1,-1,[],[2468]],["portray the logic of commercialism ~treating political talk as an entertainment commodity! as a politically virtuous invigoration of democracy. 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As a social construct shared by groups of actors and organisations they can be considered an 'aggregate unit of analysis' in policy research (Elkjaer, 2003).",1,-1,[],[1642]],["Narratives that contain messages should be consistent and thorough about how and why a policy or set of policies are implemented enabling people to understand why change is happening and determine how they and their actions fit into the broader scheme of things.",1,-1,[],[37272]],["Policy narrative is a crucial point in the bureaucratic reform process",1,-1,[],[37272]],["Policy narrative is also considered a rhetorical device in which the development process in policy making and strategy is very strong",1,-1,[],[37272]],["Policy narratives in this case are based on the identification of codes that usually appear together, besides that the links in it are very diverse from problem definition, objectives, arguments to support or weaken a policy",1,-1,[],[37272]],["Policy narratives may be purposefully ambiguous to appeal to different powerful groups holding different views on a topic or simply because consensus on the problem has not yet been reached.",1,-1,[],[1642]],["Policy stakeholders construct narratives by blending empirical evidence with normative goals; the structure of policy arguments resembles 'a complex blend of factual statements, interpretations, opinions, and evaluations' (Majone, 1989).",1,-1,[],[1642]],["They consist of stories, metaphors and arguments used to support a specific line of argumentation.",1,-1,[],[1642]],["policy narratives are used to emphasize an argument or a situation that really happened to change public opinion and avoid other assumptions of truth",1,-1,[],[37272]],["the purpose of policy narratives is to create and change information that has its own meaning with strategies that will create new perceptions for existing policies",1,-1,[],[37272]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["policy discourses",1,-1,[],[1642]]],"sb":[],"sp":[["strategic narrative",1,10600,[],[49944]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["the detected stereotypes are inherently linked to AAE and its linguistic features.",1,-1,[],[2884]],["the raciolinguistic stereotypes are directly linked to individual linguistic features of AAE (Fig. 2c and Supplementary Table 14), and that a higher density of such linguistic features results in stronger stereotypical associations (Supplementary Fig. 11 and Supplementary Table 13)",1,-1,[],[2884]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[["covert raciolinguistic stereotypes",1,-1,[],[2884]]],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["human information processing activates a frame's corresponding mental concepts first and then negates it afterwards",1,-1,[],[41320]],["which is an undesired consequence of negation. 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This is because it will allow citizens to join into groups that share their own views and values, and cut themselves off from any information that might challenge their beliefs.",1,-1,[],[16732]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["internal processes that are difficult to measure objectively",1,-1,[],[28023]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[["the argument is centred around the idea that time has come for a particular action.",2,-1,[],[37214,57409]]],"de":[["The very timeliness of the idea is part of the argument.",1,-1,[],[57409]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["Call",1,25767,[],[57409]]],"ex":[["Example: This is no time to engage in the luxury of cooling off or to take the tranquilizing drug of gradualism. Now is the time to make real the promises of democracy. Now is the time to rise from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice.",1,-1,[],[57409]],["This is no time to engage in the luxury of cooling off or to take the tranquilizing drug of gradualism. Now is the time to make real the promises of democracy. Now is the time to rise from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice.",1,-1,[],[57409]]]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["However, this representation tends to infantilize refugees, showing them as helpless and in need of protection, which perpetuates a patronizing relationship.",1,-1,[],[42110]],["this representation tends to infantilize refugees, showing them as helpless and in need of protection, which perpetuates a patronizing relationship.",1,-1,[],[42110]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["moral frames",1,9202,[],[42110]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["invoked judgments",1,-1,[],[9870]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["collecting individual grievances and posting resolution plans",1,-1,[],[50602]],["in contrast to what 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overshare personal information; depend on social media; engage in plagiarism; and experience inferiority due to online social comparisons.",1,-1,[],[42626]]]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[["It is defined as the proportion of actual disinformation narratives that are correctly identified by the model.",1,-1,[],[51648]]],"sy":[["specificity",1,31768,[],[51648]]],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["public interest -groups",1,34687,[],[35845]]],"sb":[["identity groups",1,6855,[],[35845]],["leisure groups",1,4083,[],[35845]]],"sp":[],"ex":[["chemical corporations or workers in a specific sector",1,-1,[],[35845]]]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["paratextual praxis",1,-1,[],[27389]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[["Involves selection of stories, framing of issues, and emphasis on certain aspects over others.",1,-1,[],[56080]],["Shapes public perception and understanding of political narratives.",1,-1,[],[56080]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["analytical-deliberative",1,4074,[],[9351]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["\"feminine\" issues",1,19720,[],[40658]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[["foreign policy, national security, and economic concerns",1,-1,[],[40658]]]},{"nd":6,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[["Diese Form des Skandals wird teilweise auch bewusst zur Aufmerksamkeitserregung durch Medienredaktionen und PR-Strategen eingesetzt.",1,-1,[],[21254]],["Im Medienskandal würden dagegen sowohl Grenzüberschreitungen in anderen Teil-Öffentlichkeiten als auch Verstöße in der Medienöffentlichkeit selbst skandalisiert.",1,-1,[],[21254]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[["Hitler-Tagebücher, das Verhalten der Journalisten während der Geiselnahme von Gladbeck oder die Skandalisierung der ersten Big-Brother-Staffel",1,-1,[],[21254]],["die Debatten um die erste \"Big Brother\"-Staffel, der \"Nipplegate\"-Zwischenfall während des Superbowls und die anschließende Diskussion um Zensur im US-Fernsehen während Live-Übertragungen",1,-1,[],[21254]]]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["A vague reference to participants or processes announced in the headline may also be considered a type of forward-referring tool since the vague expression (typically a generic noun or a non-specific noun phrase; 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For each sentence we obatain a binary factuality label. We take the average of these labels as the factuality score for the summary.",1,-1,[],[11776]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["entailment classification metric",1,-1,[],[11776]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["Social bots",1,20136,[],[99]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["cognition is always connected with the outside world: the subject is always determined in accordance with events and conditions in its surroundings.",1,-1,[],[13400]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[["data",1,22097,[],[13400]],["knowledge",1,28054,[],[13400]],["wisdom",1,-1,[],[13400]]],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":4,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["gender sub-space",1,14196,[["gender sub-space",1],["gender subspace",1]],[23032]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["This new hybrid genre also presents a blending of different discourses, such as news 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villains.",1,-1,[],[48099]],["Elite-oriented (focuses on leaders and elites as actors and sources of information).",1,-1,[],[48099]],["Focuses mainly on differences in society.",1,-1,[],[48099]],["Focuses mainly on here and now.",1,-1,[],[48099]],["Only one source identified in item.",1,-1,[],[48099]],["Partisan (biased for one party).",1,-1,[],[48099]],["Reports mainly on visible events.",1,-1,[],[48099]],["The WJ also tends to justify an elite propaganda that peace can only be achieved through war (Lynch & McGoldrick in Lynch & Galtung, 2010)",1,-1,[],[46199]],["This type of media outcomes polarize people, escalate conflict, otherize distinct group (s) of society as 'them' and dehumanize, demonize 'other' easily.",1,-1,[],[41702]],["Two-party orientation (one party wins, one party loses).",1,-1,[],[48099]],["War journalism is driven by propaganda and manipulation and is therefore biased and distorted.",1,-1,[],[20788]],["Western news media focus on direct violence because of news values such as negativity, unambiguity, personification and meaningfulness.",1,-1,[],[48099]],["e.g., the immediate events and confrontations and the escalation of conflicts by sensationalising violence, it highlights divisions and differences between parties involved in the conflict and may overlook potential solutions or paths to peace.",1,-1,[],[32062]],["portrays military action, conflict escalation, and armed forces engaged in combat",1,-1,[],[32062]],["tends to justify an elite propaganda that peace can only be achieved through war",1,-1,[],[46199]],["the mainstream Western media have a tendency to frame their reporting in terms of war and violence",1,-1,[],[48099]],["war journalism focuses on who advances and who capitulates, keeping score of the cost in human lives and material damage.",1,-1,[],[20788]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["peace journalism",5,24292,[],[9265,20788,46199,48099,55000]],["victim",1,11544,[["victim",1],["victims",1]],[32062]],["war/violence 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It makes me sick that people like you exist in this world",1,-1,[],[471]]]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["defining functions of journalism",1,-1,[],[31661]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["normative and informational processes for polarization",1,-1,[],[8361]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["Beyond intimidation and reliance on official information sources",1,-1,[],[34190]],["can encompass directing attention towards specific actions that can be interpreted as a call to action.",1,-1,[],[34190]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[["the explicit orthodox/heterodox news values which are part of the sphere of journalistic judgement",1,-1,[],[60282]],["the implicit, silent doxic news values which are part of the sphere of journalistic doxa",1,-1,[],[60282]]],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["Place illusion and plausibility, although orthogonal, can be considered as two dimensions of the illusion of presence",1,-1,[],[40189]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[["place illusion",1,20690,[],[40189]],["plausibility",1,7550,[],[40189]]],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["Exposure to content that crosses ethical boundaries, posing potential harm to vulnerable individuals or animals, may elicit anxiety.",1,-1,[],[37092]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[["When I see people doing dangerous things. Like driving unsafely or jumping off cliffs. That kind of content always makes me feel anxious.",1,-1,[],[37092]],["anything that people share that mentions child abuse or animal abuse, especially when there are pictures involved.",1,-1,[],[37092]]]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["uncertainty level",1,17725,[],[32620]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["DDA can be conceptualized as a triadic phenomenon composed by: (i) a digital element (e.g. encompassing all means of digital communication); (ii) a dating element (e.g. the abusive behaviors occur in a current or former intimate relationship); and (iii) an abuse element (e.g. the existence of behavioral patterns that harm an intimate partner)",1,-1,[],[19347]],["Following this definition, DDA can be conceptualized as a triadic phenomenon composed by: (i) a digital element (e.g. encompassing all means of digital communication); (ii) a dating element (e.g. the abusive behaviors occur in a current or former intimate relationship); and (iii) an abuse element (e.g. the existence of behavioral patterns that harm an intimate partner)",1,-1,[],[19347]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[["Awareness and monitoring of \"troubled\" individuals by law enforcement (e.g., local police, FBI)",1,-1,[],[28840]]]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["instrumento de educação e não como fonte de lucro",1,-1,[],[55956]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["SDO-E better predicted political conservatism in the United States, support for ideologies that would subtly justify inequality (e.g., the Protestant Work Ethic), and opposition to policies that would bring about more intergroup equality (e.g., affirmative action); in short, it manifested itself in an affinity for ideologies and policies that maintain inequality, especially those that have ostensibly different purposes (such as economic efficiency and meritocracy).",1,-1,[],[2748]],["SDO-E is related to negative affect toward migrants (Martinovic & Verkuyten, 2013), hierarchy-attenuating beliefs about citizenship and multiculturalism (Hindriks et al, 2014), and the belief that less democratic forms of government are fair (Ellenbroek, Verkuyten, Thijs, & Poppe, 2014).",1,-1,[],[2748]],["SDO-E is thus more subtle in nature and represents support for differential intergroup access to power and resources that need not involve outright domination and oppression.",1,-1,[],[2748]],["the anti-egalitarianism dimension entails a preference for intergroup inequalities that are maintained by an interrelated network of subtle hierarchy-enhancing ideologies and social policies",1,-1,[["the anti-egalitarianism dimension entails a preference for intergroup inequalities that are maintained by an interrelated network of subtle hierarchy-enhancing ideologies and social policies",1],["the anti-egalitarianism dimension entails a preference for intergroup inequalities that are maintained by an interrelated network of subtle hierarchy-enhancing ideologies and social policies.",1]],[2748]],["the two subdimensions are equally correlated with more subtle forms of dehumanization (e.g., infrahumanization; Leyens et al., 2000).",1,-1,[],[2748]]],"sy":[["anti-egalitarianism dimension",1,-1,[],[2748]],["intergroup anti-egalitarianism",1,25350,[],[2748]]],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["Social Dominance Orientation",1,32509,[["Social Dominance Orientation",1],["Social dominance orientation (SDO)",1]],[2748]]],"ex":[["hierarchy-attenuating beliefs about citizenship and multiculturalism",1,-1,[],[2748]],["negative affect toward migrants",1,-1,[],[2748]],["opposition to policies that would bring about more intergroup equality (e.g., affirmative action)",1,-1,[],[2748]],["political conservatism in the United States",1,-1,[],[2748]],["support for ideologies that would subtly justify inequality (e.g., the Protestant Work Ethic)",1,-1,[],[2748]],["the belief that less democratic forms of government are fair",1,-1,[],[2748]]]},{"nd":6,"df":[],"de":[["O on-line é, portanto, parte dessa instância, posto que a prolonga.",1,-1,[],[7879]],["Os limites do idioma, insuperáveis para a palavra escrita, dissipam-se. As fronteiras geográficas se desmancham no ar. O tempo cíclico das atualizações diárias perde força para a instantaneidade: os intervalos temporais tendem a zero.",1,-1,[],[7879]],["Segundo a presente hipótese, as novas possibilidades tecnológicas da era digital não revogam esse plano: apenas o revigoram à medida que o problematizam.",1,-1,[],[7879]],["age na constituição da relação comunicativa, que emula as relações sociais",1,-1,[],[7879]],["ela modificou radicalmente as balizas de espacialidade e temporalidade.",1,-1,[],[7879]],["laço simultaneamente tecnológico e social",1,-1,[],[7879]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["espaço público",1,13255,[],[7879]],["instância da palavra impressa",1,22712,[],[7879]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[["multi-part spoilers",1,-1,[],[32393]],["passage spoilers",1,2707,[],[32393]],["phrase spoilers",1,10789,[],[32393]]],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["In written journalism, however, such 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social group, organization or country",1],["Dis-information. Information that is false and deliberately created to harm a person, social group, organization or country.",1]],[51306,54671]],["Disinformation is content shared to produce a particular judgment or course of action in message recipients, irrespective of the veracity, or bias of what is shared.",2,-1,[],[20255,28320]],["Disinformation is understood as verifiably false or misleading information that is created, presented and disseminated for economic gain or to intentionally deceive the public, and may cause public harm.",2,-1,[],[21934,34522]],["Next, we have disinformation, which involves misinformation coupled with a deliberate intent to deceive an audience.",2,-1,[],[19092,28320]],["deliberate deception",2,-1,[],[14770,29460]],["deliberately propagated false information",2,-1,[["deliberately propagated false information",2],["\"deliberately propagated false information\"",1]],[12599,58736]],["disinformation (intentionally false information)",2,-1,[],[11892,16778]],["disinformation is intentionally misleading by providing misleading or false information",2,-1,[],[37224,38773]],["disinformation, which involves misinformation coupled with a deliberate intent to deceive an audience.",2,-1,[["disinformation, which involves misinformation coupled with a deliberate intent to deceive an audience.",2],["disinformation, which involves misinformation coupled with a deliberate intent to deceive an audience",1]],[19092,28320]],["the dissemination of deliberately false information",2,-1,[],[10301,13440]],["verifiable false or misleading information which, cumulatively, (a) is created, presented and disseminated for economic gain or to intentionally deceive the public; and (b) may cause public harm, intended as threats to democratic political and policymaking processes as well as public goods such as the protection of EU citizens' health, the environment, or security",2,-1,[],[37224,38773]],["we use the term \"disinformation\" to describe this latter form of message content shared by senders who do not have the intent to inform but the intent to shape recipient judgment and decision making independently of the probative content of the messages they send.",2,-1,[],[20255,28320]],["when false information is knowingly shared to cause harm",2,-1,[],[29063,42860]]],"de":[["Veracity and bias are irrelevant to disinformation messaging, it does not matter if the content is true or unbiased; it only matters if the intended response is produced",2,-1,[],[20255,28320]],["disinformation has an additional intention to harm",2,-1,[],[11892,16778]],["disinformation is agnostic as to the veracity of information.",2,-1,[],[20255,28320]],["even unintentional dissemination of false information without the goal of manipulating recipients can fuel disinformation.",2,-1,[],[37224,38773]],["or promote biased agenda",2,-1,[],[706,7101]],["\"Reporting errors, satire, parody, and partisan news and commentary\" are excluded from the scope of the Disinformation.",1,-1,[],[53711]],["\"disinformation\" is not just a lack of information from the receiver.",1,-1,[],[20668]],["(a) false information, (b) intention (i.e., maliciously), and (c) harm (i.e., to public opinion or good order)",1,-1,[],[10587]],["A news article clearly fabricated with the aim of exploiting the logic of online advertising (and thus produced as disinformation)",1,-1,[],[8234]],["A social media user sharing it in full knowledge that it was untrue would be sharing disinformation.",1,-1,[],[40820]],["According to this analysis, the distinguishing feature of disinformation is that its function is to mislead people.",1,-1,[],[10301]],["Accordingly, disinformation is dangerous because it might negatively affect the public sphere",1,-1,[],[35890]],["Additionally, disinformation rarely functions as a single piece of content, but more often as part of a broader campaign",1,-1,[],[26168]],["Additionally, disinformation rarely functions as a single piece of content, but more often as part of a broader campaign (Starbird et al., 2019;Calo et al, 2021).",1,-1,[],[26168]],["Agents of disinformation, such as radical right-wing politicians, may spread falsehoods to achieve political success, shift blame to political opponents for failures, or even to disrupt the political and societal order",1,-1,[],[18828]],["Alternatively, we might hold that disinformation is a proper subset of misinformation.",1,-1,[],[18200]],["And thirdly, disinformation is intentionally misleading, intentionally providing manipulated content, and therefore intentionally creating false beliefs.",1,-1,[],[17242]],["Another element is the intent to deliberately deceive the public",1,-1,[],[31953]],["As a rhetorical act, disinformation is more than spreading lies.",1,-1,[],[26684]],["As disinformation is intended to make an impact and as it can be distributed in a systematic, goal-directed way to bring about societal change or disruption, it may be problematic for deliberative democracy.",1,-1,[],[48711]],["As these forms of misinformation are intentionally manipulated, it is more likely that actors put considerable effort and resources into the design of disinformation to make it look authentic and real.",1,-1,[],[38360]],["At the EU level, a more precise term is preferred, disinformation",1,-1,[],[22531]],["Because disinformation is not part of the \"signal\" that in some sense represents truth, it can be viewed as a kind of noise.",1,-1,[],[57823]],["Both financial and ideological reasons exist why actors knowingly spread inaccurate information",1,-1,[],[38360]],["Both misinformation and disinformation consist of false information; the key difference lies in the intent of the person spreading it.",1,-1,[],[28546]],["Both terms refer to information that is inaccurate, incorrect, or misleading.",1,-1,[],[22504]],["Brazil's elections presented new challenges, such as the use of encrypted systems for mass diffusion of disinformation.",1,-1,[],[26594]],["But disinformation can also be targeted at specific people or organizations.",1,-1,[],[18200]],["But other forms of disinformation, such as conspiracy theories and fake alarm calls, are misleading simply because the source systematically benefits from their being misleading.",1,-1,[],[10301]],["Certain groups disseminate manipulative images or fabricated news that are intended to other people or groups by constructing a narrative of righteousness.",1,-1,[],[40208]],["Commentators generally view disinformation as intentionally false information that aims to deceive.",1,-1,[],[59036]],["Compared to simple human error, the involvement of intent has important psychological connotations",1,-1,[],[28320]],["Different from misinformation, disinformation is intentionally deceptive",1,-1,[],[22384]],["Different labels, such as misinformation and disinformation, have been used to describe false/incorrect information.",1,-1,[],[1971]],["Disinformation aims at creating stereotypes of thinking, shifting beliefs.",1,-1,[],[26773]],["Disinformation always indicates that the misleading information is being supplied or propagated on purpose",1,-1,[],[54973]],["Disinformation and misinformation are somehow created and remain in the environment.",1,-1,[],[28210]],["Disinformation and propaganda campaigns thrive by creating controversies which then become news stories by virtue of their virality.",1,-1,[],[2214]],["Disinformation campaigns aim to manipulate public opinion or incite confusion and mistrust.",1,-1,[],[44220]],["Disinformation campaigns are often seen in a political context where state actors create them for political gains.",1,-1,[],[19862]],["Disinformation campaigns prey on people's uncertainty and emotional responses",1,-1,[],[34323]],["Disinformation can also be part of hybrid threat activities.",1,-1,[],[10182]],["Disinformation can be used as a critical tool for leaders, organizations, or other actors with authoritarian tendencies to suppress and diminish rational and informed debate and consequently make their discourse more effective by removing it from a political context where rational and informed debate is dominant.",1,-1,[],[37343]],["Disinformation can exist in different forms -false text, images, videos, etc.",1,-1,[],[212]],["Disinformation can include deception regarding both content and authorial status.",1,-1,[],[1127]],["Disinformation can involve different practices-ranging from the de-contextualization of information to the complete fabrication of false narratives",1,-1,[],[31116]],["Disinformation can render publics vulnerable to propaganda and influence attitudes and behaviors in target populations.",1,-1,[],[56217]],["Disinformation can take forms beyond the production of hoaxes or \"fake news\" (Lazer et al., 2018); and include other types of manipulation of social systems, such as Google bombs to associate a keyword to a URL by repeatedly searching for the keyword and clicking on the URL, or review spam (Jindal and Liu, 2008) to manipulate the reputation of a product/service.",1,-1,[],[41188]],["Disinformation can take many forms and is linked to a varied group of actors who create it, and a variety of platforms which are used to disseminate it.",1,-1,[],[2214]],["Disinformation can take many forms and may be conducted for economic or political gain.",1,-1,[],[2214]],["Disinformation does not include inadvertent errors, satire and parody, or clearly identified partisan news and commentary",1,-1,[],[34522]],["Disinformation does not include reporting errors, satire and parody, or clearly identified partisan news and commentary.",1,-1,[],[21934]],["Disinformation exerts a potent influence over individuals, compelling them towards extremes as malicious actors exploit this persuasive force to weaponize public cognition",1,-1,[],[52006]],["Disinformation generally serves some agenda and can be dangerous. During this pandemic, we are seeing it used to try to erode our trust in each other and in our government and public institutions",1,-1,[],[42860,42861]],["Disinformation has different forms, e.g., fabricated content, misleading content, accurate content shared with false contextual information, satire and parody.",1,-1,[],[44813]],["Disinformation in English is of Russian origin (dezinformatsiya) and it is used in the meaning of intentionally falsified information, particularly launched by one government for another or for the public.",1,-1,[],[13385]],["Disinformation in elections is especially noticeable in the forms of fake news that is disseminated to discredit opponents or to influence the voting process, the falsification or manipulation of polling data, and the corruption of election monitoring.",1,-1,[],[50729]],["Disinformation is a broad term encompassing intentionally false content, such as hoaxes, rumors, or clickbait, aimed at provoking reactions (like likes or comments) or serving a specific agenda.",1,-1,[],[55326]],["Disinformation is a more complex and differentiated method than simple deception.",1,-1,[],[50850]],["Disinformation is a more complex and differentiated method than simple deception. It may involve various techniques, such as creating forged documents, disseminating purchased materials through mass media, or abusing the trust of well-known sources of information (misleading with false information)",1,-1,[],[50850]],["Disinformation is a particularly subversive and difficult form of hybrid threat to address, as the EU's approach to freedom of expression lies at the heart of its value system, and yet it is through those expressions that the EU finds its legitimacy as an actor being targeted.",1,-1,[],[32126]],["Disinformation is a threat to American democracy, not because of how well it works, but because of what it reveals and enables. notes 1.",1,-1,[],[2214]],["Disinformation is a tool, which can be used to paralyze the will of the people and their leaders.",1,-1,[],[26773]],["Disinformation is a type of misleading information which has the potential to spread falsehoods",1,-1,[],[31695]],["Disinformation is also understood as more severe acts with a certain specific goal, often some form of political gain, by actively deceiving the public.",1,-1,[],[42189]],["Disinformation is an age-old aspect of foreign policy and warfare.",1,-1,[],[53981]],["Disinformation is by design misleading, crafted with the express purpose of pushing a specific agenda",1,-1,[],[39282]],["Disinformation is by no means a new phenomenon but has acquired an unprecedented relevance through social networks.",1,-1,[],[38091]],["Disinformation