Premise: The growth of intelligence No one doubts that intelligence develops as children grow older. Yet the concept of intelligence has proved both quite difficult to define in unambiguous terms and unexpectedly controversial in some respects. Although, at one level, there seem to be almost as many definitions of intelligence as people who have tried to define it, there is broad agreement on two key features. That is, intelligence involves the capacity not only to learn from experience but also to adapt to ones environment. However, we cannot leave the concept there. Before turning to what is known about the development of intelligence, it is necessary to consider whether we are considering the growth of one or many skills. That question has been tackled in rather different ways by psychometricians and by developmentalists. The former group has examined the issue by determining how childrens abilities on a wide range of tasks intercorrelate, or go together. Statistical techniques have been used to find out whether the patterns are best explained by one broad underlying capacity, general intelligence, or by a set of multiple, relatively separate, special skills in domains such as verbal and visuospatial ability. While it cannot be claimed that everyone agrees on what the results mean, most people now accept that for practical purposes it is reasonable to suppose that both are involved. In brief, the evidence in favour of some kind of general intellectual capacity is that people who are superior (or inferior) on one type of task tend also to be superior (or inferior) on others. Moreover, general measures of intelligence tend to have considerable powers to predict a persons performance on a wide range of tasks requiring special skills. Nevertheless, it is plain that it is not at all uncommon for individuals to be very good at some sorts of task and yet quite poor at some others. Furthermore the influences that affect verbal skills are not quite the same as those that affect other skills. This approach to investigating intelligence is based on the nature of the task involved, but studies of age-related changes show that this is not the only, or necessarily the most important, approach. For instance, some decades ago, Horn and Cattell argued for a differentiation between what they termed fluid and crystallised intelligence. Fluid abilities are best assessed by tests that require mental manipulation of abstract symbols. Crystallised abilities, by contrast, reflect knowledge of the environment in which we live and past experience of similar tasks; they may be assessed by tests of comprehension and information. It seems that fluid abilities peak in early adult life, whereas crystallised abilities increase up to advanced old age. Developmental studies also show that the interconnections between different skills vary with age. Thus in the first year of life an interest in perceptual patterns is a major contributor to cognitive abilities, whereas verbal abilities are more important later on. These findings seemed to suggest a substantial lack of continuity between infancy and middle childhood. However, it is important to realise that the apparent discontinuity will vary according to which of the cognitive skills were assessed in infancy. It has been found that tests of coping with novelty do predict later intelligence. These findings reinforce the view that young childrens intellectual performance needs to be assessed from their interest in and curiosity about the environment, and the extent to which this is applied to new situations, as well as by standardised intelligence testing. These psychometric approaches have focused on childrens increase in cognitive skills as they grow older. Piaget brought about a revolution in the approach to cognitive development through his arguments (backed up by observations) that the focus should be on the thinking processes involved rather than on levels of cognitive achievement. These ideas of Piaget gave rise to an immense body of research and it would be true to say that subsequent thinking has been heavily dependent on his genius in opening up new ways of thinking about cognitive development. Nevertheless, most of his concepts have had to be so radically revised, or rejected, that his theory no longer provides an appropriate basis for thinking about cognitive development. To appreciate why that is so, we need to focus on some rather different elements of Piagets theorising. The first element, which has stood the test of time, is his view that the child is an active agent of learning and of the importance of this activity in cognitive development. Numerous studies have shown how infants actively scan their environment; how they prefer patterned to non-patterned objects, how they choose novel over familiar stimuli, and how they explore their environment as if to see how it works. Childrens questions and comments vividly illustrate the ways in which they are constantly constructing schemes of what they know and trying out their ideas of how to fit new knowledge into those schemes or deciding that the schemes need modification. Moreover, a variety of studies have shown that active experiences have a greater effect on learning than comparable passive experiences. However, a second element concerns the notion that development proceeds through a series of separate stages that have to be gone through step-by-step, in a set order, each of which is characterised by a particular cognitive structure. That has turned out to be a rather misleading way of thinking about cognitive development, although it is not wholly wrong.

Hypothesis: A surprising number of academics have come to the same conclusion about what the term intelligence means.


Hypothesis: The elderly perform less well on comprehension tests than young adults.


Hypothesis: We must take into account which skills are tested when comparing intelligence at different ages.


Hypothesis: Piagets work influenced theoretical studies more than practical research.


Hypothesis: Piagets emphasis on active learning has been discredited by later researchers.


Hypothesis: A general test of intelligence is unlikely to indicate the level of performance in every type of task.