is consciously distributed for specific purposes defined by the sender, often using channels that accelerate its dissemination and expand its reach to a wide audience.",1,-1,[],[42757]],["Disinformation is disruptive and it further deteriorates the overall international context.",1,-1,[],[53981]],["Disinformation is especially employed in the context of widespread deceit, such as when a government launches a campaign to spread false information to the citizens of another nation",1,-1,[],[54973]],["Disinformation is intentional and premeditated.",1,-1,[],[45931]],["Disinformation is intentionally deceitful and can be spread through different formats.",1,-1,[],[54739]],["Disinformation is intentionally fallacious (Jack, 2017), denaturalizes facts to mislead audiences (Fraguas de Pablo, 2016;Sartori, 2016;Rodríguez, 2018), and it multiplies thanks to the opacity of technological infrastructures and legal loopholes (Persily, 2017)",1,-1,[],[43814]],["Disinformation is intentionally misleading or false.",1,-1,[],[43747]],["Disinformation is not an end in itself; it is supposed to serve a larger political objective",1,-1,[],[53981]],["Disinformation is often distributed very widely (e.g., to anyone with a newspaper subscription, to anyone with a television, to anyone with Internet access).",1,-1,[],[18200]],["Disinformation is often partisan in nature: it is tailored to specific issue publics or ideological groups in society that should be most likely to accept the dishonest claims",1,-1,[],[48711]],["Disinformation is often partisan in nature: it is tailored to specific issue publics or ideological groups in society that should be most likely to accept the dishonest claims (Marwick & Lewis, 2017).",1,-1,[],[48711]],["Disinformation is often planned, and the target audience is well-defined and chosen to maximize the effect of the presented material.",1,-1,[],[53009]],["Disinformation is one type of information disorder.",1,-1,[],[36959]],["Disinformation is still meant as information; true or false, it is information.",1,-1,[],[17242]],["Disinformation is the appropriate term for issues arising from intentional and harmful false information and is better suited for regulatory laws and legal action, because those responsible can potentially be identified.",1,-1,[],[2214]],["Disinformation is typically fueled and made viral by certain authorities (esp. political authorities, and these are different political actors in different countries; see Recuero et al. 2022) and masquerades as factual information using particular legitimation strategies.",1,-1,[],[53487]],["Disinformation is usually tied to various actors' ideological, political, or economic interests, with country-specific waves of dissemination",1,-1,[],[40403]],["Disinformation is widely understood as deceptive content shared on purpose, produced to generate profits, pursue political goals, or cause harm or disruption -for example, hoaxes",1,-1,[],[59332]],["Disinformation messages under this definition are munitions in campaigns of information warfare, nonlethal weapons intended to subdue adversaries rather than reason with them.",1,-1,[],[44813]],["Disinformation operations aren't typically fake news or outright lies.",1,-1,[],[19435]],["Disinformation perceptions align with populist worldviews in which the media are severely distrusted and seen as the people's enemy.",1,-1,[],[48711]],["Disinformation reflects the spread of untrue information known to be false by the person disseminating the information [3], thereby reflecting falsehood and malicious intent.",1,-1,[],[1700]],["Disinformation results in biased, deceptive, and decontextualized information based upon which emotional decisions are made, impulsive reactions, or stopping actions in progress.",1,-1,[],[13951]],["Disinformation results negatively impact users' experience and decisions, such as online shopping and stock markets",1,-1,[],[13951]],["Disinformation should be seen as part of the cybersecurity threat and risk landscape.",1,-1,[],[34110]],["Disinformation signifies a subset of misinformation.",1,-1,[],[14410]],["Disinformation speakers, on the other hand, tend to delegitimize all the rival claims, calling them fake or politically tainted, and urge listeners to disengage from other sources and rely exclusively on the speaker's authority.",1,-1,[],[42734]],["Disinformation that is hateful or discriminatory in nature",1,-1,[],[42189]],["Disinformation, according to our definition, is always spread intentionally, emphasizing the significance of comprehending the motives driving its dissemination. It encapsulates the broader goal of the author, which guides the specific narratives they employ to achieve that goal.",1,-1,[],[38773]],["Disinformation, according to the French researcher P. Nord, is \"a weapon of intellectual action, aggression against the human mind\"",1,-1,[],[26773]],["Disinformation, on the other hand, must be understood as aiming to cause harm.",1,-1,[],[42189]],["Disinformation-false information intended to cause harm or for profit-is pervasive.",1,-1,[],[61231]],["Disinformations intentionally want to misdirect, deceive or delude. It is not clear who the actual author is. There is no contact address and as a rule, there is no actual reference to the information source, no date when it is written or updated, nor a description of its author.",1,-1,[],[13385]],["Distinguishing disinformation from content that is not intended to mislead requires understanding the author's intentions.",1,-1,[],[1127]],["Distortion might involve deliberate factual inaccuracies or amplified attention to persons, issues or events, or both.",1,-1,[],[2214]],["EU policy considers disinformation to be harmful content, rather than illegal content.",1,-1,[],[10587]],["EU seeks to combat disinformation and the misinformation that consequently harms the public.",1,-1,[],[53711]],["El principal problema de la desinformación procede, sin embargo, de las falsedades deliberadas. Se trata de los contenidos que, de nuevo en el mundo anglosajón, se denominan propiamente como 'disinformation'.",1,-1,[],[15250]],["El principal problema de la desinformación procede, sin embargo, de las falsedades deliberadas. Se trata de los contenidos que, de nuevo en el mundo anglosajón, se denominan propiamente como 'disinformation'. Es decir, mentiras voluntarias.",1,-1,[],[15250]],["Fake news is associated solely with news, while disinformation covers a wider scope of information.",1,-1,[],[38040]],["Fake news, in turn, is more than misinformation (incorrect news) or lies and is usually created intentionally as part of an organized strategy of disinformation with economic, political, or other objectives.",1,-1,[],[51426]],["False, misleading, harmful, and fabricated, and the motives are often politically, economically, and socially relevant.",1,-1,[],[3279]],["For Wardle and Derakhshan (2017), the intention to harm an individual, group, organization or country is central-which assumes that disinformation is intended to exert a negative influence on the targeted recipients.",1,-1,[],[5535]],["For the Russian leadership, disinformation has become a matter of established policy.",1,-1,[],[53981]],["Harmful influences may arise from any false or misleading information ('misinformation') but are of particular concern when such information is generated and circulated with the specific purpose of deceiving people ('disinformation').",1,-1,[],[46952]],["Here, intention is the keyword; disinformation is a weapon particularly in the hands of governmental bodies and political actors.",1,-1,[],[44574]],["However, disinformation is always perpetuated on purpose by a particular group of responsible actors and has potential to cause harm.",1,-1,[],[2214]],["I refer to disinformation as false content deliberately created to mislead and manipulate the political judgments of its audience.",1,-1,[],[42734]],["If the information strongly deviates from the truth, there is a danger that it would be recognized as a disinformation.",1,-1,[],[52006]],["In comparison, disinformation is false information intentionally and knowingly propagated by individuals to gain political, financial, social, or psychological benefits.",1,-1,[],[48670]],["In fact, single individuals are often the source of disinformation.",1,-1,[],[18200]],["In most cases, the content is partially truthful, and in some cases, it is not yet clear what exactly the truthful information is.",1,-1,[],[31953]],["In our framework, we focus on intent in terms of reader-perceived implications rather than questioning whether or not the writer's intentions were malicious given that it is unclear the extent to which original writers might have known article content was misleading.",1,-1,[],[45073]],["In our previous work we have focused on two forms that have been recently prominent in American culture and politics: the misrepresentation of scientific facts and the promotion of misleading narratives.",1,-1,[],[2214]],["In particular, news services are frequently sources of disinformation (cf. [4], pp. 23-53).",1,-1,[],[18200]],["In practical applications, disinformation is generally treated as a subset of misinformation, as it is more difficult to ascertain the motives of actors transmitting inaccurate information.",1,-1,[],[28320]],["In summary, disinformation is intentionally misleading by providing misleading or false information (European Commission, 2022a).",1,-1,[],[37224]],["In terms of impact, intentional disinformation often employs persuasive techniques and is carefully crafted and targeted at specific audiences, exploiting cognitive biases and emotional triggers.",1,-1,[],[49917]],["In the article, misinformation was used to encompass both terms.",1,-1,[],[52768]],["In the context of elections, disinformation is usually about the dissemination of knowingly false information with the goal to undermine political opponents, to manipulate the voting process, or change perceptions of the political circumstances in which the election takes place.",1,-1,[],[50729]],["In the discussion, the term \"disinformation\" is used as the discussion focuses on misleading or inaccurate information intentionally created and distributed on social media within a country and how the parties affected by such a cybersecurity threat should respond.",1,-1,[],[34110]],["In this article, the term \"disinformation\" will be used to refer to \"information that is false and deliberately created to harm a person, social group, organization or country\" (Wardle & Derakshan, 2017, p. 20).",1,-1,[],[36576]],["In this case, the primary purpose is the influencing of the public opinion",1,-1,[],[40314]],["In this paper, we use the terms misinformation and disinformation interchangeably; however, it is important to note that the literature sometimes distinguishes between them.",1,-1,[],[49917]],["In this text, the authors use term disinformation, referring to the most harmful form of information disorders.",1,-1,[],[54831]],["Inaccurate and misleading information can have such bad consequences whether the source of the information made an honest mistake (misinformation) or actually intended to deceive (disinformation).",1,-1,[],[18200]],["Indeed, a goal of contemporary social media disinformation campaigns is to lead unsuspecting targets to spread the deceptive messages on their own.",1,-1,[],[58736]],["Information circulating in SMPs",1,-1,[],[54890]],["Internally created disinformation will cause distrust in public",1,-1,[],[19843]],["It can involve a particular way of distorting facts or using clever arguments to persuade the audience that their views do not correspond to reality",1,-1,[],[50850]],["It can manifest in various deceptive forms, aiming to influence opinions, erode trust, or promote specific agendas",1,-1,[],[45686]],["It clarifies that this definition excludes reporting errors, satire and parody, partisan news and commentary, or illegal content.",1,-1,[],[36482]],["It denotes the intended distortion of reality and truth by its creators who reproduce mass media online formats purposefully, creating confusion around veriied facts and their interpretation by readers",1,-1,[],[40787]],["It distinguishes between verifiably false news and misleading information.",1,-1,[],[36482]],["It does not cover issues arising from the creation and dissemination online of illegal content (notably defamation, hate speech, incitement to violence), which are subject to regulatory remedies under EU or national laws, nor other forms of deliberate but not misleading distortions of facts such as satire and parody.",1,-1,[],[11258]],["It is a relatively simple, increasingly precise, and comparatively inexpensive method to reach important strategic goals.",1,-1,[],[53981]],["It is a strategic and calculated action aimed at achieving specific effects, involving all components of the information process.",1,-1,[],[42757]],["It is also not clear how to regulate problematic information spread with differing types of intentions, such as the anti-vaccination information spreading across the world like a disease, though without a clear economic or political motivation.",1,-1,[],[2214]],["It is calculated and cunning, often blending fact with fiction to lend an air of plausibility.",1,-1,[],[39282]],["It is created intentionally to influence public opinion.",1,-1,[],[35890]],["It is disruptive and it further deteriorates the overall international sphere.",1,-1,[],[53981]],["It is harmful because it is \"likely to lead to false beliefs\" (p. 406) and because it is designed to distort audiences' understanding of reality.",1,-1,[],[45127]],["It is intentionally spread online to deceive others, and its impact has continued to grow",1,-1,[],[18979]],["It is often built around a true or plausible core, but layered with falsehoods and/or exaggerations to create a distorted perception of the truth",1,-1,[],[26168]],["It is often built around a true or plausible core, but layered with falsehoods and/or exaggerations to create a distorted perception of the truth (Bittman, 1985;Starbird et al., 2019).",1,-1,[],[26168]],["It may have far-reaching consequences, cause public harm, be a threat to democratic political and policy-making processes, and may even put the protection of EU citizens' health, security and their environment at risk",1,-1,[],[54673]],["It means knowingly putting forward false facts.",1,-1,[],[25632]],["Its practices of deception may range from the decontextualization of known facts to the fabrication of alternative narratives.",1,-1,[],[5535]],["La desinformación, como fenómeno, hace referencia tanto al contenido informativo fraudulento (fake news) como al engañoso (misleading content), los discursos de odio (malinformation), los discursos falsos deliberados (false speech) o los errores informativos no deliberados de medios o periodistas (missinformation).",1,-1,[],[11364]],["Manipulation of the content may vary from intentional omission of some truthful aspects to mixing false information with reliable facts put into a fully truthful and trustworthy context.",1,-1,[],[28210]],["Mis-or disinformation may, first of all, lack empirical evidence or expert knowledge",1,-1,[],[18828]],["Misinformation and disinformation are becoming a big hindrance while dealing with health-related issues, and the matters of informed consent.",1,-1,[],[37866]],["Misinformation and disinformation both refer to fake or inaccurate information.",1,-1,[],[49359]],["Misinformation and disinformation refer to false information utilised to mislead people.",1,-1,[],[33729]],["Misinformation given to the public ultimately determines how they act and spreads certain moral judgments to the people who read the disinformation",1,-1,[],[57829]],["Misleading advertising, satire and parody, misinformation or clearly partisan comments fall outside of what can be considered as disinformation",1,-1,[],[27564]],["Misleading narratives regarding defense strategies erode public trust and create resistance to policies critical for national security",1,-1,[],[57973]],["More specifically, disinformation is \"verifiably false or misleading information created, presented and disseminated for economic gain or to intentionally deceive the public, and which may cause public harm\" (European Commission, 2019).",1,-1,[],[29032]],["Most forms of disinformation, such as lies and propaganda, are misleading because the source intends the information to be misleading.",1,-1,[],[10301]],["News containing erroneous information, which does not suggest a responsible party or an alternative version of the incident, is not considered as disinformation.",1,-1,[],[34465]],["One important distinction of disinformation is that it is not necessarily outright false, but can instead be misleading.",1,-1,[],[26168]],["One important distinction of disinformation is that it is not necessarily outright false, but can instead be misleading. It is often built around a true or plausible core, but layered with falsehoods and/or exaggerations to create a distorted perception of the truth (Bittman, 1985;Starbird et al., 2019).",1,-1,[],[26168]],["Our approach is not meant to make a distinction between opinion and information (see Zaller, 1991) and instead focuses on dimensions of power.",1,-1,[],[56940]],["People with disinformation perceptions, in contrast, are likely to avoid news and less willing to follow instructions of the authorities (i.e., social distancing, washing hands frequently).",1,-1,[],[14770]],["Politically influential, and in some cases state-sponsored and even ideologically driven disinformation campaigns",1,-1,[],[44591]],["Public harm comprises threats to democratic political and policymaking processes as well as public goods such as the protection of EU citizens' health, the environment or security.",1,-1,[],[21934]],["Public harm comprises threats to democratic political and policymaking processes as well as public goods such as the protection of EU citizens' health, the environment or security. Disinformation does not include reporting errors, satire and parody, or clearly identified partisan news and commentary.",1,-1,[],[21934]],["Public harm includes threats to democratic processes as well as to public goods such as Union citizens' health, environment or security.",1,-1,[],[34522]],["Recent trends show bots amplifying and spreading false or misleading news stories and conspiracy theories",1,-1,[],[55337]],["Refers to the nature of the fake news itself.",1,-1,[],[32653]],["Research in political communication has shown how disinformation can be spread aiming to attack outgroups or political opponents",1,-1,[],[38360]],["Second, disinformation is misleading information, which means it creates false beliefs.",1,-1,[],[17242]],["Social actors and organisations can foster disinformation by misinterpreting, decontextualising or drawing partial conclusions from data.",1,-1,[],[35909]],["Some authors distinguish misinformation and disinformation, where the former may involve an actor spreading inaccurate information that they believe is true, and the latter involves a conscious attempt to deceive. In practical applications, disinformation is generally treated as a subset of misinformation, as it is more difficult to ascertain the motives of actors transmitting inaccurate information.",1,-1,[],[28320]],["Specifically, I refer to disinformation as false content deliberately created to mislead and manipulate the political judgments of its audience.",1,-1,[],[42734]],["Such a journalist passes along information that they know is false or perhaps is literally true but implies something false.",1,-1,[],[1127]],["Such a journalist passes along information that they know is false or perhaps is literally true but implies something false. Disinformation can include deception regarding both content and authorial status.",1,-1,[],[1127]],["Such mainstreaming of disinformation lends legitimacy to its proponents, and spreads confusion among the good burghers who cannot comprehend what is happening to their country.",1,-1,[],[2214]],["Such rampant disinformation often leverages the trust and social connectivity of social media users, spreads manipulated information to foment hatred, and inflicts damages on individuals or groups.",1,-1,[],[32550]],["Thai authorities slowed the propagation of misinformation and disinformation during the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic",1,-1,[],[42808]],["That is, a purveyor of disinformation can deceive an audience about the veracity of a news item as well as deceiving an audience about their own status as a journalist.",1,-1,[],[1127]],["The CDU leads the UK government's operational response to disinformation threats online, and ensures the government takes necessary steps to identify and respond to acute misinformation (i.e., incorrect or misleading information) and disinformation (i.e., information which is deliberately created to cause harm) in areas of public interest.",1,-1,[],[50850]],["The EUvsDisinfo Project has the core objective of exposing disinformation narratives and media manipulation, with special focus on messages in the international information space that are identified as 'providing a partial, distorted, or false depiction of reality'",1,-1,[],[58553]],["The European Commission has described disinformation as verifiably false or misleading information that, cumulatively, is created, presented and disseminated for economic gain or to intentionally deceive the public and that may cause public harm",1,-1,[],[51103]],["The European Commission's report prefers 'disinformation'",1,-1,[],[41864]],["The High Level Expert Group, established by the European Commission, defines disinformation as",1,-1,[],[38773]],["The common thread in these definitions is that disinformation is intentional and it is designed to cause harm.",1,-1,[],[49736]],["The concept connects to misinformative content that boosts deception.",1,-1,[],[54325]],["The concept of disinformation is much broader, as it refers to fraudulent or deceptive news content, hate speech, deliberate false narratives, unintentional information errors…",1,-1,[],[47490]],["The conceptual framework of disinformation operations argues that disinformation is best understood as a top-down, centrally-coordinated intervention that relies on tactics of systemic deception to mislead the public for a strategic, political purpose",1,-1,[],[7399]],["The content of disinformation, in many cases, is highly sensationalized and is written using extreme sentiments, usually to affect the reader, which makes them interact with the post more",1,-1,[],[212]],["The definition addresses public confusion, since it is common for the population to be unable to distinguish true and false news and identify the truth of news.",1,-1,[],[29495]],["The desired effects of disinformation activities reflect the interests of a specific actor",1,-1,[],[34522]],["The difference between misinformation and disinformation would be intentionality",1,-1,[],[10292]],["The difference between the two concepts is that disinformation is done purposely, while misinformation is not",1,-1,[],[33729]],["The dominance of declarative clauses in this research reflects the common strategy of presenting disinformation as factual and authoritative",1,-1,[],[39553]],["The effect of disinformation cannot be measured (only) by the extent to which it reaches its ultimate aim, the disinforming country's strategic position.",1,-1,[],[53981]],["The endgoals may differ, but plenty of methods stay the same: overwhelming, inspiring fear, and impersonating trusted figures and sources.",1,-1,[],[26407]],["The goals of disinformation may vary, but cultivating distrust; increasing support for, for example, radical left-or right-wing issue positions; and strengthening polarisation may be some of the political goals targeted by agents of disinformation",1,-1,[],[48711]],["The inaccurate, false data are intentionally being delivered to the opponent instead of the correct information.",1,-1,[],[13385]],["The information is manipulated so that the reader feels it is correct.",1,-1,[],[5958]],["The intention is to favor an ideology, a political party/candidate, or a perspective, instrumentalizing agendas, leading people into error, and denying the right of access to information, as identified by UNESCO (2022).",1,-1,[],[41299]],["The intention of deliberate disinformation-the so-called \"fake news\"-is, as many people interpret the phrase nowadays, to create a bias in people's minds so as to impact their behaviors and decision makings.",1,-1,[],[57823]],["The intentions of foreign actors may not have changed fundamentally, but the means at their disposal have. The essential novel, and potentially most threatening aspect of disinformation today is its rapidly developing technology, in combination with the large number of potential users. Technology defines the unprecedented breadth, width and depth of disinformation. It makes disinformation much faster, much more sophisticated, and much more difficult to distinguish from information that has no intention to mislead.",1,-1,[],[53981]],["The intersection of misinformation and malinformation leads to disinformation.",1,-1,[],[60670]],["The latter aspect of the disinformation (i.e., harmfulness) is often ignored, but it is equally important.",1,-1,[],[20075]],["The online information ecosystem is never short of disinformation and misinformation",1,-1,[],[11035]],["The phenomenon of disinformation consists of a continuum that ranges from accidental errors to deliberately produced content.",1,-1,[],[16407]],["The possibility of instant and anonymous communication makes the internet an ideal vehicle for deception.",1,-1,[],[28320]],["The problem is not fake news itself but the disinformation and what it leads to and potential violent impact it might have on society.",1,-1,[],[53711]],["The purpose of disinformation in competitive elections is different than in uncompetitive elections. While in competitive elections disinformation is employed to help a certain party or candidate or to delegitimize the existing political order, the main purpose of disinformation in uncompetitive elections, by contrast, is to convey the impression that the political order is legitimate.",1,-1,[],[50729]],["The recent upsurge in digital activities resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic has heightened this phenomenon.",1,-1,[],[57984]],["The research presented in this paper builds on a line of work within disinformation studies that sees disinformation as the product of politically-motivated agents who create, share, and amplify disinformation content to generate chaos and disorder",1,-1,[],[7399]],["The sharer knows precisely the information is incorrect but intentionally shares it regardless.",1,-1,[],[13088]],["The source of such detrimental disinformation may not even be aware that the information is misleading.",1,-1,[],[10301]],["The spread of disinformation is incredibly complicated because it includes different social media platforms, TV, newspapers both online and offline, advertisements, and simply word-of-mouth",1,-1,[],[26407]],["The spread of disinformation is often coordinated by multiple operators that are difficult to track without technical tools to model pathways of information spread within the information ecosystem",1,-1,[],[53009]],["The spread of this incorrect information is strongly reliant on social media, causing a strong emotional reaction and quick propagation before its inaccuracy can be effectively exposed.",1,-1,[],[51991]],["The two major manifestations of an infodemic are misinformation and disinformation.",1,-1,[],[37405]],["The word disinformation only entered the English language in the 1980s due to increased awareness of so-called active measures",1,-1,[],[2168]],["These emotional narratives can be combined with fully fabricated, altered or de-contextualized images and videos, aiming to create confusion, distrust or strong emotional reactions on the targeted group of people",1,-1,[],[37343]],["These processes generate an overload scenario for the population, also causing anxiety and fatigue, which in turn can begin the dissemination of disinformation",1,-1,[],[29495]],["They both include outright lies and imposter news outlets, but also more benign content like misleading headlines or even satire.",1,-1,[],[6557]],["They define it as \"all forms of false, inaccurate, or misleading information designed, presented and promoted to intentionally cause public harm or for profit\"",1,-1,[],[11258]],["They saw the coordinated efforts to spread disinformation on social media, especially in disasters or emergencies, as a significant threat.",1,-1,[],[53009]],["This article extends disinformation from referring exclusively to planting factual falsehoods to include its dissemination through grievances of group identification.",1,-1,[],[26684]],["This aspect is further exacerbated using social bots and trolls (malicious accounts).",1,-1,[],[5421]],["This definition has also been adopted in other disinformation studies",1,-1,[],[37224]],["This follows social-science literature [68] and international guidance, emphasizing intent rather than mere factual inaccuracy.",1,-1,[],[61185]],["This includes false content -originating from websites, consisting of unreal stories and attributing authority to the sources that are issuing the deceptive information",1,-1,[],[26840]],["This is a question of intent: disinformation is meant to deceive, while misinformation may be inadvertent or unintentional",1,-1,[],[8183]],["This is a question of intent: disinformation is meant to deceive, while misinformation may be inadvertent or unintentional (Tucker et al., 2018).",1,-1,[],[8183]],["This is a subset of misinformation, which also may be unintentional.",1,-1,[],[44864]],["This means that a piece of disinformation contains at least three elements: (i) the speaker believes that a statement is factually erroneous, (ii) the speaker consciously presents as what they believe to be factually true, and (iii) the purpose of this misrepresentation is to misguide the audience's political reasoning.",1,-1,[],[42734]],["Two key elements of the term disinformation can be distinguished: the truthfulness of the content and the intent of the information provider.",1,-1,[],[31953]],["Understanding the intentionality behind disinformation is crucial to comprehending its nature and impact",1,-1,[],[42757]],["Unlike an honest mistake, disinformation comes from someone who is actively engaged in an attempt to mislead",1,-1,[],[26684]],["Unlike conveying a message through lies, disinformation involves deliberate concealment or distortion of facts to create false beliefs in recipients.",1,-1,[],[42757]],["Unlike misinformation, which involves spreading incorrect or misleading information without malicious intent, disinformation is intentionally crafted to cause harm, confusion, or disruption.",1,-1,[],[26407]],["Usually, it has some good potential to be spread due to its interesting content.",1,-1,[],[28210]],["Usually, the disinformation is well prepared for consumption, to a certain degree it is prepared to be more attractive for the consumer.",1,-1,[],[28210]],["Very aggressive disinformation is simply hidden in between a truthful factual context and mixed with truth and facts.",1,-1,[],[28210]],["We analyzed disinformation from the perspective of the influencer's intentions",1,-1,[],[44813]],["We reserve the term disinformation to refer to messages that the communicator knows to be false but is disseminating for political or personal purposes.",1,-1,[],[8790]],["We use the term disinformation to refer to false and misleading information spread with malicious intent",1,-1,[],[9559]],["When a user publishes false information with malicious intent, it falls under the category of disinformation [33].",1,-1,[],[37861]],["When disinformation is shared, it is turned into misinformation.",1,-1,[],[44833]],["When the word disinformation was used by respondents it was encompassing both false and misleading information in general.",1,-1,[],[54211]],["While all false information is also false, not all false information is disinformation.",1,-1,[],[54973]],["While all the three are informative in nature, only disinformation is deliberatively deceptive information.",1,-1,[],[24141]],["While both refer to inaccurate or fake information, disinformation is created with malicious intent, whereas this is not necessarily the case with misinformation",1,-1,[],[40065]],["While both refer to inaccurate or fake information, disinformation is created with malicious intent, whereas this is not necessarily the case with misinformation [25][19].",1,-1,[],[40065]],["While this is a broader definition of disinformation than the one by Humprecht et al. (2020), cited in the introduction to this chapter, they share a core focus on the intentionality of harm that is sought by those who produce or disseminate such information.",1,-1,[],[24202]],["With disinformation, political actors deliberately manipulate information to achieve political goals",1,-1,[],[22384]],["a broader term that encompasses not only false information but also distorted, altered, concealed, or forged information.",1,-1,[],[50850]],["a component of fake news",1,-1,[],[42808]],["a disinformation speaker tends to (i) make baseless assertions without credible evidence, (ii) refuse to justify or correct claims when pressed, and (iii) urge listeners to disengage from other sources and rely solely on the speaker's authority.",1,-1,[],[42734]],["a disruptive form of communication that has to be understood in the setting of the media and political landscape it is created and consumed in.",1,-1,[],[5535]],["a function is \"the action for which a person or thing is particularly fitted or employed\"",1,-1,[],[10301]],["a more extreme subset of misinformation in which intentional deception is central",1,-1,[["a more extreme subset of misinformation in which intentional deception is central",1],["a more extreme subset of misinformation in which intentional deception is central.",1]],[8325]],["a particularly aggressive form of communication, with a strong capacity to denigrate and dehumanize its targets.",1,-1,[],[31068]],["a phenomenon that contributes to political and social trends in 21st century societies",1,-1,[],[42757]],["a type of misinformation-disinformation-is spread by actors who know it to be false.",1,-1,[],[61231]],["a very serious problem that can potentially have negative consequences for individuals, groups, and society as a whole",1,-1,[],[50850]],["actors put considerable effort and resources into the design of disinformation to make it look authentic and real",1,-1,[],[38360]],["actually intended to deceive",1,-1,[],[18200]],["addressing the problem of disinformation",1,-1,[],[57285]],["aim to mislead, deceive, or confuse readers",1,-1,[],[57829]],["all forms of false, inaccurate, or misleading information",1,-1,[],[13888]],["all three definitions are exceedingly broad, insufficiently specified and, as such, not fit to function as a legal category but should, rather, continue to be considered as indicating a policy domain.",1,-1,[],[10587]],["alternating between fake/manipulated news and discrediting traditional media",1,-1,[],[41299]],["as opposed to misinformation, which is inaccurate information that is disseminated without any attempt to deceive",1,-1,[],[34935]],["because it has the propensity to mislead, disinformation always puts people at risk of suffering harm (epistemic and otherwise).",1,-1,[],[10301]],["but also rumours and incorrect or hyperpartisan information",1,-1,[],[26840]],["calculated, systematic, and state-sanctioned",1,-1,[],[39282]],["can be used to destabilize democracies by removing the credibility and trust of organs and institutions and causing damage to society, as it can influence the discrediting of public health, politics, security, and the environment. Furthermore, it can also render the rights of citizen to have access to true information and freedom of expression unfeasible",1,-1,[],[29495]],["capturing IPs can have sources manufacture fake news at will, completely untethered to the true state of the world",1,-1,[],[61628]],["cause serious psychological harm and can lead to physical violence",1,-1,[],[51103]],["challenged official communication",1,-1,[],[2214]],["common reflection on the phenomenon of disinformation",1,-1,[],[29025]],["confronting disinformation requires differentiating deceptive falsehoods from other false accounts.",1,-1,[],[42734]],["content that is purposely misleading",1,-1,[],[30033]],["counter disinformation and fake news",1,-1,[],[36482]],["countering disinformation in politics",1,-1,[],[36482]],["countering hybrid threats, analysis, and coordinated strategic communication to spot disinformation and communicate a credible narrative",1,-1,[],[36482]],["covers deliberate falsehoods which -in today's highly polarized environments, and sped up by technology's huge capillarity and diffusion (Sádaba and Salaverria, 2023)-are rapidly disseminated and entail potential risks as has occurred in social media during the Covid-19 pandemic",1,-1,[],[38091]],["deceptive speech denies others as co-founders of a common world by distorting the epistemic basis on which their judgments rest.",1,-1,[],[42734]],["deliberate deceiving intention",1,-1,[],[38091]],["deliberate disinformation intended to deceive",1,-1,[],[47446]],["deliberate forms of manipulation",1,-1,[],[35096]],["deliberate or malicious disinformation that misguide the public",1,-1,[],[57823]],["deliberately seeks to overload, discredit, or realign an audience's information management capabilities.",1,-1,[],[55165]],["deployed by state and non-state actors as a key tool for exerting influence",1,-1,[],[39974]],["describing the communicators' aims somewhat differently as \"intent to harm\"",1,-1,[],[39354]],["designed to weaken social cohesion",1,-1,[],[2214]],["detect and disrupt disinformation",1,-1,[],[36482]],["different from misinformation which relates to 'unintentional behaviors that inadvertently mislead'",1,-1,[],[5387]],["disinformation about Covid-19 on WhatsApp in Brazil followed a pattern of framing the pandemic as a conspiracy and its combat measures as strategies to undermine Bolsonaro's government.",1,-1,[],[35890]],["disinformation actively employs a wide range of methods and means to manipulate the thoughts and beliefs of the public.",1,-1,[],[50850]],["disinformation activities do not just involve completely false information, but can also encompass inflammatory or disruptive commentary on existing events.",1,-1,[],[26708]],["disinformation activities will gain growing importance, especially through the use of new technologies.",1,-1,[],[39616]],["disinformation acts similarly to the Telephone Game but with intentional distortion: the original information is deliberately rephrased at each stage to create a narrative that suits a particular agenda.",1,-1,[],[46895]],["disinformation aims to increase polarization or cynicism by reaching specific audiences who are most susceptible to deceptive content",1,-1,[],[22384]],["disinformation and fake news became popular terms to help generate domestic awareness against foreign information operations globally.",1,-1,[],[39433]],["disinformation and its associated terms are used to exaggerate an existing threat and create a rallying discourse meant to channel the attention of divided threat.",1,-1,[],[39433]],["disinformation and misinformation are also spread in the environment by carriers.",1,-1,[],[28210]],["disinformation and misinformation may mutate.",1,-1,[],[28210]],["disinformation and propaganda may incite violence, hostility, discrimination and war crimes.",1,-1,[],[29677]],["disinformation as a 'multifaceted and polysemic phenomenon'",1,-1,[],[20668]],["disinformation as a more extreme sub-type of misinformation beliefs",1,-1,[],[8325]],["disinformation as a weapon to manipulate social behavior within a limited time span",1,-1,[],[56178]],["disinformation as deliberate falsehood",1,-1,[],[13440]],["disinformation be likely to create false beliefs or prevent true beliefs (and have the function of doing so)",1,-1,[],[10301]],["disinformation campaigns leverage social media to spread narratives that erode trust in defense policies, ultimately weakening public support for initiatives critical to national security",1,-1,[],[57973]],["disinformation campaigns often aim to impede their political participation.",1,-1,[],[34323]],["disinformation campaigns targeted long trusted scientific institutions",1,-1,[],[6557]],["disinformation campaigns, particularly through social media, exploit public concerns and create skepticism toward defense initiatives, significantly affecting the government's ability to gather public support for these essential policies.",1,-1,[],[57973]],["disinformation can be \"largely or partly true, and often is, to make it more credible\"",1,-1,[],[26684]],["disinformation can either increase the cost or reduce the benefit of information.",1,-1,[],[37115]],["disinformation can exist outside the dichotomy of true and false, and that disinformation can be true but misleading information",1,-1,[],[37343]],["disinformation can harm people indirectly by eroding trust and thereby inhibiting our ability to effectively share information with one another.",1,-1,[],[10301]],["disinformation can often be hidden as entertaining or satirical content",1,-1,[],[38091]],["disinformation can potentially have harmful consequences by virtue of misleading people; if a piece of information is not likely to create false beliefs, then it is not really a serious threat to information quality.",1,-1,[],[10301]],["disinformation can sometimes be accurate",1,-1,[],[10301]],["disinformation categories",1,-1,[],[46316]],["disinformation characterized by the interpretative limitation of the content receiver.",1,-1,[],[20668]],["disinformation clearly represents a vector for the type of threats identified in Article 34.",1,-1,[],[32126]],["disinformation comes from someone who is actively engaged in an attempt to mislead",1,-1,[],[10301]],["disinformation content of a political, health, environmental, etc. nature, whose discourse may be more effective as the users themselves are not aware that it is fake content",1,-1,[],[40580]],["disinformation contributes to lowering trust in mainstream media and institutions, although these two variables appear to be mutually reinforcing.",1,-1,[],[57984]],["disinformation could be one tool, among others, used to violate human rights",1,-1,[],[51306]],["disinformation defines false facts that are conceived to deliberately deceive an audience.",1,-1,[],[18979]],["disinformation differs from factually false opinion since it does not convey authentic personal beliefs",1,-1,[],[42734]],["disinformation disseminated by political parties and major political figures",1,-1,[],[44574]],["disinformation does not need to rely on already available identity-to-action associations. These associations can be constructed in context.",1,-1,[],[28320]],["disinformation doesn't necessarily have to intend harm",1,-1,[],[37343]],["disinformation doing the opposite job and doing it with great efficiency",1,-1,[],[54211]],["disinformation dynamics",1,-1,[],[31068]],["disinformation erodes trust",1,-1,[],[29032]],["disinformation exported to foreign audiences, whether done by governmental bodies or political parties",1,-1,[],[44574]],["disinformation in international relations parasites on existing divisions and concerns.",1,-1,[],[53981]],["disinformation involves a close interaction between senders and receivers. Actors of disinformation, for example, may deliberately target recipients that they perceive to be most susceptible to their message, for example, as they already demonstrate moderate levels of doubt in the established order.",1,-1,[],[5535]],["disinformation involves falsehoods and a range of argumentative tactics to make the public believe that probable knowledge is factual.",1,-1,[],[26684]],["disinformation is a bigger issue that \"includes all forms of false, inaccurate, or misleading information designed, presented and promoted to intentionally cause public harm or for profit\"",1,-1,[],[54739]],["disinformation is a particularly problematic form of misinformation because it is no accident that people are misled.",1,-1,[],[10301]],["disinformation is a political tool, not only in Costa Rica but also worldwide",1,-1,[],[30033]],["disinformation is a right-wing political strategy",1,-1,[],[9479]],["disinformation is a systemic, not incidental, outcome of media deregulation and political capture.",1,-1,[],[37373]],["disinformation is about the intent to deceive",1,-1,[],[26999]],["disinformation is about the intent to deceive, and misinformation may not involve deception at all",1,-1,[],[26999]],["disinformation is actually not a proper subset of inaccurate information.",1,-1,[],[18200]],["disinformation is alleged to have become a new strategic glue intended to help Western nations pool together their increasingly diverging interests and resources in support of a common cause.",1,-1,[],[39433]],["disinformation is always misleading",1,-1,[],[10301]],["disinformation is based on the dissemination of false information (misleading) in the form of news or imitation of documentary formats, -it is strategic communication that always involves the promotion of specific goals, -it has a covert nature, concerning not only false information but also the concealment of the true purposes of disinformation.",1,-1,[],[44813]],["disinformation is best understood as a top-down, centrally-coordinated intervention that relies on tactics of systemic deception to mislead the public for a strategic, political purpose",1,-1,[],[7399]],["disinformation is built, strengthened, and disseminated through an essentially a human infrastructure in the Brazil.",1,-1,[],[41299]],["disinformation is considered the intersection of other information disorders such as malinformation and misinformation",1,-1,[],[37343]],["disinformation is content put in the wrong context and imposter, manipulated, or fabricated content",1,-1,[],[41811]],["disinformation is created and disseminated to solve problems in an efficient manner, and employed when covert deception is the best-fitting strategy to maximize utility.",1,-1,[],[5535]],["disinformation is created with malicious intent, whereas this is not necessarily the case with misinformation",1,-1,[],[40065]],["disinformation is done purposely",1,-1,[],[33729]],["disinformation is effective in shaping people's opinions and actions both through emotive content that appeals to people's emotions and by exploiting the dynamics of human psychology.",1,-1,[],[37343]],["disinformation is especially pronounced during emergencies, this could impede the functionality of emergency services and public authorities and thus pose a societal threat.",1,-1,[],[53009]],["disinformation is harmful because citizens don't always count with the tools to unravel lies from truth. You can get lost trying to get to the truth. It leaves doubts in the collective unconscious, it leaves conspiracy theories",1,-1,[],[30033]],["disinformation is information deliberately deceptive, intending to deceive or not",1,-1,[],[15831]],["disinformation is information deliberately deceptive, intending to deceive;",1,-1,[],[15831]],["disinformation is intentional deception; we could claim its only purpose is to influence the decision-making process in a negative capacity.",1,-1,[],[37866]],["disinformation is intentionally deceptive",1,-1,[],[22384]],["disinformation is intentionally misleading by providing misleading or false information",1,-1,[],[38773]],["disinformation is likely to increase polarisation, in particular along politically partisan lines, by spreading harmful conspiracy theories, radical and supremacist thoughts, Islamophobia, cynicism, racism, distrust or misogyny.",1,-1,[],[57984]],["disinformation is meant to deceive",1,-1,[],[8183]],["disinformation is much better suited for regulatory action because it is effected with intention and as such, there are groups or individuals who are responsible.",1,-1,[],[2214]],["disinformation is neither simply nor solely passively received by audiences, but it is through the proactive and communal work of specific and highly committed disinformation agents that disinformation can \"trade up the chain\" of the digital media ecosystem, reach audiences across multiple platforms, and find a loyal, sympathetic public",1,-1,[],[7399]],["disinformation is no longer an occasional disturbance, but a professionalized and deliberate practice associated with political polarization in recent years",1,-1,[],[54211]],["disinformation is not a phenomenon limited only to the electoral or political sphere, as it extends to all strata of social life",1,-1,[],[37357]],["disinformation is not merely reactive but actively shapes the contours of political meaning-making, redefining Albania's geopolitical identity in the public imagination.",1,-1,[],[37373]],["disinformation is not only false but also includes fabricated information blended with facts",1,-1,[],[56088]],["disinformation is often posted purposefully (e.g., for political gain).",1,-1,[],[41188]],["disinformation is part of minors' routine exposure to online content.",1,-1,[],[38091]],["disinformation is probably as old as the spread of rumor itself",1,-1,[],[19092]],["disinformation is seen as a type of misinformationpurposeful misinformation",1,-1,[],[2168]],["disinformation is the false information or inaccurate data. It can be invented news, partially inaccurate or distorted news.",1,-1,[],[13385]],["disinformation is the process of mass disseminating deceptions.",1,-1,[],[26684]],["disinformation is unintentional but may still be harmful",1,-1,[],[44413]],["disinformation is unintentional but may still be harmfulfoot_0",1,-1,[],[44413]],["disinformation may be more potent because it focuses directly on shaping judgment and engineering behavior.",1,-1,[],[20255]],["disinformation may involve different practices of altering, decontextualizing and fabricating information.",1,-1,[],[5535]],["disinformation may result in a specific dimension of the platformization process as part of \"the oxygen and carbon dioxide that feed the ecosystem of platforms\"",1,-1,[],[26740]],["disinformation may strategically exploit socio-political cleavages to create confusion, amplify conflicts and further divide societies.",1,-1,[],[5535]],["disinformation narratives being planted via computational propaganda",1,-1,[],[58553]],["disinformation narratives targeting the EU and its member states",1,-1,[],[29025]],["disinformation need not always impose a cost on the recipient; in fact, it is sometimes intended to benefit the recipient",1,-1,[],[10301]],["disinformation occurs when semantic content is erroneous.",1,-1,[],[31695]],["disinformation often arises from the interaction between editorial intentions and platform architectures.",1,-1,[],[45127]],["disinformation often carries malicious intent",1,-1,[],[46895]],["disinformation often layers true information with false -an accurate fact set in misleading context, a real photograph purposely mislabelled.",1,-1,[],[23425]],["disinformation on TikTok is narratively determined by individual users, most of them fake profiles, who insert videos and photos from other digital platforms, taken out of context and reinforced with biased texts.",1,-1,[],[40580]],["disinformation online can have serious consequences for democracy and human rights.",1,-1,[],[51103]],["disinformation perceptions are closer to cynicism",1,-1,[],[8325]],["disinformation perceptions can be connected to a more antagonistic perspective on the media's role in society",1,-1,[],[8325]],["disinformation perceptions correspond to a divide between news consumers and the news media that intentionally misleads",1,-1,[],[8325]],["disinformation perceptions correspond to disapproval of verification efforts (the media lie to us, so we cannot trust journalists to verify in a truthful way either)",1,-1,[],[8325]],["disinformation plays a role equivalent to military operations in hybrid conflicts",1,-1,[],[39616]],["disinformation poses a threat to democratic political processes by corrupting the integrity of electoral processes and undermining the democratic values which shape public policies, including in the health and science sectors.",1,-1,[],[57984]],["disinformation post on the other hand would be propagated with the deliberate intention to deceive or mislead the recipient of the message.",1,-1,[],[42173]],["disinformation propagated by both domestic and foreign governments",1,-1,[],[44574]],["disinformation propagated through misinformation. In this case, an actor produces information knowing it is False, but other users perceive it as true and share it as such.",1,-1,[],[8234]],["disinformation purveyors increasingly use fake outlets (Alba & Nicas, 2020) and fake local hashtags (Starbird et al., 2019) to replace real, local journalism that is disappearing from communities, particularly those with less affluence (Abernathy, 2020).",1,-1,[],[34323]],["disinformation results from the dissemination of false information in different media to deceive and manipulate the public",1,-1,[],[27733]],["disinformation should also be interpreted as a human rights issue",1,-1,[],[37343]],["disinformation should not be conflated with factually false opinion, as it does not represent genuine personal beliefs",1,-1,[],[42734]],["disinformation strategies",1,-1,[],[31068]],["disinformation supported by the journalist community",1,-1,[],[40314]],["disinformation takes the form of a more or less elaborate argument",1,-1,[],[39616]],["disinformation that threatens to subsume (or, as Tovërlani and Muhaxheri put it, \"flip,\" 60) reality into hyperreality.",1,-1,[],[34877]],["disinformation to describe more systematic disruptions of information flows",1,-1,[],[34522]],["disinformation to distort the general discourse",1,-1,[],[53009]],["disinformation turns out to be misleading information that is intended to be (or at least foreseen to be) misleading.",1,-1,[],[18200]],["disinformation where persuasion has failed",1,-1,[],[2214]],["disinformation's impact on knowledge, attitudes/opinion and behavior",1,-1,[],[10182]],["disinformation, hate speech, privacy, surveillance, and related online phenomena also constitute one dimension that is shaping the current political activity on the traditional left-right axis",1,-1,[],[44574]],["disinformation, particularly as norm-disrupting, manipulative speech, is not entitled to the same protection as persuasion or mobilization.",1,-1,[],[42734]],["disinformation, which is often spread without verification.",1,-1,[],[55326]],["disinformation-spreading influencers",1,-1,[],[29032]],["dissemination of disinformation",1,-1,[],[31068]],["distorting public perception, promoting skepticism, and reducing support for defense policies, ultimately obstructing effective policy implementation",1,-1,[],[57973]],["distribution of intentionally misleading information",1,-1,[],[31074]],["emerges as another threat that exacerbates the weaknesses of democracies.",1,-1,[],[48797]],["emphasizing intent rather than mere factual inaccuracy.",1,-1,[],[61185]],["employ disinformation to reinforce their in-group/out-group dynamics",1,-1,[],[9479]],["encountering (dis)information",1,-1,[],[57285]],["especially when inaccurate information downplays the severity of the crisis, which is often the case for disinformation, people could be less likely to follow expert recommendationse.g., during Hurricane Florence, residents refused to evacuate because the effects were perceived as less severe by the public than they actually were (Sandman et al., 2005).",1,-1,[],[14770]],["excludes reporting errors, satire and parody, partisan news and commentary, or illegal content",1,-1,[],[36482]],["extensive deceptive information can counteract the democratic purpose of free speech",1,-1,[],[42734]],["fake news variants, such as misinformation, rumors, clickbait, and disinformation.",1,-1,[],[20608]],["false information is intentionally shared to cause harm",1,-1,[],[59332]],["false information that is purposely spread to deceive people",1,-1,[],[53411]],["false information, (b) disseminated with a specific intention, and (c) targeting certain public harms",1,-1,[],[10587]],["false, exaggerated or simply disinformative expressions in political contexts",1,-1,[],[42189]],["foreign interference, information manipulation and disinformation are an abuse of the fundamental freedoms of expression and information",1,-1,[],[51306]],["further threaten the democratic production of credible communication",1,-1,[],[2214]],["half-truths, exaggerations, or lies",1,-1,[],[15718]],["harmful effects of disinformation include threats to democratic political processes and democratic values in general, undermining trust in institutions and in digital and traditional media",1,-1,[],[39974]],["has become a powerful tool for manipulating individuals and damaging reputations.",1,-1,[],[39936]],["has profound effects on public perception, often eroding support for essential government policies in areas as sensitive as national security",1,-1,[],[57973]],["has resulted in considerable harm to Muslim refugees.",1,-1,[],[42490]],["has taken on the status of a full-fledged weapon",1,-1,[],[39616]],["hindering informed decision-making by citizens",1,-1,[],[39974]],["how much of this inaccurate information is \"deliberately misleading.