Premise: The guillotine was a machine used to kill people by chopping off their head. It consists of a heavy blade attached to a frame. When the blade was released, it would fall down under its own weight and chop off the victims head, killing them instantly. It was commonly used in France during the French Revolution as it was the only legal method of execution in order to enact the death penalty. The guillotine was named after a French doctor called Joseph Guillotin. He decided that a more humane way of executing someone was needed as he realised he was unable to get rid of the death penalty. He decided that using an automatic mechanical device for decapitation would be more humane than by a person with an axe. The first guillotine built was then tested on animals to see if the axe would have enough force to decapitate its victim. Before the guillotine was used in execution, the criminal would be hanged. This was seen to be less humane as the victim was supposed to die from the impact of the rope snapping their necks, however this did not happen all the time. The victim could be in agony for up to forty minutes before eventually dying from asphyxiation.

Hypothesis: Joseph Guillotin agreed with the death penalty.


Hypothesis: During the French Revolution, hanging was the common form of execution.


Hypothesis: The guillotine was seen as being more humane as it was automatic with the blade falling through its own weight.


Hypothesis: Hanging usually causes death by asphyxiation.


Hypothesis: According to the passage, the guillotine was used for execution before the French Revolution.


Premise: The happy planet index is an index of human wellbeing and environmental impact that was introduced by the new economics foundation. The index is designed up challenge the well- established indices of countries development, such as gross domestic product, human development index and quality of life index. Furthermore, it is believed that the notion of sustainable development requires a measure of environment costs in pursuing happiness and health. On this index Costa Rica was ranked the highest in HPI, and Zimbabwe was ranked the lowest in HPI.

Hypothesis: happy planet index challenges gross domestic product


Hypothesis: happy planet index challenges quality of life index


Hypothesis: happy planet index challenges human development index.


Hypothesis: happy planet index challenges gross national happiness.


Premise: The head of the organization congratulated the entire staff in his speech for their sincere effort to bring down the deficit and urged them to give their best for attaining a more profitable position in future.

Hypothesis: The employees may get motivated and maintain and if possible enhance their present level of work.


Hypothesis: The employees may now relax and slow down in their day to day work as there is no immediate threat of huge deficit


Premise: The hidden histories of exploration exhibition We have all heard tales of lone, heroic explorers, but what about the local individuals who guided and protected European explorers in many different parts of the globe? Or the go-betweens including interpreters and traders who translated the needs and demands of explorers into a language that locals could understand? Such questions have received surprisingly little attention in standard histories, where European explorers are usually the heroes, sometimes the villains. The Hidden Histories of Exploration exhibition at Britains Royal Geographical Society in London sets out to present an alternative view, in which exploration is a fundamentally collective experience of work, involving many different people. Many of the most famous examples of explorers said to have been lone travellers say, Mungo Park or David Livingstone in Africa were anything but alone on their travels. They depended on local support of various kinds for food, shelter, protection, information, guidance and solace as well as on other resources from elsewhere. The Royal Geographical Society (RGS) seeks to record this story in its Hidden Histories project, using its astonishingly rich collections. The storage of geographical information was one of the main rationales for the foundation of the RGS in 1830, and the Societys collections now contain more than two million individual items, including books, manuscripts, maps, photographs art-works, artefacts and film a rich storehouse of material reflecting the wide geographical extent of British interest across the globe. In addition to their remarkable scope and range, these collections contain a striking visual record of exploration: the impulse to collect the world is reflected in a large and diverse image archive. For the researcher, this archive can vield many surprises: materials gathered for one purpose say, maps relating to an international boundary dispute or photographs taken on a scientific expedition may today be put to quite different uses In their published narratives, European explorers rarely portrayed themselves as vulnerable or dependent on others, despite the fact that without this support they were quite literally lost. Archival research confirms that Europeans were not merely dependent on the work of porters soldiers translators, cooks, pilots, guides, hunters and collectors: they also relied on local expertise. Such assistance was essential in identifying potential dangers poisonous species, unpredictable rivers, uncharted territories which could mean the difference between life and death. The assistants themselves were usually in a strong bargaining position. In the Amazon, for example access to entire regions would depend on the willingness of local crew members and other assistants to enter areas inhabited by relatively powerful Amerindian groups. In an account of his journey across South America published in 1836, William Smyth thus complained of frequent desertion by his helpers: without them it was impossible to get on. Those providing local support and information to explorers were themselves often not locals. For example, the history of African exploration in the nineteenth century is dominated by the use of Zanzibar as a recruiting station for porters, soldiers and guides who would then travel thousands of miles across the continent. In some accounts, the leading African members of expedition parties the officers or foremen are identified, and their portraits published alongside those of European explorers. The information provided by locals and intermediaries was of potential importance to geographical science. How was this evidence judged? The formal procedures of scientific evaluation provided one framework. Alongside these were more common sense notions of veracity and reliability, religiously-inspired judgments about the authenticity of testimony, and the routine procedures for cross-checking empirical observations developed in many professions. Given explorers need for local information and support, it was in their interests to develop effective working partnerships with knowledgeable intermediaries who could act as brokers in their dealings with local inhabitants. Many of these people acquired far more experience of exploration than most Europeans could hope to attain. Some managed large groups of men and women, piloted the explorers river craft, or undertook mapping work. The tradition was continued with the Everest expeditions in the 1920s and 1930s, which regularly employed the Tibetan interpreter Karma Paul. In Europe, exploration was increasingly thought of as a career; the same might be said of the non-Europeans on whom their expeditions depended. These individuals often forged close working relationships with European explorers. Such partnerships depended on mutual respect, though they were not always easy or intimate, as is particularly clear from the history of the Everest expeditions depicted in the Hidden Histories exhibition. The entire back wall is covered by an enlarged version of a single sheet of photographs of Sherpas taken during the 1936 Everest expedition. The document is a powerful reminder of the manpower on which European mountaineering expeditions depended, and also of the importance of local knowledge and assistance. Transformed from archive to wall display, it tells a powerful story through the medium of individual portraits including Karma Paul, veteran of previous expeditions, and the young Tensing Norgay, 17 years before his successful 1953 ascent. This was a highly charged and transitional moment as the contribution of the Sherpas, depicted here with identity tags round their necks, was beginning to be much more widely recognised. These touching portraits encourage us to see them as agents rather than simply colonial subjects or paid employees. Here is a living history, which looks beyond what we already know about exploration: a larger history in which we come to recognise the contribution of everyone involved.