\"",1,-1,[],[18200]],["identified five goals of disinformation, of which fake news is a subset, these goals include paralysis, demoralization, confusion, blackmail, and subversion.",1,-1,[],[55165]],["if she/he has an opportunity to set the record straight and fails to do so, it is no longer an accident that people are misled.",1,-1,[],[10301]],["in most cases minimal effort is put into crafting the disinformation, instead relying on speed, volume and reuse of slightly modified pre-existing materials.",1,-1,[],[51991]],["in the context of this report, is intended to be a broad category describing the types of information that one could encounter online that could possibly lead to misperceptions about the actual state of the world.",1,-1,[],[12599]],["included discrediting of research institutions, such as Datafolha, Ipec, and Ipespe",1,-1,[],[41299]],["includes all forms of false, inaccurate, or misleading information designed, presented and promoted to cause harm intentionally or for profit",1,-1,[],[26684]],["increases polarization in society and decreases trust in mainstream media and institutions",1,-1,[],[39974]],["intention is the keyword; disinformation is a weapon particularly in the hands of governmental bodies and political actors.",1,-1,[],[44574]],["intentional disinformation often employs persuasive techniques and is carefully crafted and targeted at specific audiences, exploiting cognitive biases and emotional triggers.",1,-1,[],[49917]],["intentionality is what differentiates these two concepts.",1,-1,[],[52894]],["intentionally false information with the goal of misleading people",1,-1,[],[56202]],["intentionally falsified information, particularly launched by one government for another or for the public",1,-1,[],[13385]],["intentionally manipulated",1,-1,[],[38360]],["intentionally placed and verifiably inaccurate information produced and disseminated for various purposes, most often for propaganda or manipulation purposes",1,-1,[],[54671]],["intervenes with the democratic order by dominating and distorting public discourses and corrupting the process of democratic decision-making concerning central issues of public interest",1,-1,[],[39974]],["involving distorted signals unrelated to the truth or part of psychological warfare based on manipulating public opinion",1,-1,[],[42757]],["is a phenomenon as old as humanity, but since the development of information and communication technologies (ICTs), it has re-emerged with a vigour never seen before.",1,-1,[],[51103]],["is a phenomenon that is practically as old as human communication itself.",1,-1,[],[54673]],["is built, strengthened, and disseminated through an essentially a human infrastructure in the Brazil",1,-1,[],[41299]],["is in second place",1,-1,[],[56217]],["it has become easier than ever to create and disseminate disinformation and more and more people are exposed to false content simply by virtue of their daily news consumption.",1,-1,[],[19092]],["it is a known falsehood.",1,-1,[],[13440]],["it is generally preferred at the EU level",1,-1,[["it is generally preferred at the EU level",1],["it is generally preferred at the EU level.",1]],[39125]],["it is information that deliberately alienates or disempowers people, the speaker shows a disregard for the other who is disempowered.",1,-1,[],[13440]],["it is more standard to use the term misinformation to refer to inaccurate information in general (Fox, 1983, p. 201), and to treat disinformation as a proper subset of misinformation (Floridi, 2011, p. 260;Skyrms, 2010, p. 80).",1,-1,[],[10301]],["it is the one that best represents the activities of media indoctrination carried out in an orchestrated manner by Russian government bodies to destabilize their rivals.",1,-1,[],[51306]],["it only matters if the intended response is produced",1,-1,[],[20255]],["it will often be more difficult to identify disinformation since the source of the information does not want us to realize that the information is inaccurate or misleading.",1,-1,[],[18200]],["its defining feature is that the speaker deliberately misrepresents their views",1,-1,[["its defining feature is that the speaker deliberately misrepresents their views",1],["its defining feature is that the speaker deliberately misrepresents their views.",1]],[42734]],["its intended impact is potentially more systematic and disruptive than misinformation.",1,-1,[],[22384]],["journalists are more or less familiar with the term disinformation, but are lacking training on recognising information that has the character of disinformation",1,-1,[],[31743]],["made it impossible for people to distinguish what is true from what is false",1,-1,[],[29032]],["manifests in various ways, such as fabricated news stories, propaganda, and unfounded rumors (Benkler et al., 2018).",1,-1,[],[44220]],["manipulation through disinformation (i.e., spreading fake news through social media) could be a potent tool for a politician or government intending to stay in power.",1,-1,[],[57794]],["manipulative techniques and disinformation with a real and foreseeable negative impact on public health, public security, civil discourse, political participation and equality",1,-1,[],[10587]],["many varieties of disinformation include: politicians lying about their policies and political activities; attacks on the scientific evidence surrounding important issues such as climate change; the spread of \"deep state,\" \"globalist\" and various bizzare conspiracy theories; and the invention of stories to inflame existing social and political conflicts.",1,-1,[],[2214]],["may cause public harm. Public harm comprises threats to democratic political and policymaking processes as well as public goods such as the protection of EU citizens' health, the environment or security. Disinformation does not include reporting errors, satire and parody, or clearly identified partisan news and commentary.",1,-1,[],[21934]],["messages intentionally designed to provoke their emotions and promote social media sharing",1,-1,[],[34323]],["minimising the effects of disinformation",1,-1,[],[59036]],["misinformation with intention to cause harm",1,-1,[],[163]],["misleading content remains largely unchecked, particularly when delivered in culturally nuanced ways that evade straightforward classifications of misinformation or disinformation",1,-1,[],[56940]],["misleading, manipulated, and fabricated content",1,-1,[],[41299]],["mitigating the negative impact of AI-generated disinformation in elections",1,-1,[],[29032]],["monitoring disinformation and computational propaganda in elections",1,-1,[],[36482]],["multimodal and data-driven disinformation is perceived as more credible than textual disinformation",1,-1,[],[5170]],["mythopoesis is a feature of fake news.",1,-1,[],[53487]],["narratives around phenomena that cannot be linked to one particular event, specific country or geography, but hold significant importance in constituting narratives",1,-1,[],[58553]],["next generation of disinformation which, fuelled by advances in AI and decentralised computing, promises to spread faster, to be more sophisticated, and harder to detect.",1,-1,[],[60924]],["norm-disrupting speech seeking to disturb public deliberation",1,-1,[],[42734]],["norm-disrupting, manipulative speech",1,-1,[],[42734]],["often considered part of broader influence operations combining multiple techniques",1,-1,[],[59332]],["often not synthesised from political parties and donors, but from user generated content",1,-1,[],[59036]],["often seen in a political context where state actors create them for political gains",1,-1,[],[52006]],["on is to deceive the public",1,-1,[],[26840]],["one key element of disinformation has found its place in the balancing rights test: information veracity.",1,-1,[],[31953]],["one of the basic operational methods of intelligence services, used both in wartime and peacetime",1,-1,[],[39616]],["one of the tools of influence foreign states use",1,-1,[],[34522]],["online and radio newsrooms, with their shorter publishing cycle, were more prone to publishing misinformation and disinformation",1,-1,[],[5170]],["online disinformation does not exist in isolation and is impacted by other concerns that have led many to call for reforms and regulation of issues including data security, privacy issues, and the oversized power and influence of platforms like Facebook and YouTube",1,-1,[],[2214]],["other attacks aimed at altering public opinion and thus damaging the democratic function of both states and international organizations are increasingly taking place, and thus becoming part of international relations and the geopolitical landscape.",1,-1,[],[51306]],["other forms of disinformation including misleading polls and false claims by election monitors should also be regarded as important forms of disinformation in elections.",1,-1,[],[50729]],["participants are interacting with false material that they have been told is not true",1,-1,[],[46316]],["people with disinformation perceptions are less likely to comply and more likely to actively avoid information.",1,-1,[],[14770]],["perceived influence of disinformation on one's own vote",1,-1,[],[29032]],["perception of personal resistance to the influence of disinformation without denying its existence",1,-1,[],[29032]],["pojma koji je na razini Europske unije službeno usvojen u svrhu označavanje ove pojave",1,-1,[],[54673]],["pollutes public debate and on the other hand can represent a stream of content that is easily disseminated and monetized",1,-1,[],[26740]],["poses a growing and complex challenge to public perception and policy implementation, especially in sensitive sectors like national defense",1,-1,[],[57973]],["prepared by accompanying text which adds to the importance and urgency of the communication often with some degree of conspiracy",1,-1,[],[28210]],["processes of information curation enacted by disinformation agents, as opposed to solely looking at how it is received by audiences [81]",1,-1,[],[7399]],["prohibitions on disinformation may violate international human rights standards, while, at the same time, this does not justify the dissemination of knowingly or recklessly false statements by official or State actors",1,-1,[],[51306]],["propaganda and disinformation to mislead audiences, defame individuals and harm vital state interests",1,-1,[],[50542]],["propositional content of signs that misrepresents the state of the world with the intention to deceive",1,-1,[],[32653]],["recognising its potential to undermine democratic discourse and public trust",1,-1,[],[42189]],["referred to the operations of intoxication carried out by the capitalist countries against the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (URSS)",1,-1,[],[15831]],["resulted in the growth of disinformation, leading to questions of how human beings can be manipulated by false information.",1,-1,[],[29495]],["roughly",1,-1,[],[32576]],["sent by ordinary people or someone with an agenda to disseminate false information",1,-1,[],[5170]],["similar content aimed at deceiving or strongly swaying the receiver can be disinformation",1,-1,[],[42189]],["since Fallis does not require that disinformation be inaccurate, true disinformation counts as disinformation",1,-1,[],[10301]],["since Fallis explicitly requires that disinformation be misleading, implausible lies do not count as disinformation",1,-1,[],[10301]],["some is intended to provide correct information that is manipulated as a legitimate method to expose racism",1,-1,[],[56088]],["spreading of fake news and disinformation in social media",1,-1,[],[40314]],["state machinery is co-opted to propagate narratives that primarily benefit those in authority, undermining the interests of the general public and creating a dangerous imbalance in the communication ecology.",1,-1,[],[39282]],["strategically weaponized, exploiting digital ambiguity to erode societal trust",1,-1,[],[61185]],["subset of misinformation",1,-1,[],[58736]],["such true disinformation is intentionally misleading and poses a similar risk of harm to the recipient",1,-1,[],[10301]],["susceptible to providing executive authorities with ' excessive discretion to determine what is disinformation, what is a mistake, what is truth'",1,-1,[],[10587]],["tactic of enlisting disinformation to secure adoption of otherwise unsalable policies and changes in the legal system",1,-1,[],[2214]],["tailored to support a preconceived thesis, which is a common disinformation technique",1,-1,[],[39616]],["tap the perceived dishonesty of the news environment, which corresponds to perceived intentional misleading, deception, and dishonesty of the media",1,-1,[],[48711]],["temptation of governments to infringe upon civil liberties",1,-1,[],[39974]],["that exist online.",1,-1,[],[22439]],["that which comes from a bad intention",1,-1,[],[30033]],["the Czech legislature which does not recognise the term (and crime) of disinformation or propaganda",1,-1,[],[38275]],["the act of installing disinformation as a control device, creating political divisions, and denigrating women",1,-1,[],[29032]],["the amount of false information present on social media and especially the speed with which it is produced is unlikely to be organically produced.",1,-1,[],[53009]],["the consequent production and dissemination of false or manipulated information",1,-1,[],[50050]],["the content is presented and disseminated to deceive the public intentionally",1,-1,[],[31953]],["the content of the disinformation itself",1,-1,[],[212]],["the dataset used defines disinformation simply as \"misleading viewpoints or false information.\"",1,-1,[],[44574]],["the deliberate deceiving intention behind disinformation",1,-1,[],[38091]],["the deliberate dissemination of falsehoods aimed at deceiving or swaying public opinion",1,-1,[],[39282]],["the difference between \"fake news\" and \"disinformation\" is in the numerical dimension -in the scale on which they are used.",1,-1,[],[51306]],["the distinction between information and disinformation is grounded in the concept of deception, defined relative to the knowledge and intent of the individual.",1,-1,[],[2168]],["the effects could still be harmful.",1,-1,[],[42189]],["the fact that a piece of information has the function of misleading does not mean that it had that function as soon as it was created or first disseminated.",1,-1,[],[10301]],["the fact that false claims were repeated, often long after they were shown to be false, and that alternative explanations or critical voices were barely given space, if they were included at all.",1,-1,[],[26962]],["the fake news phenomenon has evolved into a specific concept, with its own peculiarities differentiating it from concepts such as misinformation and disinformation.",1,-1,[],[1765]],["the falsity of the information needs to be verifiable or the information needs to be misleading (the two circumstances seem to be alternative but equally sufficient).",1,-1,[],[38651]],["the focus is on the easy cases-a pattern of deliberately disabling or distorting information",1,-1,[],[25632]],["the growing phenomenon of disinformation, which is an important element of information warfare",1,-1,[],[36959]],["the instrumental role governments play in crafting and disseminating false narratives as a deliberate tool of propaganda.",1,-1,[],[39282]],["the interviewed officers identified systematic disinformation and propaganda as one of the most significant concerns for national security overall.",1,-1,[],[53009]],["the latter involves the intentional distribution of factually false claims for the purposes of inducing a political effect",1,-1,[],[55165]],["the main criterion that distinguishes disinformation from misinformation is the intention behind the dissemination of information.",1,-1,[],[37343]],["the main distinction between them lies in the fact that \"misinformation\" is disseminated without intentional deceptive intentions and often arises from innocent mistakes or a lack of verification. In contrast, \"disinformation\" involves deliberate deception and the spread of information with malicious intent to manipulate, deceive, or cause harm.",1,-1,[],[50850]],["the main reason for online falsehood",1,-1,[],[42667]],["the manipulation of information for foreign policy purposes",1,-1,[],[53981]],["the media's dishonesty and inaccurate reporting is goal-directed and deliberate",1,-1,[],[23047]],["the mentioned problem is primarily observed and processed in the sense of intentionally placed and verifiably inaccurate information produced and disseminated for various purposes, most often for propaganda or manipulation purposes.",1,-1,[],[54673]],["the message contains false or partially false information, and the purpose of the communication is to influence recipients, to change their beliefs so they are in line with the intention of the disinformant and bring them benefits.",1,-1,[],[34522]],["the misrepresentation of scientific facts and the promotion of misleading narratives",1,-1,[],[2214]],["the misrepresentation of scientific facts and the promotion of misleading narratives. 49",1,-1,[],[2214]],["the most common disinformation flows: Covid-19, vaccination in general, global warming, disinformation coming from Russia and China, conspiracy theories, election campaigns, regional and international crises, etc.",1,-1,[],[43850]],["the notion of \"Disinformation\" does not include misleading advertising, reporting errors, satire and parody, or clearly identified partisan news and commentary.",1,-1,[],[59036]],["the notion of disinformation, rather than merely concerning harmful content, is in fact illegal content in a number of EU member states, and most notably, subject to criminal law and sanctions.",1,-1,[],[10587]],["the primary difference between malinformation and disinformation lies in whether the content of the information is false.",1,-1,[],[37343]],["the process of disinformation redefines what constitutes knowledge and forces people to take sides against rhetorically constructed opponents.",1,-1,[],[26684]],["the process of information is defective; (b) the source is aware of its nature; and (c) it is purposefully conveyed to mislead.",1,-1,[],[13662]],["the product of a carefully planned and technically sophisticated deceit process.",1,-1,[],[24141]],["the product of politically-motivated agents who create, share, and amplify disinformation content to generate chaos and disorder",1,-1,[],[7399]],["the release of deliberate disinformation is equivalent to the introduction of a bias into the noise that is undetected by the receiver of the information.",1,-1,[],[57823]],["the risk of disinformation is most prominent in political contextsa context especially protected under the ECHR.",1,-1,[],[42189]],["the source is aware of its nature; and (c) it is purposefully conveyed to mislead.",1,-1,[],[13662]],["the source of the information merely has to foresee that it is likely to mislead",1,-1,[],[10301]],["the speaker shows a disregard for the other who is disempowered.",1,-1,[],[13440]],["the study of disinformation is more challenging than the study of misinformation, as it requires knowledge of the intent of an author, which is often inaccessible to researchers.",1,-1,[],[2168]],["the tactic of enlisting disinformation to secure adoption of otherwise unsalable policies and changes in the legal system",1,-1,[],[2214]],["the term is not restricted only to news but also covers the distribution of false data via any possible means, from videos to fake accounts",1,-1,[],[38040]],["the use of disinformation as a foreign policy tool by Russia, is a high-tech, poor man's strategy",1,-1,[],[53981]],["the use of disinformation generates a problem of poor quality of information in the economy.",1,-1,[],[37115]],["the users that disinformation is targeting",1,-1,[],[212]],["the volume of spin and disinformation has not worked well to convince citizens of much beyond the conclusion that politics seems broken.",1,-1,[],[2214]],["the way disinformation spreads over the network",1,-1,[],[212]],["there is a blurred border between the information (satirical or sensationalist in this case) and disinformation provided by journalistic media",1,-1,[],[37357]],["there is an element of intent to deceive recipients, which is certainly diffi cult to prove.",1,-1,[],[31953]],["thereby reflecting falsehood and malicious intent.",1,-1,[],[1700]],["they all point to falsehood in information dissemination.",1,-1,[],[33909]],["they do not simply distrust the content of information itself but cast severe doubts on the intentions underlying the production of news content: news producers are regarded as part of a corrupt established order that misleads news consumers as part of a scheme to hide the power discrepancy between the ordinary people and the corrupt elites.",1,-1,[],[48711]],["this is a broader definition of disinformation than the one by Humprecht et al. (2020), cited in the introduction to this chapter, they share a core focus on the intentionality of harm that is sought by those who produce or disseminate such information.",1,-1,[],[24202]],["this policy brief will use the terms 'fake news' and 'disinformation' interchangeably",1,-1,[],[44583]],["this weaponization of disinformation does not only negatively affect social cohesion by increasing social polarization.",1,-1,[],[37343]],["threats caused by disinformation",1,-1,[],[43850]],["to confuse and weaken, through the spread of biased, false or simply as much 'information' as possible",1,-1,[],[53981]],["types of poor quality information include disinformation",1,-1,[],[26756]],["understanding the motives for disinformation are much akin to understanding the motives for deception",1,-1,[],[19205]],["understood as \"threats against democratic, political and policy-making processes, as well as against public goods, such as the protection of health, the environment or the security of EU citizens\"",1,-1,[],[27564]],["unintentional but may still be harmful",1,-1,[],[44413]],["used to influence public opinion and alter perspectives on various issues",1,-1,[],[50850]],["verifiably false or misleading information that, cumulatively, is created, presented and disseminated for economic gain or to intentionally deceive the public and that may cause public harm",1,-1,[],[51103]],["verification, tagging and elimination of disinformation",1,-1,[],[43850]],["we can identify three key elements that emerge from the various definitions applicable to disinformation at member state level, namely (a) false information, (b) disseminated with a specific intention (malicious or bad faith) (c) and causes certain harms.",1,-1,[],[10587]],["we have sought to code data points as disinformation to the extent they are situated in structures of power, grievance, and racism in Australia.",1,-1,[],[56940]],["we use the term \"disinformation\" to describe this latter form of message content shared by senders who do not have the intent to inform but the intent to shape recipient judgment and decision making independently of the probative content of the messages they send.",1,-1,[],[28320]],["we will be using the term disinformation instead of fake news in the current chapter, to ensure that we are not just talking about fake stories but about media manipulation more generally.",1,-1,[],[19092]],["weakens public trust, undermining confidence in government-led initiatives",1,-1,[],[57973]],["what is required for disinforming is that you disseminate some information (condition 1) that you intend to be misleading (conditions 2 and 3) and it actually is misleading (conditions 4 and 5).",1,-1,[],[18200]],["when the intention is to deceive the recipient, it is disinformation.",1,-1,[],[24141]],["whether a story can be considered disinformation, misinformation, or true information, depends on the observer's perspective.",1,-1,[],[40820]],["which may heighten tensions within the diaspora",1,-1,[],[40208]],["which%20 may%20cause%20public%20harm",1,-1,[],[44413]],["while disinformation might typically involve minor or simple modifi-cations, it is still intentionally crafted to be misleading and is constantly evolving and adapting.",1,-1,[],[51991]],["while disinformation will typically be inaccurate, it does not have to be inaccurate. It just has to be misleading.",1,-1,[],[18200]],["while misinformation is not",1,-1,[],[49359]],["works as a business due to the gains derived from clickbait, likes and visitation",1,-1,[],[30033]]],"sy":[["fake news",46,33960,[["fake news",43],["Fake News",2],["Fake news",1]],[212,1488,2214,13588,18791,19092,22384,23175,24024,24202,27335,27733,28320,28546,29305,31641,31695,31953,33909,36769,37115,37866,38091,38848,39282,39753,39974,40787,41299,42690,42734,43850,44583,47562,50729,51306,51871,53356,54211,54673,54739,55138,56202,57794,57823,58449]],["misinformation",14,10315,[],[3915,13588,18791,22439,24202,27950,33909,34323,34558,38848,41774,41775,42690,49917,54973]],["false information",7,20964,[],[10587,29903,40208,50850,54020,57794,59427]],["propaganda",5,34203,[],[1170,18791,41299,50729,51306]],["hoaxes",3,13150,[["hoaxes",2],["hoax",1]],[18791,31641,38091]],["deception",2,24454,[],[50850,51753]],["false content",2,209,[],[30033,38091]],["false 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pollution",1,21393,[],[14793]],["intentional deception",1,-1,[],[14770]],["intentionally misleading",1,-1,[],[14770]],["intentionally misleading information",1,-1,[],[42860]],["lies",1,11646,[],[51753]],["misleading information",1,2191,[],[22504]],["misleading news",1,22858,[],[13088]],["nonaccidentally misleading information",1,-1,[],[42860]],["online propaganda",1,1163,[],[24202]],["protuobavijest",1,-1,[],[13385]],["purposeful deception",1,-1,[],[58553]],["satire",1,9893,[],[18791]],["yellow journalism",1,18136,[],[18791]]],"rt":[["misinformation",188,10315,[["misinformation",174],["Misinformation",7],["Mis-information",6],["mis-information",4]],[619,706,1127,1170,1700,1765,1936,2018,2168,2214,2695,3915,5170,5387,5535,5958,6557,7135,8183,8234,8325,9559,9748,9766,10182,10292,10301,10586,10587,10799,11035,12599,12735,13385,13440,13951,14162,14770,15831,18200,18828,19124,19205,19843,19862,20075,20255,22384,22439,22504,22641,23047,23115,23175,23934,24462,25585,25931,26168,26407,26593,26654,26684,26962,26999,27042,27305,27488,27950,28210,28320,28546,28939,29025,29136,29305,30388,30677,31074,31641,31695,31953,32576,32653,33269,33729,33843,33985,34010,34110,34876,34894,34935,35096,35315,35773,35909,36060,36334,36769,37224,37343,37405,37832,37866,38040,38091,38360,38733,38773,39420,39433,39616,39753,40065,40314,40403,40647,40820,41188,41711,41811,41920,42189,42734,42808,42861,43747,43850,44552,44833,44904,45073,45127,45629,45686,45784,46144,46316,46748,46895,48711,49016,49359,49567,49917,50166,50462,50642,50729,50782,50850,50892,51306,51328,52006,52178,52768,53009,53356,53411,53711,54020,54211,54365,54556,54671,54673,54845,54973,55165,55326,56217,56874,56940,57032,57285,57829,58101,58553,58891,59706,60670,60924,61000,61159,61185,61231,61373,61701]],["fake news",65,33960,[["fake news",63],["Fake News",1],["Fake news",1]],[1765,2018,2214,5387,5421,7101,7135,10587,11258,11364,12599,12735,13588,13951,14162,19843,23934,24462,26999,28210,28320,29025,29305,30033,31953,32653,34110,34522,34876,36482,37357,37866,38040,38091,38848,39433,39616,39753,40314,40580,40602,41711,41811,42062,43814,43850,44813,47490,50050,51306,51991,52006,52178,53009,53711,54211,54739,55165,57285,57823,58553,58891,59036,61000,61373]],["malinformation",31,22495,[["malinformation",17],["mal-information",8],["Mal-information",7],["Malinformation",1],["mal information",1]],[5170,5535,9748,10586,10587,11364,12735,13088,26593,26654,26999,27950,28546,31953,32653,33985,34110,34876,35315,37343,39616,40314,42861,44833,50166,50782,51306,54671,54673,57032,58553,58891,60670]],["propaganda",20,34203,[],[13088,20075,23249,24141,26962,28210,29025,34110,34876,38275,39282,39616,41453,43814,44574,51306,52006,53009,53981,57984]],["information disorder",10,13397,[["information disorder",8],["information disorders",2]],[2214,26654,28558,29025,31953,37343,42490,48670,50050,50166]],["hoaxes",7,13150,[["hoaxes",5],["hoax",2]],[212,20075,37357,38091,42062,46895,57829]],["rumors",6,17712,[["rumors",3],["rumor",1],["rumour",1],["rumours",1]],[2018,2214,13088,26773,31641,46895]],["deception",5,24454,[],[2168,10301,18200,31641,42734]],["false news",4,34005,[],[7101,7135,10587,57984]],["infodemic",4,27460,[],[12735,31743,37405,49375]],["false information",3,20964,[],[10587,26773,35315]],["hate speech",3,18278,[],[29677,43054,43814]],["misleading content",3,17503,[],[1127,11364,30033]],["Information Warfare (IW)",2,6374,[["Information Warfare (IW)",1],["information warfare",1]],[30944,39433]],["conspiracy theories",2,1403,[["conspiracy theories",1],["conspiracy theory",1]],[2214,42734]],["foreign interference",2,2093,[],[38040,51306]],["information manipulation",2,25952,[],[51306,53981]],["information operations",2,21443,[],[39433,60924]],["lies",2,11646,[],[8588,31641]],["lying",2,32166,[],[10301,18200]],["misinformative content",2,32870,[],[30033,54325]],["misleading information",2,2191,[],[10301,38091]],["parody",2,27482,[],[10587,42189]],["satire",2,9893,[],[10587,42189]],["(con)spirituality",1,33735,[],[50892]],["AI-created misleading content",1,4947,[],[58101]],["Content",1,561,[],[20668]],["Environment",1,27236,[],[20668]],["ID",1,-1,[],[56217]],["Informational biases",1,8372,[],[51871]],["Receiver",1,17563,[],[20668]],["Sender",1,-1,[],[20668]],["Type III Fake News",1,5890,[],[29212]],["active measures",1,191,[],[50850]],["agents",1,827,[],[20668]],["alternative facts",1,31822,[],[2214]],["alternativne činjenice (alternative facts)",1,-1,[],[54673]],["anti-science narratives",1,-1,[],[54211]],["attacks on information networks",1,-1,[],[32126]],["biased agenda",1,-1,[],[51164]],["bullshit",1,29347,[],[32576]],["clickbait",1,6382,[],[20075]],["climate denialism",1,5843,[],[54211]],["communicative untruthfulness",1,-1,[],[23047]],["complete fabrication of false narratives",1,-1,[],[31116]],["computational propaganda",1,19112,[],[58553]],["conspiracy",1,13415,[],[20075]],["cyber-attacks",1,-1,[],[32126]],["deceptive falsehoods",1,-1,[],[42734]],["deceptive signaling",1,-1,[],[10301]],["deepfakes",1,4551,[],[35315]],["deliberate but not misleading distortions of facts",1,-1,[],[10587]],["digital disinformation",1,33983,[],[32550]],["discrimination",1,19636,[],[43814]],["disinformation methods",1,4146,[],[50850]],["disinformation narratives",1,2246,[],[51638]],["disruptive communication",1,-1,[],[2214]],["factuality",1,21606,[],[20075]],["factually false opinion",1,-1,[],[42734]],["false facts",1,-1,[],[51164]],["false news content",1,-1,[],[38091]],["false opinion",1,-1,[],[42734]],["false speech",1,19993,[],[11364]],["fraud",1,22026,[],[31641]],["gendered hate speech",1,8701,[],[51103]],["half-truth information",1,-1,[],[26773]],["harm",1,19187,[],[42808]],["harmfulness",1,2214,[],[20075]],["hybrid threats",1,5863,[],[38275]],["hybrid warfare",1,29255,[],[39974]],["illegal content",1,11384,[],[10587]],["inaccurate information",1,16652,[],[18200]],["inauthentic behaviours",1,940,[],[42808]],["influence campaigns",1,3142,[],[26708]],["influencing activities",1,-1,[],[53981]],["informacijski poremećaj (information disorder)",1,-1,[],[54673]],["informacijsko zagađenje (information pollution)",1,-1,[],[54673]],["information",1,18076,[],[20255]],["information cascade",1,21412,[],[60924]],["information desorder",1,-1,[],[10799]],["information influence",1,-1,[],[38040]],["intentionality",1,5581,[],[38773]],["international information war",1,-1,[],[53981]],["interpreter",1,1960,[],[20668]],["knowledge",1,28054,[],[18200]],["lažne vijesti (fake news)",1,-1,[],[54673]],["linguistic disinformation",1,-1,[],[10301]],["logical fallacy detection",1,-1,[],[43054]],["malicious intention",1,5193,[],[38773]],["manipulation",1,148,[],[42734]],["manufactured news",1,-1,[],[42667]],["media literacy",1,27668,[],[54556]],["media manipulation",1,26871,[],[58553]],["message",1,15351,[],[20668]],["misinformation (unconscious falsehood)",1,-1,[],[50462]],["misleading",1,19203,[],[31641]],["misleading advertisement",1,-1,[],[10587]],["online falsehood",1,-1,[],[42667]],["online gender-based violence",1,-1,[],[51103]],["online propaganda",1,1163,[],[12599]],["persuasion",1,23143,[],[42734]],["persuasion techniques",1,21310,[],[7588]],["poor quality information",1,2486,[],[26756]],["post-truth",1,14186,[],[47490]],["propaganda detection",1,-1,[],[8183]],["propaganda for war and hatred",1,-1,[],[53981]],["rumors, \" \"misinformation, \" \"disinformation, \" and \"fake news\" are commonly used interchangeably",1,-1,[],[54020]],["satire news",1,20510,[],[7135]],["sensations",1,28854,[],[26773]],["side-effect disinformation",1,24299,[],[10301]],["social bots and trolls (malicious accounts)",1,-1,[],[5421]],["stereotypization",1,-1,[],[43054]],["strategic rhetoric",1,-1,[],[42734]],["toxic persuasion",1,28522,[],[42734]],["true disinformation",1,33686,[],[10301]],["true information",1,360,[],[40820]],["visual disinformation",1,9093,[],[10301]],["visual misinformation",1,17999,[],[28756]]],"sb":[["fake news",19,33960,[["fake news",13],["Fake news",5],["Fake News",1]],[212,5921,6826,11258,12599,13951,16407,20668,26407,37115,38040,43747,45694,49342,50050,50642,51871,54211,54556]],["fabricated content",6,2438,[["fabricated content",5],["fabricated contents",1]],[1488,9748,25931,27042,42734,50782]],["imposter content",5,28032,[["imposter content",4],["Imposter content",1]],[9748,25931,27042,42734,50782]],["manipulated content",5,10191,[["manipulated content",4],["Manipulated content",1]],[1488,9748,25931,27042,50782]],["false context",4,12161,[["false context",3],["False context",1]],[25931,27042,42734,50782]],["hoaxes",4,13150,[["hoaxes",3],["hoax",1]],[1488,6826,36576,51164]],["Propaganda",3,34203,[["Propaganda",2],["propaganda",1]],[19092,28320,51164]],["conspiracy theories",3,1403,[["conspiracy theories",3],["conspiracy theory",1]],[10301,35890,57984]],["false connection",3,26879,[["false connection",2],["false connections",1]],[25931,27042,42734]],["Rumors",2,17712,[["Rumors",1],["rumors",1]],[12599,26773]],["electoral disinformation",2,18262,[],[29032,37373]],["misleading content",2,17503,[],[25931,27042]],["satire & parody",2,31625,[["satire & parody",1],["satire or parody",1]],[25931,27042]],["visual disinformation",2,9093,[],[10301,28756]],["\"Disinformation\", false and harmful information",1,-1,[],[20668]],["AI-generated disinformation",1,-1,[],[29032]],["Impostor content",1,6149,[],[1488]],["Sensational content for commercial intent",1,-1,[],[40314]],["Strategic disinformation",1,10763,[],[39616]],["Strategic disinformation, often deployed in peacetime and aimed at long-term goals, involves spreading false information to create a distorted view of reality and, as a result, an erroneous assessment of the situation (Chlebowicz 2012).",1,-1,[],[39616]],["adaptive disinformation",1,29173,[],[10301]],["altruistic disinformation",1,10561,[],[10301]],["astroturf",1,5584,[],[1488]],["bad journalism",1,6844,[],[38040]],["bullshit",1,29347,[],[10301]],["business",1,-1,[],[30033]],["carefully planned and technically sophisticated deceit",1,-1,[],[18200]],["claims based on unsourced or non-credible claims",1,-1,[],[57984]],["clickbait",1,6382,[],[51164]],["cultural disinformation",1,-1,[],[37373]],["dangerous health disinformation",1,-1,[],[51306]],["deliberate false narratives",1,-1,[],[47490]],["detrimental disinformation",1,12035,[],[10301]],["discrediting traditional media",1,-1,[],[41299]],["disinformation campaigns, both foreign and domestic, as well as other efforts to influence or disrupt the free political will of individuals by foreign state actors.",1,-1,[],[42189]],["disinformation containing illegal content",1,-1,[],[10587]],["disinformation created on the basis of real facts which are distorted in such a way that they alter the description of the central facts (e.g., conspiracy theories)",1,-1,[],[34819]],["disinformation created without a basis in fact (e.g., fake news) that may contribute to reinforcing prior beliefs",1,-1,[],[34819]],["disinformation is seen as a type of misinformationpurposeful misinformation",1,-1,[],[2168]],["disinformation narratives",1,2246,[],[58553]],["distortion",1,28504,[],[35890]],["distortion-content",1,28729,[],[35890]],["fabricated information",1,15846,[],[35890]],["fabricated or deliberately manipulated content; intentionally created conspiracy theories or rumours",1,-1,[],[51103]],["fabrications",1,27616,[],[38040]],["factually incorrect information",1,-1,[],[12599]],["fake alarm calls",1,-1,[],[10301]],["fake/manipulated news",1,2339,[],[41299]],["false information of no ideological background or purpose and their primary goal is to direct user traffic to certain websites in order to benefit from online advertising revenue",1,-1,[],[40314]],["foreign influence campaigns",1,16234,[],[37343]],["fraudulent or deceptive news content",1,-1,[],[47490]],["governmental or military activity",1,-1,[],[18200]],["hate speech",1,18278,[],[47490]],["issue-based disinformation",1,16677,[],[37343]],["lies",1,11646,[],[10301]],["lies and propaganda",1,-1,[],[10301]],["linguistic disinformation",1,-1,[],[10301]],["lucrative disinformation",1,14938,[],[37343]],["malinformation",1,22495,[],[42173]],["misinformation",1,10315,[],[44864]],["misleading news",1,22858,[],[38040]],["multimodal disinformation",1,11449,[],[61185]],["non-credible claims with sources",1,-1,[],[57984]],["online disinformation",1,32694,[],[37115]],["online falsehoods",1,-1,[],[9479]],["parody",1,27482,[],[38040]],["political disinformation",1,13162,[],[37343]],["political tool",1,-1,[],[30033]],["politically slanted information",1,-1,[],[12599]],["side effect disinformation",1,24299,[["side effect disinformation",1],["side-effect disinformation",1]],[10301]],["social bot",1,20136,[],[1488]],["spin",1,22992,[],[10301]],["sponsored by states or governments",1,-1,[],[40314]],["strategic (long-term)",1,-1,[],[39616]],["tactical",1,3384,[],[39616]],["targeted at a machine",1,-1,[],[18200]],["textual disinformation",1,-1,[],[5170]],["the misrepresentation of scientific facts",1,-1,[],[2214]],["the promotion of misleading narratives",1,-1,[],[2214]],["troll",1,4949,[],[1488]],["true disinformation",1,33686,[],[10301]],["unintentional information errors",1,-1,[],[47490]],["unsourced or false claims",1,-1,[],[57984]],["written or verbal information",1,-1,[],[18200]]],"sp":[["information disorder",36,13397,[["information disorder",27],["information disorders",10],["Information disorder",1]],[1488,2018,5170,9559,10799,23934,26608,26654,28546,28558,29024,29063,31952,33985,36550,36818,36959,37343,37518,40541,42757,42860,44833,48670,50050,50331,50542,50782,51306,52018,54514,54671,54673,54739,54831,57285,59332]],["misinformation",29,10315,[["misinformation",27],["Misinformation",2]],[163,2168,3250,8183,8325,10301,14410,14784,18200,18979,19092,25585,25931,26168,28320,31695,33909,34110,35773,37730,38360,41920,42173,44864,47446,51753,58736,61159,61231]],["fake news",17,33960,[["fake news",12],["Fake news",4],["Fake News",1]],[1700,11258,14162,19843,20608,23115,26962,26999,37861,40065,45629,46895,50935,53711,54365,54890,58196]],["false information",11,20964,[["false information",7],["False information",3],["False Information",1]],[2214,6960,9559,9748,19205,19605,22384,32653,33909,48711,53009]],["fake information",2,32329,[],[5958,59498]],["infodemic",2,27460,[],[37405,40602]],["information",2,18076,[],[15831,24141]],["problematic information",2,28030,[],[22504,60670]],["pseudoinformation",2,8090,[],[35315,45127]],["Disinformation is a type of misleading information which has the potential to spread falsehoods",1,-1,[],[31695]],["ID",1,-1,[],[56217]],["ID types",1,-1,[],[56217]],["Information barrier",1,29011,[],[36070]],["Information harms",1,-1,[],[7516]],["Poor quality information",1,2486,[],[26756]],["Rumor",1,17712,[],[56202]],["a type of information",1,24862,[],[15831]],["active measures",1,191,[],[50850]],["bullshit",1,29347,[],[32576]],["clear-cut lies",1,12699,[],[42734]],["communication disorder",1,-1,[],[26593]],["computational propaganda",1,19112,[],[13088]],["deception",1,24454,[],[55165]],["hate speech",1,18278,[],[29677]],["hybrid threats",1,5863,[],[34522]],["information desorder",1,-1,[],[10799]],["information problem",1,-1,[],[12599]],["informational disorders",1,16581,[],[15046]],["intention-based",1,-1,[],[13951]],["misinformation and disinformation",1,25902,[],[23115]],["misinformation as content that contradicts the best available evidence, whether caused by lack of knowledge, unintentional errors, or deliberate deception",1,-1,[],[37730]],["misinformation posts",1,-1,[],[42173]],["misleading information",1,2191,[],[8234]],["propaganda",1,34203,[],[28210]]],"ex":[["fake news",6,-1,[],[1488,9895,12599,32550,34819,53009]],["hoaxes",4,-1,[],[32550,47446,55326,59332]],["rumors",3,-1,[],[12599,47446,55326]],["clickbait",2,-1,[],[19605,55326]],["conspiracy theories",2,-1,[],[32550,34819]],["hoax",2,-1,[],[1488,19605]],["\"She lost her brother to SARS\" (Twitter post checked by BBC) Disinformation",1,-1,[],[33909]],["A fake Biden campaign website that admitted it was a parody on its front page could count as misinformation, for example.",1,-1,[],[6557]],["Another post, falsely alleging that Ukrainian media used Photoshop techniques to downplay the scale of Ukrainian military losses",1,-1,[],[31068]],["Anyone can purposely (and anonymously) add inaccurate information to Wikipedia.",1,-1,[],[18200]],["Black households received robocalls on election day 2010 suggesting that the governor's supporters could stay home because he already had won the election",1,-1,[],[34323]],["Black people could not die from COVID-19; it was man-made to achieve population control; herbal remedies could contain it; and 5G radiation caused it.",1,-1,[],[34323]],["Claims that climate change or a global warming does not exist, when knowingly disseminated to mislead.",1,-1,[],[35773]],["Destruction and looting of Osun State Mall (Twitter post checked by BBC) Disinformation (False context)",1,-1,[],[33909]],["Disinformation could be distributed very widely or targeted at specific people or organizations.",1,-1,[],[24141]],["Disinformation is often the product of a carefully planned and technically sophisticated deceit process.",1,-1,[],[24141]],["Disinformation is often written or verbal communication to include doctored photographs, fake videos etc.",1,-1,[],[24141]],["Disinformation may not come directly from the source that intends to deceive.",1,-1,[],[24141]],["Disinformation narratives related to defense spending, military alliances, and perceived threats",1,-1,[],[57973]],["Fake news is considered disinformation",1,-1,[],[13951]],["Forged documents",1,-1,[],[18200]],["Forged documents, doctored photographs, deceptive advertising, deliberately falsified maps, and government propaganda",1,-1,[],[18200]],["If Democritus, who believed the earth was flat, tried to convince his student that the earth was round (e.g. as part of a lesson), he would be deceiving his student, but inadvertently telling the truth.",1,-1,[],[2168]],["Leaving out information to strategically guide perceptions of recipients",1,-1,[],[5535]],["Narratives suggesting misuse of defense funds",1,-1,[],[57973]],["One post-making a claim that Volodymyr Zelenskyy and his wife Olena participated in a Vogue magazine photoshoot akin to one featuring Hitler and Eva Braun",1,-1,[],[31068]],["Operation Bodyguard",1,-1,[],[18200]],["Operation Bodyguard, a World War II disinformation campaign intended to conceal the planned location of the D-Day invasion.",1,-1,[],[10301]],["Qanon conspiracy theory",1,-1,[],[55337]],["Russian disinformatzya tactics",1,-1,[],[16987]],["So fake news is an example of disinformation.",1,-1,[],[212]],["Soviets deliberately falsified maps in an attempt to fool their enemies about where important sites were located",1,-1,[],[10301]],["State-led disinformation campaigns have sought to influence elections and other political processes, control the narrative of public debates or curb protests against and criticisms of Governments.",1,-1,[],[51103]],["The intended targets are often a person or a group of people.",1,-1,[],[24141]],["The mythological horse of Troy, narrated in Homer's \"Iliad\", also serves as an example of disinformation. A huge wooden horse as a symbol of peace, which was hollow and full of Greek soldiers against the Trojans.",1,-1,[],[15831]],["The source again sends disinformation -but this time it is about topic that is very sensitive (high emotional involvement)",1,-1,[],[52006]],["Ukraine-related disinformation",1,-1,[],[31068]],["a deliberate intent to deceive people about the nature or origin of the content",1,-1,[],[30677]],["a photograph was circulated that appeared to show John Kerry and Jane Fonda sharing the stage at an anti-Vietnam War rally, while it was really a composite of two separate photographs taken at two separate events",1,-1,[],[10301]],["a political group spreading false information in order to affect public opinion, or a website creating fake news articles in order to attract clicks (and ad revenue)",1,-1,[],[3915]],["a television commercial that pitted Black Flag Roach Killer against another leading brand misled viewers about the effectiveness of Black Flag without showing anything that was literally false",1,-1,[],[10301]],["anonymously insert misleading information into Wikipedia",1,-1,[],[18200]],["any type of misleading advertisement would qualify as disinformation",1,-1,[],[10587]],["astroturf",1,-1,[],[1488]],["attacking of political opponents",1,-1,[],[8325]],["conspiracy theories about COVID-19, the MacronLeaks during the French presidential elections in 2017, the Pizzagate controversy during the 2016 US elections, the various \"alternative\" explanations surrounding the downing of Malaysia Airlines f light MH17 in July 2014, and rumors circulating in Sweden about the country's cooperation with NATO",1,-1,[],[19092]],["convincingly manipulate visual images",1,-1,[],[18200]],["creating forged documents, disseminating purchased materials through mass media, or abusing the trust of well-known sources of information",1,-1,[],[50850]],["creating websites that \"impersonate\" the websites of reputable sources of information",1,-1,[],[18200]],["creation of fake news and videos, forgery of documents, the use of bots and \"paid\" hackers, the spread of viruses on websites, organizing hacker attacks",1,-1,[],[50850]],["deceptive advertising",1,-1,[],[18200]],["deceptive advertising (in business and in politics), government propaganda, doctored photographs, forged documents, fake maps, internet frauds, fake websites, and manipulated Wikipedia entries.",1,-1,[],[10301]],["deep fakes",1,-1,[],[38360]],["deliberately factually incorrect information",1,-1,[],[12599]],["deliberately falsified maps",1,-1,[],[18200]],["disinformation arising from the Covid-19 pandemic and the Ukraine-Russia war",1,-1,[],[29025]],["disinformation campaign",1,-1,[],[18200]],["disinformation circulating around the COVID-19 pandemic",1,-1,[],[24202]],["doctored photographs",1,-1,[],[18200]],["doctored photographs and falsified maps",1,-1,[],[10301]],["doctored photographs, fake videos etc.",1,-1,[],[24141]],["during Hurricane Florence, residents refused to evacuate because the effects were perceived as less severe by the public than they actually were",1,-1,[],[14770]],["exaggerated foreign threats",1,-1,[],[57973]],["fabricated content",1,-1,[],[42734]],["fabricated content, i.e., proper fake news in the definition of Allcott et al. [8]",1,-1,[],[1488]],["fake news content",1,-1,[],[14784]],["fake radio transmissions",1,-1,[],[18200]],["false connections",1,-1,[],[42734]],["false context",1,-1,[],[42734]],["false information",1,-1,[],[53009]],["false propaganda",1,-1,[],[47446]],["false reports of an explosion and toxic fume hazard at Columbian Chemicals, a chemical manufacturing plant in St. Mary Parish, Louisiana, spread online via scores of fake Twitter accounts, spoofed versions of local news websites, YouTube videos, and text messages to local residents.",1,-1,[],[22504]],["government propaganda",1,-1,[],[18200]],["hackers have intentionally disseminated inaccurate information by directly modifying the websites of news services such as Yahoo! News and the New York Times",1,-1,[],[18200]],["hashtags invoking Black Lives Matter or posing as Black activists to motivate sharing that magnifies disinformation",1,-1,[],[34323]],["heavily Black Jefferson County was targeted with text messages promoting false polling site changes",1,-1,[],[34323]],["highly partisan disinformation",1,-1,[],[14784]],["hoax, propaganda, and clickbait",1,-1,[],[19605]],["imposter content",1,-1,[],[42734]],["in September 2014, false reports of an explosion and toxic fume hazard at Columbian Chemicals, a chemical manufacturing plant in St. Mary Parish, Louisiana, spread online via scores of fake Twitter accounts, spoofed versions of local news websites, YouTube videos, and text messages to local residents. No explosion had, in fact, taken place.",1,-1,[],[22504]],["inadvertently factually incorrect information",1,-1,[],[12599]],["individual reporters (e.g., Jayson Blair of the New York Times and Janet Cooke of the Washington Post) have simply made up stories",1,-1,[],[18200]],["information falsely credited to authoritative newspapers",1,-1,[],[1488]],["lies and propaganda",1,-1,[],[10301]],["lies, spin, and even bullshit",1,-1,[],[10301]],["malicious content such as hoaxes, spear phishing and computational propaganda",1,-1,[],[44864]],["manipulated content, such as true facts distorted to serve a false narration [28,122]",1,-1,[],[1488]],["manipulated visuals",1,-1,[],[38360]],["narratives that question military budgets, criticize alliances, or exaggerate security threats",1,-1,[],[57973]],["politically slanted information",1,-1,[],[12599]],["politicians often use spin to mislead the public-that is, they selectively emphasize only certain facts",1,-1,[],[10301]],["present content as though it were the product of genuine journalistic practices when, in fact, it was not",1,-1,[],[1127]],["propaganda",1,-1,[],[19605]],["pure alcohol that can cure the coronavirus infections during the COVID-19 pandemic situation. However, pure alcohol can be very harmful to the human bodyfoot_2 , 7",1,-1,[],[18979]],["purported memoirs that turned out to be fictional creations",1,-1,[],[18200]],["since the 1980's an ExxonMobil-funded network of programs and spokespeople (most notably Myron Ebell) have sought to disguise climate-science denial as a legitimate alternative to the realities of global warming.",1,-1,[],[14410]],["since the 1980's an ExxonMobil-funded network of programs and spokespeople (most notably Myron Ebell) have sought to disguise climate-science denial as a legitimate alternative to the realities of global warming. By publicizing discredited studies and presenting deliberately cherry-picked data, the campaign has successfully obfuscated public discourse with their misleading messages about global warming.",1,-1,[],[14410]],["the Allies were presumably justified in using disinformation to prevent Nazi world domination.",1,-1,[],[10301]],["the Soviets deliberately falsified maps in an attempt to fool their enemies about where important sites were located",1,-1,[],[18200]],["the augmentation of polarized societal divides by distributing partisan information that resonates with issue publics' confirmation biases",1,-1,[],[8325]],["the complete fabrication of deceptive narratives (lies)",1,-1,[],[5535]],["the creation of fake news and videos, forgery of documents, the use of bots and \"paid\" hackers, the spread of viruses on websites, organizing hacker attacks",1,-1,[],[50850]],["the cultivation of political cynicism and distrust",1,-1,[],[8325]],["the efforts by the Myanmar military to support a horrific ethnic cleansing campaign against the Rohinga, a Muslim minority group.",1,-1,[],[2214]],["the hacker who placed false stories on Yahoo! News apparently did so in order to expose the security weaknesses of the website so that they could be fixed.",1,-1,[],[10301]],["the notion of \"Disinformation\" does not include misleading advertising, reporting errors, satire and parody, or clearly identified partisan news and commentary.",1,-1,[],[59036]],["the paradigm of disinformation that was created by industries that produce polluting, carcinogenic or ethically questionable products, based on the dissemination of doubt",1,-1,[],[51426]],["the pro-Trump disinformation campaign spread by students in Veles, a town of 55,000 people in the country recently renamed North Macedonia; a campaign which was not ideological but instead was purely based on which messages received the most clicks and attention.",1,-1,[],[2214]],["the repeated flat-out lies spoken and written by multiple government officials in response to direct questions, both from members of Congress and from journalists.",1,-1,[],[25632]],["troll",1,-1,[],[1488]],["true news framed in a narrative they do not belong (in this case it is the context to be false, rather than the content)",1,-1,[],[1488]],["using available associations related to the phenomenon to create a deceptive narrative that fits the political goals of the disinformation actor whilst resonating with the associations that the recipient has available",1,-1,[],[5535]],["videos can be made with people's actual faces; their voice is taken to produce false publications.",1,-1,[],[29032]],["websites that \"impersonate\" the websites of reputable sources of information",1,-1,[],[18200]],["when a government launches a campaign to spread false information to the citizens of another nation",1,-1,[],[54973]]]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[["implicit social cognition, although strongly rooted in existing constructs, offers a theoretical reorganization of phenomena that have previously been described in other ways and, in some cases, not previously identified as having an unconscious 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visibility.",1,-1,[],[56479]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[["the application of the hypothesis has become much clearer in health communication campaigns",1,-1,[],[10817]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["intrapersonal issue salience",1,18689,[],[33822]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["In the most extreme case, polling has not even been conducted, and data are conjured out of thin air.",1,-1,[],[50731]]],"sy":[["misleading polls",1,-1,[],[50731]]],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[["candidate Bakradze was at 30%, while he was at only 5% according to a different poll",1,-1,[],[50731]],["the Rasmussen polling agency is openly supportive of Republican politicians and its polling data show a consistently higher approval rating for Trump than the polling data of most other polling agencies.",1,-1,[],[50731]],["the forgery of 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Such an imagination of public controversy assumes that the space of controversy is analytically distinct from the controversy itself. One could say that a Euclidian imagination of controversy lifts social actors into an ideal space of public debate, in which actors are expected to settle into a single position that is true to their viewpoint, but this position-taking is not assumed to affect the shape of the space of debate itself.",1,-1,[],[19936]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":8,"df":[],"de":[["Media credibility research, meanwhile, focuses mainly on the relative credibility of various media channels (for example, print, radio and TV), and message credibility scholars examine message characteristics, such as the content, delivery and structure of messages and the use of language (Metzger et al. 2003).",1,-1,[],[45596]],["Some components that have been identified are the degree to which the media are perceived to be fair, unbiased and accurate",1,-1,[],[5373]],["media credibility includes more components than expertise and trustworthiness",1,-1,[],[5373]],["media credibility is \"an audience response to media content\" [26:147]",1,-1,[],[23729]],["related to perceptions of believability, accuracy, trustworthiness, bias, and completeness",1,-1,[],[23729]],["the channel conveying the message, is no longer restricted to the original news platform",1,-1,[],[5138]]],"sy":[["news credibility",1,7907,[],[5373]]],"rt":[["news media trust",1,19803,[],[5373]]],"sb":[["intermediary platform credibility",1,-1,[],[5138]],["intermediary sender credibility",1,-1,[],[5138]]],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["Individuals using binary pronouns do not necessarily have a binary gender identity.",1,-1,[],[56360]],["but acknowledge that TGNB may also use these pronouns.",1,-1,[],[48769]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":8,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["dramaturgical framework",1,13423,[],[25337]],["impression management",1,25549,[],[25337]]],"sb":[["acquisitive",1,-1,[],[27729]],["protective",1,22095,[],[27729]]],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["homophily",1,12637,[],[21419]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":12,"df":[],"de":[["giving early alerts of fake news can prevent further spreading of malicious content on social media",1,-1,[],[16766]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["fake news",1,33960,[],[6761]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[["this approach could look at only social media posts within some time delay of the original post as sources for news verification",1,-1,[],[6761]]]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["'comes at the right moment' when 'the fat person has become a symbol of personal and societal failure'",1,-1,[],[53999]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["It is oriented toward social rules and effects, and uses apologies, compliments, hedges, and excuses, emphasizing obligations or expectations. Here, the context shapes what is considered relevant and appropriate, so can involve communication accommodation or, more generally, formative evaluation.",1,-1,[],[32325]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["contextual science communication model",1,-1,[],[32325]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["The metric is defined to measure occupational perception of different genders, which is associated with representational harms.",1,-1,[],[11867]],["While gendered associations with occupations are an instance of gender bias, such a definition does not capture gender bias in its entirety.",1,-1,[],[11867]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["Appeal to Audience",1,-1,[],[33778]]],"ex":[["a politician dressing up like a farmer and sowing some crops while campaigning and appealing to farmers.",1,-1,[],[33778]]]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["Attributive",1,12863,[],[12207]],["Othering",1,13537,[],[12207]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[["deny",1,3965,[],[33128]],["disagree",1,33502,[],[33128]],["refute",1,7044,[],[33128]]],"rt":[["positive stance",1,31143,[],[33128]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["cognitive warfare",1,30596,[],[41502]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":6,"df":[],"de":[["While text-level context bias examines the bias present within an individual article, reporting-level bias focuses on systematic attention given to specific topics.",1,-1,[],[40306]],["While text-level context bias observes bias within an article, reporting-level bias observes the general attention for specific topics",1,-1,[],[20734]],["reporting-level bias focuses on systematic attention given to specific topics.",1,-1,[],[40306]]],"sy":[["reporting-level bias",1,-1,[],[40306]]],"rt":[["Coverage bias",1,12486,[],[20734]]],"sb":[["coverage bias",1,12486,[],[20734]],["proximity bias",1,25896,[],[20734]],["selection bias",1,24952,[],[20734]]],"sp":[["media bias",1,3751,[],[20734]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[["the locations are emphasised in The Fight for Fallujah because the user is frequently positioned to witness the devastation of the city. The only common factor amongst the human characters in the story is the city of Fallujah: they are former residents of the city, militia fighters defending the city or journalists reporting about the city. The city is thus constructed as a victim that is being rescued from the ISIS fighters by the Iraqi militia.",1,-1,[],[4798]]]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["DMA",1,-1,[],[54128]],["Digital media-arenas",1,4035,[],[54128]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[["audio-visual features",1,-1,[],[45602]],["narrative flow",1,-1,[],[45602]],["video length",1,-1,[],[45602]]]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["This theory argues that the role of the media is to bring to life reexperienced stimuli, thus inspiring and justifying a certain type of behavior.",1,-1,[],[50218]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[["reporting on violence may be approved if a part of the audience identify themselves with the situation reported",1,-1,[],[50218]]]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["gender neutralization appears to be less effective to counter gender biases induced by the use of MG",1,-1,[],[60873]],["this writing technique is less contentious among the general population compared to others which explicitly highlight the feminine ending of words or separate it from the masculine ending",1,-1,[],[60873]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["in a story framed as freedom to protest, we might find positive references to protests as respectable and legitimate expressions of mass concern about important political issues.",1,-1,[],[61311]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["framing",1,22777,[],[61311]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["under-sampling",1,-1,[],[42180]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["direct copying",1,-1,[],[6708]]],"sb":[],"sp":[["copying relationship",1,-1,[],[6708]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":5,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[["MIP",1,34703,[],[57400]]],"rt":[["MIP",1,34703,[],[57400]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":7,"df":[],"de":[["It is assumed that news sharing is able to democratize the news flow and to facilitate thematic discussions about (political) issues.",1,-1,[],[17605]],["it allows the act of sharing to be separated from the intentionality of the user: news sharing can be occasional or sporadic and can also refer to more conscious, planned activities.",1,-1,[],[13758]],["the content shared is of public interest, regardless of its format.",1,-1,[],[13758]],["the redistribution of content",1,-1,[],[13758]],["the word sharing is generally not particularly helpful for scientific analyses of social media activities since \" [i]t means many different things to many different people\" (p. 1).",1,-1,[],[17605]]],"sy":[["redistribution of content",1,-1,[],[13758]]],"rt":[["content curation",1,26101,[],[13758]],["endorsing",1,11113,[],[13758]],["online news use",1,-1,[],[17605]],["participatory behavior",1,-1,[],[17605]],["recontextualising",1,-1,[],[13758]],["social media",1,6683,[],[17605]]],"sb":[],"sp":[["participatory behavior",1,-1,[],[17605]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[["Mindset",1,17502,[],[50387]]],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":35,"df":[["Misleading use of information to frame an issue or individual",2,-1,[["Misleading use of information to frame an issue or individual",1],["misleading use of information to frame an issue or individual",1]],[6178,13598]]],"de":[["Alternatively, an audience may misunderstand an article if they fail to properly understand the author's intentions.",1,-1,[],[1136]],["An audience may misunderstand an article if it is too vague or leaves out key information.",1,-1,[],[1136]],["Content can mislead an audience for a number of reasons.",1,-1,[],[1136]],["Content can mislead an audience for a number of reasons. An audience may misunderstand an article if it is too vague or leaves out key information. Alternatively, an audience may misunderstand an article if they fail to properly understand the author's intentions.",1,-1,[],[1136]],["Then, there is 100% fake content, which presents itself as true with a link to a legitimate site, but is, in fact, false.",1,-1,[],[29853]],["categorizes disinformation based on the nature or intent behind the falsehood.",1,-1,[],[36582]],["distinguishing misleading content from non-misleading content requires determining the truth value of the content and whether a typical person is likely to believe something other than the truth after reading the article.",1,-1,[],[1136]],["making it increasingly challenging to differentiate between truth and falsehood",1,-1,[],[36582]],["the category",1,-1,[],[36582]],["this form of disinformation is particularly detrimental, as highlighted by Allen et al. (2024), who reported the negative impact of factually accurate yet deceptive content on audiences.",1,-1,[],[36582]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["disinformation",2,17423,[],[1136,11370]],["misinformation",1,10315,[],[1136]]],"sb":[],"sp":[["fake news",3,33960,[["fake news",2],["Fake news",1]],[32606,39229,41565]],["false information",2,20964,[],[36509,51132]],["mis-and dis-information",2,1535,[["mis-and dis-information",1],["mis-and disinformation",1]],[6178,54280]],["mis-information and dis-information",2,25902,[["mis-information and dis-information",1],["misinformation and disinformation",1]],[13598,54691]],["misinformation",2,10315,[],[27051,49509]],["disinformation",1,17423,[],[27051]],["information disorders",1,13397,[],[57295]]],"ex":[["Germany has not decriminalized possession and sharing of child pornography",1,-1,[],[36582]],["Satirical writing, for example, often misleads readers who fail to understand that the intent was to entertain rather than inform",1,-1,[],[1136]],["content can mislead when people treat it as though it were news produced through traditional journalistic methods when, in fact, it was not",1,-1,[],[1136]]]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["Given the growing number of opaque algorithmic systems that are already deployed to the public, audits that focus on these public-facing systems are especially important.",1,-1,[],[7293]],["In some cases, public-facing does not mean the system is publiclydeployed, only that it holds imminent or potential harms to the public.",1,-1,[],[7293]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":10,"df":[],"de":[["-providing an evaluation of the contributions of journalists and other users; -communicating the value or perceived quality of the material; and -re-diffusing selected content.",1,-1,[["-providing an evaluation of the contributions of journalists and other users; -communicating the value or perceived quality of the material; and -re-diffusing selected content.",1],["providing an evaluation of the contributions of journalists and other users; -communicating the value or perceived quality of the material; and -re-diffusing selected content.",1]],[13768]],["This expanded user role, facilitated by technology and enabled by digital news editors, includes assessment of contributions by other users; communication of the perceived value or quality of user-and journalist-produced content; and selective re-dissemination of that content.",1,-1,[],[9098]],["the information control capabilities of social media users as secondary gatekeepers in their networks",1,-1,[],[25974]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["representational harms",1,4488,[],[7510]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["Real news",1,18020,[],[51094]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["It covers the role of public agents who disseminated fake news (e.g., Bolsonaro) and those who combated it, the tensions within the public authorities regarding how the pandemic was communicated, and the public authorities' negotiations with international organizations (especially WHO) and the pharmaceutical industry.",1,-1,[],[48163]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":64,"df":[],"de":[["A negativity bias among conservatives offers a parsimonious account of the many social, political, and psychological differences between liberals and conservatives",1,-1,[],[24686]],["At the center of our target article is the claim that political orientations are, at least in part, driven by deeply embedded individual-level variations in orientations to negative stimuli",1,-1,[],[24686]],["Essentially, this principle reflects the fact that humans generally tend to respond more strongly, to be more attentive, and to give more weight to negative elements of their environment.",1,-1,[],[24686]],["Fearinducing negative news is generally judged by audiences to be more relevant and important",1,-1,[],[53545]],["Given its specific relevance to survival",1,-1,[],[14138]],["Heightened sensitivity to negative information is part of our evolutionary heritage. This sensitivity leads us to weight disadvantages over advantages in information seeking and decision making",1,-1,[],[26235]],["Hibbing et al. propose that variations in political ideology, along the left-right (liberal-conservative) dimension reflect deepseated, stable, inter-individual differences in physiological and psychological affective responses to negative stimuli.",1,-1,[],[24686]],["Moreover, negative information is usually stronger and more memorable than positive information (Ledgerwood & Boydstun, 2014;Boydstun et al, 2017;Sparks & Ledgerwood, 2017). This means that it is both more difficult to overturn negative preconceptions and easier to override previously-held positive beliefs.",1,-1,[],[30250]],["Negativity bias can be understood as reflecting an overarching pattern wherein the avoidance of imminent fitness decrements typically has a greater effect on fitness than does the pursuit of fitness enhancements, as, in general, the latter can be pursued only after the former have been addressed",1,-1,[],[36297]],["Negativity bias can be understood as reflecting an overarching pattern wherein the avoidance of imminent fitness decrements typically has a greater effect on fitness than does the pursuit of fitness enhancements, as, in general, the latter can be pursued only after the former have been addressed [14,15].",1,-1,[],[36297]],["Negativity, as a more systematic news bias",1,-1,[],[57299]],["News on negative incidents are more attention-grabbing as they are often perceived as more surprising, dramatic, sensational, and entertaining",1,-1,[],[53545]],["Overall, compared to positive information, negative news is considered more appealing as it is seen as unambiguous, consensual, unexpected, dramatic, sensational, entertaining, eye-catching, interesting, and short-dated",1,-1,[],[5159]],["Overall, compared to positive information, negative news is considered more appealing as it is seen as unambiguous, consensual, unexpected, dramatic, sensational, entertaining, eye-catching, interesting, and short-dated (Lengauer, Esser, and Berganza 2012).",1,-1,[],[5159]],["Previous research shows that individuals appear to be predisposed to give greater weight to negative information",1,-1,[],[30250]],["Some theories posit that negativity bias is a built-in predisposition or an inherent characteristic in the central nervous system.",1,-1,[],[30250]],["The desire for survival implies that humans may be genetically predisposed to pay more attention to negative events.",1,-1,[],[30250]],["The negativity bias hypothesis suggests that conservatives react to threats with greater negativity and motivated information processing than their liberal counterparts.",1,-1,[],[24686]],["There is evidence that a negativity bias may underlie the development of a liberal or conservative worldview",1,-1,[],[24686]],["They conclude that the principal variable underlying the difference between liberal and conservative attitudes is negativity bias.",1,-1,[],[24686]],["This more fluent evaluation of negative information, in which news is processed less elaborately and credibility is taken for granted",1,-1,[],[53545]],["With regard to news content, the negativity bias indicates that the news media are inclined to highlight negative aspects compared to positive aspects of economic issues and events",1,-1,[],[59139]],["a bias in responses, and not differences in knowledge, accounts for the framing effect. Given insufficient knowledge, individuals are more likely to guess \"true\" when faced with a negatively framed compared to positively framed (identical) statistical statement.",1,-1,[],[28387]],["although a negativity bias may be an underlying cause in the development of political ideologies, it is not manifest in reactions to threatening groups, threatening information, or fundamental psychological and epistemic threats.",1,-1,[],[24686]],["by stimulating more activation and attention, negative information may enhance accessibility in memory and allow for faster information processing and easier retrieval of relevant knowledge",1,-1,[],[53545]],["can present an overly negative media reality which creates worldviews amongst audiences that do not accurately reflect reality",1,-1,[],[57299]],["concerns salience, memorability, and motivational impact",1,-1,[],[36297]],["conservatives are more responsive and attuned to negative stimuli",1,-1,[],[24686]],["differentially responsive and attentive to negative stimuli",1,-1,[],[24686]],["disproportionate focus on negativity is an engrained systematic bias of journalistic processes",1,-1,[],[57299]],["emphasized how media coverage can end up being overly negative",1,-1,[],[5159]],["heightened orientation to negative stimuli",1,-1,[],[24686]],["human cognitive processing of negative stimuli is more elaborate, detailed, and complex compared to positive stimuli",1,-1,[],[14138]],["humans show a presumably adaptive tendency to prioritize safety and potential negatives",1,-1,[],[9797]],["individual differences in the negativity bias predicted the spatial learning for negative stimuli",1,-1,[],[24686]],["individuals generally pay more attention to information that can potentially be related to risks or threats",1,-1,[],[53545]],["it is both more difficult to overturn negative preconceptions and easier to override previously-held positive beliefs.",1,-1,[],[30250]],["liberals and conservatives do differ on a number of dimensions that can be parsimoniously described as a negativity bias",1,-1,[],[24686]],["negative bias phenomena are not homogenous; rather negative bias seems to be domain-specific.",1,-1,[],[24686]],["negative information is more diagnostic than positive information and therefore given greater value",1,-1,[],[53545]],["negative information is usually stronger and more memorable than positive information",1,-1,[],[30250]],["negative information tends to be more salient and memorable than positive information",1,-1,[],[30250]],["negative stimuli elicit greater affective, cognitive, and behavioral influences than equally intense positive stimuli",1,-1,[],[51503]],["negativity bias has been associated with a core news value and journalistic tools like dramatizing or sensationalizing used to garnish attention in a competitive attention economy",1,-1,[],[57299]],["negativity bias in the evaluation of news",1,-1,[],[53545]],["negativity bias in their credibility assessment of news",1,-1,[],[53545]],["negativity bias is a built-in predisposition or an inherent characteristic in the central nervous system.",1,-1,[],[30250]],["negativity bias is associated with a larger late positive potential",1,-1,[],[24686]],["negativity bias leading to economic conservatism among those high in engagement and economic liberalism among those low in engagement",1,-1,[],[24686]],["negativity bias reflects the greater necessity to be attentive to situations having the potential to cause harm",1,-1,[],[53545]],["negativity bias tends to be associated with lower news quality",1,-1,[],[57299]],["people show enhanced attention to and memory for negative versus positive stimuli",1,-1,[],[9797]],["political orientations are, at least in part, driven by deeply embedded individual-level variations in orientations to negative stimuli",1,-1,[],[24686]],["recent psychophysiological studies that have used positive and negative stimuli with the same mean arousal ratings, have found equally enhanced attention to positive as well as negative compared to neutral images",1,-1,[],[24686]],["research has primarily demonstrated a negativity bias in the selection of news, both on the supply (Van der Meer et al., 2019) and demand side of news (Knobloch-Westerwick et al., 2020)",1,-1,[],[53545]],["response to negative stimuli (like political dispositions) can be operationalized narrowly or broadly.",1,-1,[],[24686]],["selection of negative and episodic headlines over positive and thematic headlines",1,-1,[],[5159]],["some accounts suggest that negativity bias operates automatically at an early (evaluative-categorization) stage of reasoning",1,-1,[],[30250]],["some of the support for such a bias may have come from the use of positive stimuli that are low in arousal (e.g., scenes of leisure activities) instead of stimuli that are high in arousal (e.g., erotica).",1,-1,[],[24686]],["tendency to fixate on negative stimuli",1,-1,[],[24686]],["tendency to prioritize safety and potential negatives",1,-1,[],[9797]],["the consequence of the negativity bias is that the motivation to withdraw is stronger than the motivation to approach at high levels of evaluative activation",1,-1,[],[24686]],["the negativity bias guides human cognition as early as infancy and continues throughout childhood.",1,-1,[],[24686]],["the relative preferences of avoiding losses over achieving gains is offered as an explanation for the greater importance of negative information",1,-1,[],[53545]],["the tendency for selecting bad news over good news generally means that the EU will be reported in terms of 'crisis' or 'failure' instead of successful outcomes or achievements",1,-1,[],[5315]],["we assumed that the image observation duration increases a person's participatory intentions particularly in cases in which the image perception engenders mainly negative emotions in that person.",1,-1,[],[22577]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["positivity offset",2,25192,[],[24686,51503]],["arousal",1,9868,[],[24686]],["concept valence",1,-1,[],[28387]],["false negative",1,14736,[],[24686]],["false positive",1,19248,[],[24686]],["framing",1,22777,[],[59139]],["framing effect",1,7994,[],[28387]],["out-group hostility",1,-1,[],[7705]],["reframing effects",1,4065,[],[9797]],["threat bias",1,7612,[],[24686]],["valence",1,19356,[],[24686]]],"sb":[],"sp":[["information biases",1,15611,[],[54149]],["media bias",1,3751,[],[45061]]],"ex":[["For example, news articles related to death, violence, turmoil, and struggle, tend to obtain more attention and elicit more shock, and fear.",1,-1,[],[45061]],["Individuals high in negativity bias are organically drawn toward conservative sociocultural attitudes.",1,-1,[],[24686]],["infants look longer at fearful than at happy faces",1,-1,[],[24686]],["loss aversion",1,-1,[],[24686]],["modify their own behavior more strongly in response to others' negative than others' positive expressions",1,-1,[],[24686]],["negativity bias can be a powerful influence on individual level attitudes.",1,-1,[],[30250]],["news articles related to death, violence, turmoil, and struggle, tend to obtain more attention and elicit more shock, and fear.",1,-1,[],[45061]],["news articles related to death, violence, turmoil, and struggle, tend to obtain more attention and elicit more shock, and fear. As a result, we keep reading the news, in order to know more on this issue.",1,-1,[],[45061]],["quick recognition of angry versus happy faces in a crowd",1,-1,[],[24686]]]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["emphasizes the important role of healthcare staff while degrading the effort of people working outside the healthcare field.",1,-1,[],[47673]],["helps to illustrate a positive icon while empowering the medical staff.",1,-1,[],[47673]],["indirectly acknowledges the significant risks that health-care workers face in the war against COVID-19, including their health safety and their families' security.",1,-1,[],[47673]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["News is seen as a result of the mechanism in the newsroom. Work practices, professionalism and rules that exist in the organizational space are dynamic elements that influence the reporting.",1,-1,[],[37395]],["News is seen as a result of the mechanism in the newsroom. Work practices, professionalism and rules that exist in the organizational space are dynamic elements that influence the reporting. Why does the media report case A, why is it reported in a certain way, the explanation refers to the mechanism that occurs in the newsroom.",1,-1,[],[37395]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["Digital arenas are seen as online forums for participatory, two-directional and omni-directional communication with less organisational control over messages.",1,-1,[],[54102]],["They are online spaces (e.g., discussion forums) where stakeholders come together to discuss, debate and contest opinions.",1,-1,[],[54102]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["follower network graph",1,-1,[],[6656]],["retweet graph",1,11870,[],[6656]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":11,"df":[],"de":[["According to Moscovici (1984b), there are two basic functions of representations. First, they conventionalize (anchor) concepts, people, events, and situations, giving them a specific linguistic or visual form. Second, they are prescriptive in the sense that they are suggested and even imposed on us through social contacts, established structures, and applicable rules of social coexistence. Representations aim \"to make something unfamiliar, or unfamiliarity itself, familiar\" (Moscovici 1984b).",1,-1,[],[13177]],["According to SRT, the sensemaking process is the driving force behind social representations, whereas communication is the central mechanism by which representations can be envisaged, negotiated, and consolidated",1,-1,[],[1748]],["He also calls it \"a modern version of common sense\" (Emelyanova, 2001).",1,-1,[],[42487]],["In essence, social representations engage with understanding, defining, and prescribing the discourse structures of a new object, complete with its attributes",1,-1,[],[1748]],["Social groups are likely to develop their own interpretations of unfamiliar or threatening phenomena via communication.",1,-1,[],[1749]],["These are generated through the \"whole package of activity (communication, exchange, argumentation) in which individuals and groups engage to make meaningful changes in their physical and social environments\" (Breakwell, 2001, p.342).",1,-1,[],[17179]],["This follows the tradition of using associative network analysis (de Rosa, 2002) in social representation research, which was developed to record people's spontaneous reactions and their relational structures when confronted with an object stimulus.",1,-1,[],[1749]],["correspond to individual thoughts and ideas which then become social thoughts/ideas through communicational processes.",1,-1,[],[26443]],["emphasizes the communicational aspect (of a dialogical and media nature) in our cognitive process of understanding reality",1,-1,[],[26443]],["observations reflect social representations' functions in terms of cognitive coping, social sharing of emotional experiences, and community empowerment",1,-1,[],[1749]],["one of the most important functions of social representations is to make the unfamiliar familiar.",1,-1,[],[17179]],["social practices of a semiotic nature",1,-1,[],[13177]],["social representations engage with understanding, defining, and prescribing the discourse structures of a new object, complete with its attributes (Moscovici, 2001).",1,-1,[],[1748]],["social representations, which can be treated as social practices of a semiotic nature, enabling interpretations or experiences of war.",1,-1,[],[13177]],["the ideologies of dominant groups control the development of SR [social representations], the formation of models, the production of action and the discourse of group members in such a way that the group will retain power and reproduce its hegemony over dominated groups",1,-1,[],[26443]],["the social representation was primarily constructed through clinical and epidemiological lenses based on people's first-hand experiences",1,-1,[],[1749]],["these shifts in social representations function to construct explanations of what had happened and what could happen next, for collective coping and action.",1,-1,[],[1749]]],"sy":[["a modern version of common sense",1,-1,[],[42487]]],"rt":[["SRT",1,-1,[],[1749]],["dispersion",1,873,[],[1748]],["focalization",1,24956,[],[1748]],["ideology",1,8315,[],[26443]],["sensemaking process",1,26297,[],[1748]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":7,"df":[],"de":[["evaluated negatively, as a false representation of reality",1,-1,[],[60045]],["remains a dominant way for people around the world to inform themselves about each other, and to re-align events occurring across the globe to their local conditions",1,-1,[],[60045]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["an infringement on the privacy of private life constitutes an infringement of a personal right, which is not related to public order, and only the victim has an interest in pursuing the perpetrator.",1,-1,[],[42603]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":7,"df":[],"de":[["The quality of the source of information is critical to evaluating the suggested content",1,-1,[],[1427]],["adjusting a source's reliability is prudent if new information, additional contradictory or corroborative reports, or insight into the relationship between sources becomes available",1,-1,[],[1427]],["empirical studies suggest that people incorporate subjectively perceived source credibility into evaluations of testimony",1,-1,[],[1427]],["estimation of source reliability is jointly performed across all the data types together.",1,-1,[],[6705]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["source dependency analysis",1,-1,[],[6705]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["deepfake correction",1,447,[],[33933]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["In this context, critical distance has perpetuated the idea that, through our media literate sensibilities, we can separate our personal lived experiences, backgrounds, and ideologies in favor of objective analyses of media texts.",1,-1,[],[17759]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["proper distance",1,27866,[],[17759]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["being an acceleration, trendiness predictably shortens the lifespan of attention matters and, being a positive feedback, it increases their maximum visibility. Their combination, however, is remarkable as it creates a shoaling of attention waves which reduces the width and increases the height of attention curves.",1,-1,[],[43146]],["contents must fade away as quickly as they rose, so that they distract public debate rather than nourishing it",1,-1,[["contents must fade away as quickly as they rose, so that they distract public debate rather than nourishing it",1],["contents must fade away as quickly as they rose, so that they distract public debate rather than nourishing it.",1]],[43146]],["it creates a shoaling of attention waves which reduces the width and increases the height of attention curves",1,-1,[],[43146]],["speculative waves that destroy rather than create richness in public debate.",1,-1,[],[43146]],["the fascination with trendiness of digital platforms and their users may create an over-accelerated public debate in which a disproportionate share of media attention is captured by matters which are incapable to sustain 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A positive stance applies when t conveys the belief that c is true. A negative stance indicates that t believes c is false. 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Según este estudio, se trata de discursos que buscan provocar u ofender, así como desviar la atención hacia discusiones superfluas y sin sentido, y que son vivenciadas especialmente por grupos que experimentan desigualdad social.",1,-1,[],[41295]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["do not involve misinformation or fabricated content within the article, but rather properties of the headline and its relation to the content.",1,-1,[],[35848]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["clickbait",1,6382,[],[35848]],["disagreement",1,33285,[],[35848]],["sensationalism",1,9105,[],[35848]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":4,"df":[],"de":[["the chronotope compiles ideas from several areas such as Philosophy, Biology, and Physics (in this discipline it retrieves Einstein's concepts of the fourth dimension and relativity).",1,-1,[],[55273]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["space",1,1109,[],[55273]],["time",1,-1,[],[55273]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[["Algorithms apply an updated set of news values to provide users with information, matching, among other things, likes, dislikes, and prior engagement",1,-1,[],[43729]],["Algorithms are usually designed to unobtrusively operate in the background, with users not fully understanding or being aware of the processes",1,-1,[],[43729]],["In contrast to professional gatekeeping where editorial processes are involved in selecting and creating content, algorithms choose from an already existing corpus of news and distribute those to the users",1,-1,[],[43729]],["In contrast to professional gatekeeping where editorial processes are involved in selecting and creating content, algorithms choose from an already existing corpus of news and distribute those to the users (Wallace, 2018).",1,-1,[],[43729]],["automated personalization based on a user's own behaviour",1,-1,[],[4964]],["different types of algorithmic selection, e.g. based on individuals' reading habits versus content selected based on their friends' habits",1,-1,[],[43729]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["editorial news selection",1,-1,[],[43729]]],"sb":[["based on individuals' reading habits",1,-1,[],[43729]],["content selected based on their friends' habits",1,-1,[],[43729]]],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":6,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["protagonist",1,11436,[],[61248]]],"ex":[["Police officers protecting citizens during a crisis, firefighters saving lives during a disaster, community leaders standing against crime or leaders standing up for action to address climate 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promotion focus",1,-1,[],[56635]],["economic conservatism should correspond to the self-enhancement versus self-transcendence dimension from Schwartz' model of basic human values (Schwartz, 1994) because this dimension is concerned with the conflict between gaining personal wealth and status (power, achievement) versus promoting the welfare of others (benevolence, universalism).",1,-1,[],[56635]],["people high in economic conservatism \"adhere to capitalist ideology and believe that private initiative and competition should not be limited\" (Kossowska & Van Hiel, 2003, p. 508), while they would reject governmental economic intervention or concerns about worker participation.",1,-1,[],[56635]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["cultural conservatism",1,13544,[],[56635]],["social conservatism",1,30543,[],[24668]],["social dominance orientation",1,32509,[],[56635]]],"sb":[],"sp":[["political conservatism",1,28070,[],[56635]],["two dimensions of 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They highlight the social and political contexts within which events and issues reside.",1,-1,[],[17]],["The application of thematic frames in this news group indicates that online newspapers tend to provide generalized information to support policymakers and businesses in understanding the broader labor market context.",1,-1,[],[58547]],["The thematic frame is essential since it can contribute to public awareness, and may promote social response.",1,-1,[],[45915]],["The thematic frame is particularly effective in highlighting systemic issues, such as labor shortages in key economic regions or the impact of technology.",1,-1,[],[58547]],["The thematic frame was applied to analyses of employment trends and social welfare policies",1,-1,[],[58547]],["Thematic frames included articles with general or abstract context.",1,-1,[],[58494]],["Thematic framing can help contextualise these crimes within larger social and systemic issues",1,-1,[],[59387]],["They highlight the social and political contexts within which events and issues reside.",1,-1,[],[17]],["accused of being too topic-specific and often not going beyond the individual case they have been developed for",1,-1,[],[43249]],["allow for more accurate descriptions of coverage on specific issues but at the cost of reduced transferability to other contexts",1,-1,[],[43249]],["emphasizing long-term labor market trends and macro-level policy perspectives.",1,-1,[],[58547]],["help audiences to see more clearly the way issues connect with societal and structural factors",1,-1,[],[39092]],["online newspapers tend to provide generalized information to support policymakers and businesses in understanding the broader labor market context.",1,-1,[],[58547]],["presents collective and general evidence",1,-1,[],[51254]],["produce more elaborated comprehension",1,-1,[],[52767]],["the thematic approach often suggests social remedies.",1,-1,[],[58494]],["thematic frames are stronger when there are no or weak emotional responses",1,-1,[],[57694]],["thematic frames can be more persuasive",1,-1,[],[57694]],["thematic frames focus on trends over time and highlight broad historical contexts",1,-1,[],[55816]],["thematic frames generate stronger emotional responses.",1,-1,[],[29327]],["thematic frames lead them to hold the government responsible",1,-1,[],[57694]],["thematic frames would have improved the readers' understanding of the problem",1,-1,[],[39092]],["thematic, abstract information describing political issues in terms of general statistics",1,-1,[],[51255]],["which often materializes as a \"background report\" that requires deeper cognitive elaboration",1,-1,[],[29327]]],"sy":[["\"generic\" frame",1,19746,[],[58547]],["Thematic framing",1,28621,[],[58547]]],"rt":[["episodic frames",9,15963,[["episodic frames",5],["episodic frame",4]],[26382,39092,45915,47550,48964,50014,51254,51255,57694,59387]]],"sb":[],"sp":[["news frames",3,21144,[["news frames",2],["News frames",1],["news frame",1]],[36648,38126,38127,59387]],["Framing",2,22777,[],[30309,39092]],["frames",1,7860,[],[17]],["generic frames",1,19746,[],[21099]],["intertextual frame",1,18273,[["intertextual frame",1],["intertextual frames",1]],[31729]],["multimodal framing",1,21218,[],[29327]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["Different groups of people with disabilities categorize themselves in different ways. 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very least, blurred.",1,-1,[],[56547]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["strategies",1,6763,[["strategies",1],["strategy",1]],[56547,56553]]],"sb":[["campaigns",1,4845,[],[56553]],["channels",1,34389,[],[56553]],["messages",1,15351,[],[56553]]],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["where they show themselves only in a positive way on their social media profiles",1,-1,[],[14566]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":15,"df":[],"de":[["This decision highlights the ethical dimension of respecting both translators' and describers' personal values and cultural norms, an often-overlooked consideration in discussions about language fidelity.",1,-1,[],[28241]],["This self-censorship by the accessibility provider in MA has been documented by other studies in relation to AD (Sanz-Moreno, 2017, 2018), given 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theme is more important or authoritative.",1,-1,[],[12201]],["For example, if the agent \"dominates\" the theme (denoted as power(AG>TH)), then the agent is implied to have a level of control over the theme. Alternatively, if the agent \"honors\" the theme (denoted as power(AG<TH)), the writer implies that the theme is more important or authoritative.",1,-1,[],[12201]],["if the agent \"dominates\" the theme (denoted as power(AG>TH)), then the agent is implied to have a level of control over the theme.",1,-1,[],[12201]],["if the agent \"dominates\" the theme (denoted as power(AG>TH)), then the agent is implied to have a level of control over the theme. Alternatively, if the agent \"honors\" the theme (denoted as power(AG<TH)), the writer implies that the theme is more important or authoritative.",1,-1,[],[12201]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["connotation relations",1,-1,[],[12201]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":4,"df":[],"de":[["This happens, for instance, when representatives aim to stay away from the debate and avoid confrontation with the outside audience. While this might come across as an evasive strategy, Rosenow-Williams treats decoupling not as a negative strategy, but as a possible \"functional alternative\" for reconciling conflicting expectations between internal and external demands",1,-1,[],[57896]],["This strategy is passive and has the advantage that the representative does not have to worry about journalists, but it has the disadvantage that the community does not feel protected.",1,-1,[],[57896]],["the concept works as a Lacanian fantasy, presenting both the prospect of sustainable development at some unknown future point and a convenient a priori explanation for why this aim is not achieved.",1,-1,[],[4423]]],"sy":[["decoupling strategy",1,-1,[],[57896]]],"rt":[["green economy/growth",1,-1,[],[4423]],["passive revolution",1,-1,[],[4423]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["materialises in an effect we call the transfer of responsibility",1,-1,[],[5182]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["blind 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often than not, mobilization has turned out to be propaganda used extensively by socialist-or those claiming to be socialist-republics",1,-1,[],[33517]],["an important activity within organizing",1,-1,[],[8350]],["mobilization is often the outcome of organising",1,-1,[],[8350]],["reactive way, they encourage union members to pursue objectives via reward, and appeal to short-term self-interest",1,-1,[],[8350]],["visible or public manifestation of organizing",1,-1,[],[8350]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["mass mobilization",1,18806,[],[57803]],["organizing",1,-1,[],[8350]],["validation",1,15008,[],[31889]],["widening of parameters",1,32766,[],[31889]]],"sb":[],"sp":[["media functions",1,33442,[],[20774]],["political participation",1,12312,[],[21440]]],"ex":[["the American media self-mobilized and became a significant collaborating actor in the global war against terrorism.",1,-1,[],[20774]]]},{"nd":4,"df":[],"de":[["The theory, however, expounds that reception of a specific stimulus can be physiologically coupled with the creation of a particular reaction or response [70].",1,-1,[],[1941]]],"sy":[["hypodermic needle theory",1,18408,[],[1941]]],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[["Because our method of data collection is continuous and ongoing, the length of our study time frame likely has no survey-based equivalent.",1,-1,[],[40690]],["mining, aggregating, and analysing online textual data in real-time",1,-1,[],[40690]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["It is essentially the cluster of an image, a headline, a lead, and a hyperlink that summarizes news, arguably, in a way that is clickable.",1,-1,[],[61805]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["to detect fake news as soon as it is 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1975).",1,-1,[],[40846]],["This framework accounts for bias as the result of mental mechanisms prioritizing attention to inputs deemed most relevant and processing them to enhance their relevance.",1,-1,[],[32542]],["a cognitive psychological theory",1,-1,[],[43877]],["relevance amounts to the difference between the cognitive effort undertaken versus the cognitive effects achieved.",1,-1,[],[32542]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["Cognitive effect",1,31476,[],[32542]],["Cognitive effort",1,29124,[],[32542]],["Wilson and Sperber and Wilson's (1986) theory of relevance",1,-1,[],[43877]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["Similarly, JAQing (\"just asking questions\") is a tactic of disingenuously framing false or misleading statements as questions.",1,-1,[],[8793]]],"sy":[["just asking questions",1,-1,[],[8793]]],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["Both indicators were originally developed to measure and visualize a degree of inequality in societies [7]",1,-1,[],[41110]],["Both indicators were originally developed to measure and visualize a degree of inequality in societies [7], such as deprivation and satisfaction [14].",1,-1,[],[41110]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["Gini coefficient",1,28708,[],[41110]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["populism",1,20354,[],[19274]]],"sb":[["Manichean view of the world",1,25272,[],[19274]],["people centrism",1,30359,[],[19274]]],"sp":[["populism",1,20354,[],[19274]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["focuses heavily \"on the interactional situation in which both speakers and hearers realise their aims\"",1,-1,[],[49324]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["ethics dumping",1,5391,[],[1109]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["identifier",1,-1,[],[26643]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["democratic equality",1,-1,[],[18611]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["It consists of all the interactions with the system, whether at the level of human computer interaction (for example, use of the mouse and clicks on links) or at the intellectual level (for example, adopting a Boolean search strategy or determining the criteria for deciding which of two books selected from adjacent places on a library shelf is most useful), which will also involve mental acts, such as judging the relevance of data or information retrieved.",1,-1,[],[19595]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["lógica política",1,12724,[],[42018]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[["most metrics can be used to measure either intrinsic or extrinsic bias, and therefore, these notions of bias are not useful for categorizing metrics, but may be useful when discussing bias in pre-trained or fine-tuned models.",1,-1,[],[8094]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["intrinsic bias",1,25458,[],[8094]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[["The backwardness frame conceives corruption as a stubborn remnant from the past",1,-1,[],[44618]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["frames",1,7860,[],[44618]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["Les timocrates s'opposaient à la démocratie la considérant comme le « gouvernement des pauvres ».",1,-1,[],[36024]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["démocratie",1,-1,[],[36024]]],"sb":[],"sp":[["aristocratie",1,-1,[],[36024]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[["laws banning incitement to hatred",1,-1,[],[675]],["laws disallowing insult or denigration",1,-1,[],[675]],["laws proscribing group libel",1,-1,[],[675]],["media regulations limiting negative stereotyping or stigmatization",1,-1,[],[675]]]},{"nd":6,"df":[],"de":[["First, we calculate the average percentage of tokens in the generated text that are Hallucinated, meaning that they do not appear in the input corpus.",1,-1,[],[23877]],["To avoid incorrectly identifying hallucinations, we additionally require that at least one of the tokens in the entity does not appear in the source to count as hallucinated.",1,-1,[],[29077]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[["factual hallucinations",2,4814,[],[11405,11824]],["extrinsic hallucinations",1,34112,[],[11405]],["intrinsic hallucinations",1,30226,[],[11405]],["non-factual hallucinations",1,5314,[],[11824]]],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[["identity modification",1,-1,[],[60707]]],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["It is a critiquing power, which enlightenment itself, gave human beings through education, which we should be conscious of at all times.",1,-1,[],[26658]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[["complotismo",1,-1,[],[19419]]],"rt":[["negacionismo",1,11634,[],[19419]]],"sb":[["novo conspiracionismo",1,33883,[],[19419]]],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":5,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["medical model",1,20952,[],[50664]]],"sb":[],"sp":[["discourse model",1,23786,[],[50664]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["grand coalitions",1,-1,[],[25170]],["mutual veto",1,-1,[],[25170]],["proportionality",1,25127,[],[25170]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":4,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["radicalization process",1,31065,[],[18420]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":21,"df":[],"de":[["Repeated exposure to others' behaviours is also a key element of the so called 'complex contagion' effect (see the Supplementary Material).",1,-1,[],[1478]],["The best fit of complex contagion (CC, right) dynamics correctly estimates the probability of retweeting across the number of sources of exposure.",1,-1,[],[44579]],["This implies that exposures from multiple sources impacts the probability of spreading a given piece of information.",1,-1,[],[44579]],["This threshold mechanism differs significantly from, say, the spreading of a virus, where many exposures from a single source are sufficient to increase probability of infection.",1,-1,[],[44579]],["Törnberg (2018) instead draws on the concept of \"complex contagion\" (multiple sources of reinforcement may be required to induce adoption), which is useful for describing the spread of behaviors such as social movements and avant-garde fashion (Centola & Macy, 2007).",1,-1,[],[28299]],["complex contagions first have to spread locally before they can take advantage of such long-range ties",1,-1,[],[33834]],["each additional exposure significantly increases the chance of adoption.",1,-1,[],[3019]],["hashtag's publicity and legitimacy is driven by social exposure as part of a process of complex contagion",1,-1,[],[20330]],["useful for describing the spread of behaviors such as social movements and avant-garde fashion (Centola & Macy, 2007)",1,-1,[],[28299]],["whose dynamics are not fully captured by the basic models described above; in fact, in many realistic settings, there is a fundamental difference between the spreading of rumours or jokes, and the diffusion of a valuable information, the adoption of a new behaviour or innovation, or social mobilisation: individuals usually need social reinforcement, i.e., they must be exposed to the same idea or product more than once, before changing their habits, or opinions.",1,-1,[],[1478]]],"sy":[["infectious diseases",1,-1,[],[3019]],["simple contagions",1,14058,[],[33834]]],"rt":[["simple contagions",3,14058,[["simple contagions",2],["simple contagion",1]],[3019,33834,44579]],["social reinforcement",2,15528,[],[1478,44579]],["echo chambers",1,7363,[],[44579]],["human cognitive limits",1,-1,[],[44579]],["social exposure",1,19005,[],[20330]],["social influence",1,8485,[],[44579]]],"sb":[["absolute threshold contagion",1,1980,[],[40093]],["proportional threshold contagion",1,20588,[],[40093]],["threshold complex contagion model",1,27825,[],[44579]]],"sp":[["social contagion",1,17014,[],[40093]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":285,"df":[["unverified and instrumentally relevant information statements in circulation that arise in contexts of ambiguity, danger or potential threat, and that function to help people make sense and manage risk",5,-1,[["unverified and instrumentally relevant information statements in circulation that arise in contexts of ambiguity, danger or potential threat, and that function to help people make sense and manage risk",2],["unverified and instrumentally relevant information statements in circulation that arise in contexts of ambiguity, danger or potential threat and that function to help people make sense and manage risk",1],["unverified and instrumentally relevant information statements in circulation that arise in contexts of ambiguity, danger or potential threat, and that function to help people make sense and manage risk.",1],["unverified and instrumentally relevant information statements in circulation that arise in contexts of ambiguity, danger, or potential threat and that function to help people make sense and manage risk",1]],[5825,12621,17377,24369,26814]],["a currently circulating story or report of uncertain or doubtful truth",4,-1,[["a currently circulating story or report of uncertain or doubtful truth",3],["\"A currently circulating story or report of uncertain or doubtful truth\"",1],["A currently circulating story or report of uncertain or doubtful truth",1]],[5825,6839,17377,24369]],["unverified and instrumentally relevant information statements in circulation",4,-1,[],[1876,6839,34241,40022]],["Social psychology literature defines a rumor as a story or a statement whose truth value is unverified or deliberately false",2,-1,[],[37149,54736]],["a statement or report current without known authority for its truth",2,-1,[],[6839,54695]],["circulating story of questionable veracity, which is apparently credible but hard to verify, and produces sufficient skepticism and/or anxiety so as to motivate finding out the actual truth",2,-1,[],[17377,40022]],["items of information that are unverified at the time of posting",2,-1,[],[6839,43663]],["stories or statements with unverified truth value",2,-1,[],[46558,56867]],["unverified information that can be found as true, fabricated, or entirely false after verification",2,-1,[["unverified information that can be found as true, fabricated, or entirely false after verification",1],["unverified information that can be found as true, fabricated, or entirely false after verification.",1]],[15289,58730]]],"de":[["can mislead the public and cause significant economic and social disruption",2,-1,[],[46558,56867]],["(Guerin and Miyazaki 2006) provide a detailed characterisation of rumours, highlighting the following points about a rumour: (i) it is of personal consequence and interest to listeners, (ii) the truth behind it is difficult to verify, (iii) it gains attention with horror or scandal, and (iv) it has to be new or novel.",1,-1,[],[24369]],["(i) it is of personal consequence and interest to listeners, (ii) the truth behind it is difficult to verify, (iii) it gains attention with horror or scandal, and (iv) it has to be new or novel.",1,-1,[],[24369]],["A rumor does not pose a new idea but deal with news or information about a topic, person or certain situation and each rumor has its audience",1,-1,[],[41544]],["A rumor does not pose a new idea but deal with news or information about a topic, person or certain situation and each rumor has its audience (Al-Hams, Shldan,2013 ).",1,-1,[],[41544]],["A rumor is a semi-real say which might be positive or negative.",1,-1,[],[41544]],["A rumour can be interpreted as a speech act but with transmission patterns.",1,-1,[],[41778]],["A rumour can be understood as an item of information that has not yet been verified, and hence its truth value remains unresolved while it is circulating.",1,-1,[],[6839]],["A rumour can be understood as an item of information that has not yet been verified, and hence its truth value remains unresolved while it is circulating. A rumour is defined as unverified when there is no evidence supporting it or there is no official confirmation from authoritative sources (e.g., those with a reputation for being trustworthy) or sources that may have credibility in a particular context (e.g., eyewitnesses).",1,-1,[],[6839]],["A rumour is defined as unverified when there is no evidence supporting it or there is no official confirmation from authoritative sources (e.g., those with a reputation for being trustworthy) or sources that may have credibility in a particular context (e.g., eyewitnesses).",1,-1,[],[6839]],["A rumour's veracity value is unverifiable in the early stages, while being subsequently resolved as true or false in a relatively short period of time, or it can also remain unverified for a long time.",1,-1,[],[6846]],["A tweet might introduce questionable information even without being shared massively, but it will not become a rumour until it is spread and further discussed by many.",1,-1,[],[24369]],["According to [34], rumors' purpose is to make sense and manage risk situations when there is ambiguity or a potential threat.",1,-1,[],[43676]],["Allport and Postman postulated that the strength of a rumor (R) will vary with the importance of the subject to the individual concerned (i) times the ambiguity of the evidence pertaining to the topic at hand (a), or R ≈ i × a",1,-1,[],[6888]],["Analysis shows that people tend to stop spreading a rumor if it is known as false",1,-1,[],[12290]],["As a sense-making process, they can reduce anxiety and uncertainty, and help people to come to grips with unfamiliar situations.",1,-1,[],[5526]],["As rumors circulate, they may undergo changes, adaptations, or embellishments.",1,-1,[],[39884]],["As they ripple across the cyberspace, rumors engender misunderstanding and strike panic.",1,-1,[],[41762]],["Cummings and Kong (2019) verified that rumors and disinformation displayed and delivered malicious intentions to persuade people to misleading information.",1,-1,[],[13091]],["Despite being unverified however, rumors can be used by social media users to make sense of uncertain situations",1,-1,[],[41762]],["El medio del rumor es informal, tal como ocurría antes de la invención de la prensa. El rumor corre de boca en boca, confirmando lazos de confianza, lo cual provoca que creamos a ciegas en los mensajes que nos envían y que los distribuyamos masivamente sin llegar a ponerlos en duda.",1,-1,[],[14735]],["En la medida en que una información es admitida por un grupo, pasa a ser de conocimiento oficial: gana notoriedad, frecuenta las ruedas de conversación, se convierte en el asunto principal en torno al cual cada integrante del grupo se pronuncia y se posiciona. Y a cada repetición se afirma, ganando, así, su poder de convencimiento.",1,-1,[],[14735]],["Fake news is one type of misinformation, which also includes disinformation, rumors, and propaganda.",1,-1,[],[57534]],["False information circulated quickly, creating a demand for hospital care, testing and medical procedures that lacked a scientific support system",1,-1,[],[33611]],["In health and food risk research, rumours have been conceived as untrue narratives, misunderstandings, and obstacles to official prevention or management programs",1,-1,[],[50440]],["In our task, a potential rumor is presented as a tweet which reports an update associated with a newsworthy event, but is deemed unsubstantiated at the time of release.",1,-1,[],[21144]],["In the first category, posts containing new pieces of information that are unconfirmed with respect to some news event were considered as rumours.",1,-1,[],[6846]],["In this survey, we consider that rumors can take various forms, including false news stories, misleading claims, and unverified information.",1,-1,[],[39884]],["Irrespective of the underlying story being ultimately proven true or false, or remaining unsubstantiated, a rumour circulates while it is yet to be verified.",1,-1,[],[17377]],["It is often untrue news without a proof or evidence or it is exaggerated through maximizing or belittling its significance.",1,-1,[],[41544]],["It is random and non-organized launched by some individuals against others.",1,-1,[],[41544]],["It may be carefully planned by a big organized and highly specialized system in order to direct the public opinion to publish the news in a well-planned way.",1,-1,[],[41544]],["It may prove to be a social destructive phenomenon in any human culture.",1,-1,[],[44828]],["It may refer to an incident, object or problem of public concern.",1,-1,[],[44828]],["It might imply to an occurrence, article, and any social issue of open public concern. It might end up being a socially dangerous phenomenon in any human culture.",1,-1,[],[694,695]],["Misinformation can be categorized into two main types.",1,-1,[],[32824]],["Misinformation is essentially a false rumour that has been debunked.",1,-1,[],[33859]],["One of its characteristics as well is that it can be true or false or true and false at the same time.",1,-1,[],[41544]],["People looked for knowledge to ease their concerns since the SARS-CoV-2 disease was new and the epidemic was developing (Banko 2020).",1,-1,[],[33611]],["Rumor as a social phenomenon represents an important element in every human culture, and the definition of rumor varies according to the field of specialization.",1,-1,[],[41544]],["Rumor can be a believed and unintended false information that may be corrected during propagation (misinformation) or intentionally false information with the goal of misleading people (disinformation).",1,-1,[],[56208]],["Rumors also spread whenever media blackout exists or there is ambiguity in stands or with the government officials statements or with the intended mislead through the various mass media.",1,-1,[],[41544]],["Rumors are often related to information from their main sources such as institutions, companies, speculation markets.",1,-1,[],[41546]],["Rumors can be false or with elements of truth, in their intent and organization they can be inflammatory, frightening, panicky or encouraging.",1,-1,[],[26790]],["Rumors have the power to incite dread and anxiety when they make dramatic or frightening assertions.",1,-1,[],[33611]],["Rumors may alternatively be described as unverified informational claims and associated instruments that circulate in an environment of risk, uncertainty, or possible harm and serve to educate about risk and help them manage it.",1,-1,[],[41615]],["Rumors often emerge in situations of ambiguity or anxiety, where people seek explanations or reassurance.",1,-1,[],[39884]],["Rumors originate from unverified sources but may be true or false or remain unresolved (Zubiaga et al. 2018).",1,-1,[],[1032]],["Rumors originate from unverified sources but may later be verified as true or false, or remain unresolved.",1,-1,[],[6990]],["Rumors represent a tool of modern psychological warfare or a tool of the fourth generation of psychological warfare to implement the desired goals, whether economic, social or military, and countries resort to them to justify their internal and external policies in times of crisis, and are linked to the culture of societies and the interests and goals of individuals and institutions that adopt them.",1,-1,[],[41544]],["Rumors strongly appear due to the late declaration by institutions and financial companies of their annual profits to investors.",1,-1,[],[41546]],["Rumors tend to be particularly common during times of disaster (Liu et al., 2014), when people feel a need to create order, give meaning, or manage risks in ambiguous situations (Bordia & DiFonzo, 2007).",1,-1,[],[31669]],["Rumors typically spread quickly and informally within social networks, often fueled by curiosity, fear, or uncertainty.",1,-1,[],[39884]],["Rumour analysis, being a psycho-social phenomenon",1,-1,[],[41778]],["Rumour detection considers language subjectivity and growth of readership through a social network",1,-1,[],[8194]],["Rumours are not about facts or fiction, implausible half-truths, bizarre quackery or misinformation but resonate with the view that power operates secretly and needs to be approached with suspicion",1,-1,[],[28915]],["Rumours like jokes give an opportunity to talk about things that would otherwise be quieted; they convey messages that would be difficult or impossible to express directly",1,-1,[],[44505]],["Rumours that help to verbalise fear and uncertainty are especially important for people living in undemocratic and authoritarian societies.",1,-1,[],[44505]],["Such situations usually arise due to limited knowledge; when there is a psychological demand for understanding; or when there is a threat",1,-1,[],[54024]],["The aim of any rumor is to cause a degree of impact on those who receive either positively or negatively or make them neutral towards the rumor topic.",1,-1,[],[41544]],["The capacity of rumors to sway public opinion",1,-1,[],[33611]],["The circulation of this information is considered rumors that affect the movement and direction of securities prices, whether by increasing or decreasing, and the decline may continue for a period of time leading to a financial crisis.",1,-1,[],[41546]],["The identification of rumours within a timeline is ultimately meant to warn users that the information has not been confirmed, and so it may turn out to be false.",1,-1,[],[17377]],["The lack of credible evidence or confirmation characterizes rumors.",1,-1,[],[39884]],["The most common types of misleading and unverified information are fake news and rumors",1,-1,[],[41616]],["The rumor appears in an atmosphere prevailed with awaiting, expectation, instability and lack of confidence.",1,-1,[],[41544]],["The rumor is characterized with rapid spread of information and circulation among people so they cannot be easily stopped.",1,-1,[],[41544]],["The rumor is spread by dishonest business people for their benefit",1,-1,[],[18984]],["The rumor success depends largely on the social class that accepts the rumor due to the precedent psychological readiness.",1,-1,[],[41544]],["The rumours are attractive because it seems to be new, important, and able to express emotion or satisfy some emotional needs such as anger and hatred",1,-1,[],[50440]],["The spread of incorrect information that can cause people to take dangerous action",1,-1,[],[33611]],["The spreading of rumors in the stock markets is associated with the characteristics and nature of their promoters.",1,-1,[],[41546]],["Therefore, candidate rumor tweets should be factual or informative.",1,-1,[],[21144]],["They are based on hearsay, speculation, or incomplete information, making their accuracy uncertain.",1,-1,[],[39884]],["They can be born based on unacknowledged informationthe fact is known, but the content and details of the event are suppressed.",1,-1,[],[26790]],["They can have a significant and wide-ranging psychological influence on people, groups and even entire societies.",1,-1,[],[33611]],["They can reflect underlying social tensions, fears, or desires within a community.",1,-1,[],[39884]],["They may contain elements of truth but are more often exaggerated, distorted, or entirely fabricated.",1,-1,[],[39884]],["This kind of false information is widely propagated on OSNs, hence several studies have analyzed this type of false information.",1,-1,[],[7027]],["This term has been used to overlap with the term fake news and other terms of disinformation recently.",1,-1,[],[719]],["This unverified information may eventually turn out to be true, or partly or entirely false.",1,-1,[],[34241]],["This unverified information may turn out to be true, or partly or entirely false; alternatively, it may also remain unresolved.",1,-1,[],[6839]],["Time-sensitive, misleading, ambiguous, reversed, and the events tend to be followed by groups of people for a certain period of time.",1,-1,[],[3287]],["Uncertainty and confusion about",1,-1,[],[33916]],["Uncertainty is a perfect environment for rumors to flourish.",1,-1,[],[33611]],["Usually, the social media rapidly transmits the unverified statements that may be harmful for anybody.",1,-1,[],[44828]],["We often think of rumors, particularly in colloquial contexts, as inherently false, but some rumors turn out to be true.",1,-1,[],[26181]],["When rumors are spread, the person sharing the information often does not know whether it is true or false.",1,-1,[],[31669]],["a common result of these platforms' lack of moderation",1,-1,[],[26820]],["a form of misinformation",1,-1,[],[46558]],["a rumor may later be verified to be true or false by other authorized sources.",1,-1,[],[27607]],["a rumour has to generate significant interest within a community of users, which can be straightforwardly measured on Twitter by the number of times a tweet is retweeted.",1,-1,[],[24369]],["allegorical narratives and a social commentary addressing anxieties associated with past experiences and future uncertainty.",1,-1,[],[28915]],["an expression of belief about a specific event, passed along by word of mouth, without secure standards of evidence",1,-1,[],[58730]],["are a crucial marker of public opinion",1,-1,[],[49266]],["either just for entertainment or maliciously as well",1,-1,[],[22741]],["faculty attitudes toward fake news generally fall within the more negative sub-topics of misinformation, propaganda, and rumor",1,-1,[],[1183]],["failures in communication, to be rectified by the provision of more accurate information.",1,-1,[],[6202]],["identified as fake when it shares an image that does not represent the event it refers to (e.g., maliciously tampering with images and reposting previously captured images in a different event)",1,-1,[],[46304]],["informal, improvised news arising from collective discussions of important and ambiguous events",1,-1,[],[58730]],["largely disseminated in natural language (as a speech act) whereby they seem to have lexically no specific genre, and have a propagation with a certain resilience and assimilation process",1,-1,[],[41778]],["people may spread rumors to evaluate and interpret information in an effort to understand complex situations and, for example, solve crisis problems (Bordia & DiFonzo, 2004).",1,-1,[],[38364]],["people were believed to spread rumours which aligned with their beliefs",1,-1,[],[27464]],["public can become unnecessarily anxious and scared as a result of rumors about the virus's mortality",1,-1,[],[33611]],["rumor detection is also typically handled as a similar problem in the literature, although not strictly formulated as a fact-checking task, where a statement can be categorized as a rumor or non-rumor.",1,-1,[],[1876]],["rumors are a particular form of misinformationfoot_0 that are characterized by two features. First, the rumors are statements that lack specific standards of evidence. Secondly, rumors acquire their power through widespread social transmission",1,-1,[],[5825]],["rumors contain fact or misinformation to be verified while non-rumors do not",1,-1,[],[54737]],["rumors may become conceivable when the news about them and the ongoing events are ambiguous.",1,-1,[],[13091]],["rumors on social media, not just the \"fake news\" strictly defined as a news article published by a news outlet that is verifiably false",1,-1,[],[54737]],["rumors spread more during the times of crises, periods of political or social transition.",1,-1,[],[41544]],["rumors' purpose is to make sense and manage risk situations when there is ambiguity or a potential threat.",1,-1,[],[43676]],["rumours are a communication strategy similar to speech acts [30,31].",1,-1,[],[41778]],["rumours can evolve in the same way that language evolves",1,-1,[],[41778]],["rumours can spread with a combination of features that are not found in existing platforms",1,-1,[],[41778]],["rumours may spread misinformation (false information) or disinformation (deliberately false information) on a network of people.",1,-1,[],[27310]],["spontaneous social products, devoid of purposeful motives or strategies",1,-1,[],[58730]],["the amount of rumor in circulation will vary with the importance of the subject to the individuals involved times the ambiguity of the evidence pertaining to the topic at issue",1,-1,[],[17377]],["these things often tended to grow larger and more exaggerated as they passed along the grapevine",1,-1,[],[50410]],["they are not necessarily false and may turn out to be true (Zubiaga et al. 2018).",1,-1,[],[1032]],["they are not necessarily false, and may turn out to be true",1,-1,[],[6990]],["they are not necessarily false, and may turn out to be true [132].",1,-1,[],[6990]],["they are not necessarily false, and may turn out to be true [132]. Rumors originate from unverified sources but may later be verified as true or false, or remain unresolved.",1,-1,[],[6990]],["they have to attract a substantial interest to be deemed rumours",1,-1,[],[17381]],["untrue\" narratives, \"misunderstandings,\" and \"obstacles\" to official prevention programs",1,-1,[],[6202]],["we differentiate rumors from fake news as follows",1,-1,[],[55088]],["we differentiate rumors from fake news as follows: we consider that rumors are doubtful statements that cannot be easily verified, while fake news is intentionally fabricated information presented as true.",1,-1,[],[55088]],["we used the high number of retweets as an indication of a tweet being potentially rumourous",1,-1,[],[12353]]],"sy":[["fake news",8,33960,[],[278,6990,12959,18801,21331,26814,50213,54024]],["misinformation",8,10315,[],[1183,19880,22741,26814,33859,41778,50213,54024]],["hoaxes",2,13150,[["hoaxes",2],["hoax",1]],[18801,58606]],["Gerüchte",1,-1,[],[49265]],["Gossip",1,15638,[],[28915]],["bits of gossip",1,-1,[],[52309]],["disinformation",1,17423,[],[54024]],["fake posts",1,-1,[],[46304]],["hearsay",1,-1,[],[40482]],["incorrect information",1,-1,[],[33611]],["questionable claims",1,-1,[],[6839]],["rumour detection and resolution",1,-1,[],[7086]],["rumours",1,17712,[],[720]],["unverified information",1,18888,[],[43663]]],"rt":[["fake news",12,33960,[],[719,720,5825,6990,7113,12959,18082,19880,41616,43858,50353,54737,55088]],["misinformation",11,10315,[],[1183,1527,6839,6846,12290,19880,22741,27310,33859,38371,39884,54737]],["disinformation",7,17423,[],[6846,13091,26790,26814,27310,38371,39884]],["conspiracy theories",4,1403,[],[5526,6202,28915,39884]],["gossip",3,15638,[],[720,24369,61999]],["rumor detection",3,3268,[["rumor detection",2],["rumour detection",1]],[1876,6788,17377]],["false news",2,34005,[],[7113,49642]],["rumor tracking",2,21000,[["rumor tracking",1],["rumour tracking",1]],[6788,17377]],["urban legends",2,15904,[],[720,24369]],["Misinformation is essentially a false rumour that has been debunked.",1,-1,[],[33859]],["apocryphal reports",1,-1,[],[50410]],["debunking message",1,19994,[],[41361]],["doctored narratives",1,-1,[],[50353]],["false news stories",1,-1,[],[39884]],["fourth generation of psychological warfare",1,-1,[],[41544]],["hoaxes",1,13150,[],[720]],["incorrect information",1,-1,[],[33611]],["misleading claims",1,10448,[],[39884]],["non-rumor information",1,-1,[],[52309]],["non-rumour",1,20695,[],[17377]],["non-rumours (all other circulating information)",1,-1,[],[22284]],["psychological warfare",1,22775,[],[41544]],["rumor corrections",1,-1,[],[41762]],["rumor stance classification",1,31945,[],[6788]],["rumors, \" \"misinformation, \" \"disinformation, \" and \"fake news\" are commonly used interchangeably",1,-1,[],[54024]],["rumour diffusion",1,-1,[],[40022]],["rumour discourse",1,24444,[],[41778]],["rumour lifecycle",1,9899,[],[41778]],["suspicion",1,2948,[],[28915]],["unverified information",1,18888,[],[39884]],["veracity classification",1,25827,[],[6788]],["whispered propaganda",1,12346,[],[49265,49266]],["witchcraft discourses",1,-1,[],[28915]]],"sb":[["\"pipe-dream\" rumours",3,15932,[["\"pipe-dream\" rumours",1],["'pipe-dream' rumours",1],["pipe-dream rumours",1]],[6839,40022,49265]],["\"wedge-driving\" rumours",3,16411,[["\"wedge-driving\" rumours",1],["'wedge-driving' rumours",1],["wedge-driving rumours",1]],[6839,40022,49265]],["\"bogy\" rumours",2,19426,[["\"bogy\" rumours",1],["'bogy' rumours",1]],[6839,40022]],["false rumor",2,5445,[],[29863,34241]],["General rumors",1,15701,[["General rumors",1],["general rumor",1]],[5825]],["New rumours",1,7988,[],[6839]],["Those that have been circulating for a long time",1,-1,[],[26820]],["accidents and disasters rumors",1,12739,[],[41544]],["commercial disinformation",1,-1,[],[41778]],["commercial offer attacks",1,-1,[],[41778]],["computer virus alerts",1,-1,[],[41778]],["computer virus alerts, superstitious chains, solidarity chains, petitions, hoaxes, urban legends, fun stories and funny photos/pictures",1,-1,[],[41778]],["conspiracy theory",1,1403,[],[40482]],["debunked as false stories",1,-1,[],[12353]],["defamation",1,7050,[],[41778]],["deliberate or intended type",1,20264,[],[41544]],["diseases spread rumors",1,-1,[],[41544]],["disinformation",1,17423,[],[56208]],["dread",1,10495,[],[50353]],["early reports during breaking news lacking enough support or evidence",1,-1,[],[41778]],["economic rumors",1,-1,[],[41544]],["false commercial offers",1,-1,[],[41778]],["fear rumours",1,17853,[],[49265]],["financial disinformation",1,-1,[],[41778]],["fun stories",1,-1,[],[41778]],["funny photos/pictures",1,-1,[],[41778]],["hoaxes",1,13150,[],[41778]],["hoaxes, jokes, little stories or information leaks",1,-1,[],[41778]],["intentional rumors that aim to cause harm due to conflicting private interests",1,-1,[],[41546]],["long-standing rumors staying for more extended periods",1,-1,[],[31700]],["long-standing rumours",1,26860,[],[6839]],["loss of credibility operations",1,-1,[],[41778]],["misinformation",1,10315,[],[56208]],["newly emerging rumors that often come in the name of breaking news",1,-1,[],[31700]],["newly emerging rumours",1,2162,[],[6839]],["objective rumor",1,12355,[],[5825]],["optimism and hope rumor",1,21617,[],[41544]],["panic alert to induce terror",1,-1,[],[41778]],["petitions",1,-1,[],[41778]],["political attacks",1,-1,[],[41778]],["political rumors",1,-1,[],[41544]],["racial rumor",1,18958,[],[41544]],["random unintended rumor",1,9128,[],[41544]],["religious rumors",1,-1,[],[41544]],["riots and demonstrations rumors",1,-1,[],[41544]],["rumors of fear and hatred",1,-1,[],[41544]],["social rumors",1,8715,[],[41544]],["solidarity chains",1,-1,[],[41778]],["speculation, controversy, misinformation, and disinformation",1,-1,[],[54024]],["subjective rumor",1,8053,[["subjective rumor",1],["subjective rumors",1]],[5825]],["superstitious chains",1,-1,[],[41778]],["those that have recently emerged, often as a result of fast-paced events like breaking news, when reports are often unconstrained and unsupported",1,-1,[],[26820]],["true",1,13216,[],[12353]],["true rumor",1,23031,[],[34241]],["unintentional rumors that do not aim to cause specific harm",1,-1,[],[41546]],["unverified",1,15900,[],[12353]],["unverified rumor",1,23557,[],[34241]],["urban legends",1,15904,[],[41778]],["urban legends, commercial disinformation, political attacks, commercial offer attacks, false commercial offers, financial disinformation, defamation, loss of credibility operations and panic alert to induce terror",1,-1,[],[41778]],["wish",1,16875,[],[50353]]],"sp":[["misinformation",10,10315,[["misinformation",8],["Misinformation",2]],[3245,5825,23770,26181,26197,28408,38364,46558,56867,57534]],["Fake news",4,33960,[["Fake news",2],["fake news",2]],[19849,20645,37865,40079]],["Claim",1,178,[],[1876]],["disinformation",1,17423,[],[26790]],["fake news articles",1,15499,[],[16596]],["false information",1,20964,[],[33916]],["intent-based fake news",1,23293,[],[1032]],["problematic information",1,28030,[],[8254]],["social diseases",1,-1,[],[54786]],["unwanted content",1,29911,[],[52309]]],"ex":[["A rumor can be a hoax, a joke, a short story, or a lack of information",1,-1,[],[54024]],["Issues such as the virus's origin, mode of transmission, cure and strength have been discussed (Musa et al 2020).",1,-1,[],[33611]],["Readers can be misled by rumors about a variety of things or individuals [7][8].",1,-1,[],[41615]],["Rumors aim to create artificial supply and demand of some companies' shares and thus increase the shares of some companies and decrease the shares prices of others without reasonable justifications of the prices falling and rising.",1,-1,[],[41546]],["a rumor spreads on social media that recently the price of salt and onion had increased in Bangladesh and some shops quickly increased their pricesfoot_0 ,foot_1",1,-1,[],[18984]],["conspiracy theories",1,-1,[],[39884]],["deceptive guidance on how to avoid infection",1,-1,[],[33611]],["dripping sesame oil into the nostrils, chewing garlic, drinking alcohol, and smoking vinegar can resist the virus",1,-1,[],[50440]],["false health-related rumors",1,-1,[],[39884]],["gossip about individuals",1,-1,[],[39884]],["inaccurate data regarding virus spread",1,-1,[],[33611]],["news events",1,-1,[],[39884]],["promise of miraculous treatments",1,-1,[],[33611]],["rumors can undermine the credibility of the news industry and raise people's suspicions about all social media content.",1,-1,[],[41615]],["stories around the 2013 Boston Marathon Bombings like the story that the suspects became citizens on 9/11 or that a Sandy Hook child was killed during the incident",1,-1,[],[7026]],["stories around the 2013 Boston Marathon Bombings like the story that the suspects became citizens on 9/11 or that a Sandy Hook child was killed during the incident [163]",1,-1,[],[7027]],["the disappearance of young girls in fitting rooms inside Jewish shops in the town of Orleans (France) in 1969",1,-1,[],[41778]],["the urban legend \"rue des Marmousets\" in Paris where a barber and a pastry chef made cake trade based on human flesh in XVth century",1,-1,[],[41778]],["unverified remedies or cures for the infection",1,-1,[],[33611]],["wild speculation on the virus origins",1,-1,[],[33611]]]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["infrapolitics",1,8735,[],[25620]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["similarity-attraction effect",1,-1,[],[17266]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["is taken up and reworked across settings",1,-1,[],[50666]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["biosociality/strategic essentialism",1,-1,[],[50666]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["New Media Literacy (NML)",1,21230,[],[45252]]],"ex":[["Finally, the production includes the capabilities of partially or completely reproducing, mixing/collating media content. Production activities include mixing audio and video files to create a new video file, digitizing a printed file, and writing something on media such as a blog or social network.",1,-1,[],[45252]],["Firstly, the skills indicator expresses a number of technical skills needed to produce media content. The ability to open an account and create products in a web environment can be given as an example.",1,-1,[],[45252]],["Secondly, the distribution refers to the ability to disseminate information they already have. The presentation of materials developed within the scope of a course on a YouTube channel can be given as an example.",1,-1,[],[45252]]]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[["it allows for a more granular examination of media bias, as textual analysis alone may miss the ideological and emotional undertones of visual elements",1,-1,[],[29815]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["multimodal framing",1,21218,[],[29815]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":13,"df":[],"de":[["A collocation is defined as a sequence of words or terms that co-occur more often than would be expected by chance.",1,-1,[],[24363]],["By extracting and analysing the words that have an exceptional frequency in a discourse and the words or groups of words that are matched to them, it is possible to identify the theme of the discourse and the set of words that express this theme.",1,-1,[],[50199]],["Collocation is typically judged to exist by the use of a word association measure which tells us how often two or more words occur alongside one another and whether this association is notable as a sizeable effect in our data.",1,-1,[],[45213]],["The concept of collocation has been used to refer to the patterning phenomena that some lexical words predominantly co-occur with each other within some evaluative discursive structures.",1,-1,[],[44530]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["colligation",1,-1,[],[11374]],["collocate",1,20723,[],[45213]],["semantic preference",1,32782,[],[44530]],["semantic prosody",1,21901,[],[44530]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[["deep uncertainty",1,-1,[],[32628]],["medium",1,4434,[],[32628]],["no uncertainty",1,-1,[],[32628]],["shallow",1,-1,[],[32628]],["total ignorance",1,-1,[],[32628]]],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":5,"df":[],"de":[["the equivalent effect of conspiracy theories",1,-1,[],[40479]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["conspiracy theories",1,1403,[],[40479]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[["The Lacanian framework defines a more complex representation of the roles assumed by two interacting parties, formulating four discrete discourse types Lacan (1972), Lacan (1974) and Bailly (2009)",1,-1,[],[48542]],["they can be used as a reference model to interpret works of art, social situations, and so on.",1,-1,[],[48542]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[["Discourse of the Analyst",1,14546,[],[48542]],["Discourse of the Hysteric",1,24108,[["Discourse of the Hysteric",1],["Hysteric discourse",1]],[48542]],["Discourse of the Master",1,25111,[],[48542]],["Discourse of the University",1,25499,[],[48542]],["discourse of the Capitalist Contri",1,1267,[],[48542]]],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["associated with feminist and women's shelter movements",1,-1,[],[8911]],["position the reported case in any societal context",1,-1,[],[8911]]],"sy":[["structural discourse",1,-1,[],[8911]]],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":3,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["social frameworks",1,21489,[],[39019]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[["Conrad Hal Waddington lived in Edinburgh and he published scientific papers.",1,-1,[],[11918]]]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":2,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["logic of pluralism",1,2318,[],[35832]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["abolitionist perspective",1,9125,[],[13274]],["regulating approach",1,16800,[],[13274]]],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":6,"df":[],"de":[["Forma ta jest niezwykle wyrazista i skuteczna w narzucaniu uproszczonego obrazu przeszłości danego narodu.",1,-1,[],[13369]],["Forma ta jest niezwykle wyrazista i skuteczna w narzucaniu uproszczonego obrazu przeszłości danego narodu. Na jej specyficzną strukturę składa się nie tylko nieprzepracowana przeszłość, ale też kryzys demokracji przedstawicielskiej oraz rozwój kapitalizmu afektywnego wzmagający nieustannie nasze jednostkowe i zbiorowe pragnienia.",1,-1,[],[13369]],["Na jej specyficzną strukturę składa się nie tylko nieprzepracowana przeszłość, ale też kryzys demokracji przedstawicielskiej oraz rozwój kapitalizmu afektywnego wzmagający nieustannie nasze jednostkowe i zbiorowe pragnienia.",1,-1,[],[13369]],["Populizm historyczny pozwala najszybciej i najskuteczniej (bo na poziomie afektywnym) zakotwiczyć się w przeszłości.",1,-1,[],[13369]],["formą kształtowania przekazów kulturowych odnoszących się do przeszłości historycznej",1,-1,[],[13369]],["kluczowe dla jego zrozumienia jest założenie, że z jednej strony obraz przeszłości historycznej wyjaśnia aktualne nierówności i podział na tych, którzy korzystają ze status quo, i tych, którzy się czują przegrani i nie mogą (lub nie potrafią) poczuć się w zaistniałej sytuacji podmiotowo.",1,-1,[],[13369]],["populizm historyczny ma charakter podwójnie reaktywny: nie dąży do zmiany teraźniejszości poprzez budowanie analogii historycznych, ale dąży do zmiany teraźniejszości i jednocześnie do zmiany przeszłości.",1,-1,[],[13369]],["poręcznym narzędziem (formą, stylem) do uprawiania polityki historycznej",1,-1,[],[13369]],["poręcznym narzędziem (formą, stylem) do uprawiania polityki historycznej, najbardziej efektywnym i też najbardziej pożądanym przez elity \"praktykujące\" autorytarny populizm narodowy czy etnocentryczny skoncentrowany na budowaniu silnej tożsamości narodowej",1,-1,[],[13369]],["przywiązanie do wspólnoty, apolityczność (brak zainteresowania instytucjami politycznymi), koncentracja na powrocie do stanu \"sprzed upadku duchowego\", ukierunkowanie na przeszłość jako źródło wartości",1,-1,[],[13369]],["waga dwóch czynników (silnej i ekskluzywnej tożsamości narodowej) oraz waga przeszłości historycznej, jako bardzo istotnego zasobu budowania wspólnoty politycznej i sposobu jej legitymizacji -decydują o jego turbo-patriotycznym charakterze",1,-1,[],[13369]]],"sy":[],"rt":[["konserwatywna utopia",1,-1,[],[13369]],["retrotopia",1,20563,[],[13369]]],"sb":[["koncepcja nowego populizmu i wprowadzenie fantazmatu o przeszłości jako rdzennej krainie zamieszkałej przez homogeniczny lud reprezentujący najwyższą wartość moralną",1,-1,[],[13369]],["populizm etnocentryczny (czy inaczej narodowy)",1,3545,[],[13369]],["populizm etnocentryczny (czy inaczej narodowy) skoncentrowany na rewitalizacji idei suwerennego narodu -wraz z postulatami odzyskania godności, nadania znaczenia, niechęcią wobec obcych",1,-1,[],[13369]],["populizm retoryczny i medialny",1,26912,[],[13369]],["populizm retoryczny i medialny polegający na budowaniu emocjonalnego oraz silnie perswazyjnego przekazu",1,-1,[],[13369]]],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":4,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[["context-dependent definitions",1,-1,[],[19748]],["lexical ambiguity",1,29765,[],[19748]],["referring expressions",1,-1,[],[19748]]],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["concepts and ideas explicitly communicated in the text",1,-1,[],[1851]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["while Correctness focuses on the content level",1,-1,[],[43980]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[["Specifically, we examine how these recommendations vary across different languages, yielding multilingual nationality bias.",1,-1,[],[43848]]],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":18,"df":[],"de":[["Fostering dialogue and mutual understanding.",1,-1,[],[1992]],["It focuses on the role and responsibility of corporations within such 'new forms of governance' such as public-policy networks or multi-stakeholder initiatives.",1,-1,[],[443]],["Like corporate political advocacy, political CSR also emphasizes an overt political engagement with motives beyond self-interest",1,-1,[],[40537]],["Places for deliberation.",1,-1,[],[1992]],["SLO is determined by societal consensus were interests of multiple stakeholders are balanced out.",1,-1,[],[1992]],["Stakeholders/ societal interest.",1,-1,[],[1992]],["Thus, in contrast to CPA, this debate highlights the political role of corporations predominantly in the 'extraconstitutional' sphere (Baur, 2011).",1,-1,[],[443]],["encompasses activities whereby CSR is a deliberate attempt to usurp government regulation, CSR-related activities that are geared solely towards responding to government policy and also CSR-related activities where firms recognize their impact on society and their social responsibilities in a way that has a clear impact on regulation, even though this may not be the intended aim of the activity.",1,-1,[],[6188]],["focuses on the role and responsibility of corporations within such 'new forms of governance' such as public-policy networks or multi-stakeholder initiatives",1,-1,[],[443]],["political CSR aims to promote open dialogue and mutual understanding and play a role in negotiation",1,-1,[],[40537]],["political CSR aims to promote open dialogue and mutual understanding and play a role in negotiation (van der Meer and Jonkman, 2021).",1,-1,[],[40537]],["political CSR also emphasizes an overt political engagement with motives beyond self-interest (Wettstein and Baur, 2016).",1,-1,[],[40537]],["political CSR emphasizes a balance of interests where the corporation remains neutral and doesn't lean toward any side",1,-1,[],[40537]],["political CSR emphasizes a balance of interests where the corporation remains neutral and doesn't lean toward any side (Wettstein and Baur, 2016).",1,-1,[],[40537]],["political CSR sees corporations as deliberative, societal, and political actors, working in multi-stakeholder networks on solutions for issues that transcend the direct business priorities of the firm",1,-1,[],[1992]],["political CSR that promotes open dialogue",1,-1,[],[40537]],["predicted function of political CSR in the polarized world that regulates market transactions through negotiation",1,-1,[],[40537]],["the focus of political CSR tends to be narrower than that on corporate political advocacy, which takes place both within (lobbying for the good) and outside (advocacy in a weak sense) of the constitutional sphere",1,-1,[],[443]],["to encourage open dialogue and mutual understanding for better societal situation, to limit publics' perceived polarization of the issue",1,-1,[],[40537]]],"sy":[["calling for open dialogue",1,-1,[],[40537]]],"rt":[["CSR",1,-1,[],[443]],["corporate political engagement",1,28834,[],[40537]]],"sb":[],"sp":[["corporate political engagement",1,28834,[],[40537]],["corporate social responsibility",1,32003,[["corporate social responsibility",1],["corporate social responsibility (CSR)",1]],[40537]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[["Medienkompetenz",1,31848,[],[46090]]],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":13,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[["corporate identity",1,-1,[],[52459]],["role identity",1,9988,[],[52459]],["type identity",1,31674,[],[52459]]],"sb":[],"sp":[["state identity",1,33871,[],[52459]]],"ex":[["This is most frequently done by trying to create a common collective identity (Ansell, 1998).",1,-1,[],[6018]]]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[]},{"nd":1,"df":[],"de":[],"sy":[],"rt":[],"sb":[],"sp":[],"ex":[["competitors and audiences can observe/monitor PSM performances in different dimensions of its operations",1,-1,[["competitors and audiences can observe/monitor PSM performances in different dimensions of its operations",1],["competitors and audiences can observe/monitor PSM performances in different dimensions of its operations.",1]],[55533]]]},{"nd":6,"df":[],"de":[["By virtue of their attention-grabbing capacity, such features may be described as tabloid packaging (cf. Grabe et al., 2003).",1,-1,[],[10149]],["Pacing (i.e., number of camera shots) is the most studied tabloid feature. 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