Hypothesis: In their publications, European explorers often describe their dependence on their helpers.


Hypothesis: The Hidden Histories of Exploration exhibition aims to show the wide range of people involved in expeditions.


Hypothesis: The common belief about how Park and Livingstone travelled is accurate.


Hypothesis: Materials owned by the RGS can be used in ways that were not originally intended.


Hypothesis: Some of the records in the RGS archives are more useful than others.


Hypothesis: Local helpers refused to accompany William Smyth during parts of his journey.


Hypothesis: The RGS has organised a number of exhibitions since it was founded.


Premise: The hippocampus region of the brain usually starts to shrink when we reach the age of 30. This contraction is held to be responsible for age-related memory loss, and the older we get the worse it becomes. The process may be reversible though, as the hippocampus is the only region of the brain in which neurons can grow. New research suggests that the secret to growing them is physical exercise, which raises the possibility of us working out to boost our brain power. Unfortunately, it is not just any sort of exercise that stimulates the growth of neurons and this explains why physically active people suffer the same memory loss as the more sedentary.

Hypothesis: By saying that contraction of the hippocampus is held to be responsible, the author indicates that there may be disagreement on the point.


Hypothesis: The intended audience of the passage is the physically inactive rather than the general population.


Hypothesis: Researchers have identified the forms of physical exercise that stimulate the growth of neurons in the hippocampus.


Premise: The history of bread and cake starts with Neolithic cooks and marches through time according to ingredient availability, advances in technology, economic conditions, socio- cultural influences, legal rights (Medieval guilds), and evolving taste. The earliest breads were unleavened. Variations in grain, thickness, shape, and texture varied from culture to culture. Archaelogical evidence confirms yeast (both as leavening agent and for brewing ale) was used in Egypt as early as 4000 B. C. Food historians generally cite this date for the discovery of leavened bread and genesis of the brewing industry. There is an alternate theory regarding the invention of brewing. Some historians believe it is possible that brewing began when the first cereal crops were domesticated. Sources generally agree the discovery of the powers of yeast was accidental. "No one has yet managed to date the origins of beer with any precision, and it is probably an impossible task. Indeed, there are scholars who have theorized that a taste for ale prompted the beginning of agriculture, in which case humans have been brewing for some 10,000 years... Most archaeological evidence, however, suggests that fermentation was being used in one manner or another by around 4000 to 3500 B. C. Some of this evidence-from an ancient Mesopotamian trading outpost called Godin Tepe in present-day Iran- indicates that barley was being fermented at that location around 3500 B. C. Additional evidence recovered at Hacinegi Tepe (a similar site in southern Turkey) also suggest that ancient Mesopotamians were fermenting barley at a very early date.

Hypothesis: Some historians believe that cereal crops are responsible for the beginning of brewing.


Hypothesis: Hacinegi Tepe is only found in Northern Turkey


Hypothesis: It can be assumed that yeast was discovered accidentally.


Hypothesis: Yeast was used in 4004 B. C


Premise: The history of the tortoise If you go back far enough, everything lived in the sea. At various points in evolutionary history, enterprising individuals within many different animal groups moved out onto the land, sometimes even to the most parched deserts, taking their own private seawater with them in blood and cellular fluids. In addition to the reptiles, birds, mammals and insects which we see all around us, other groups that have succeeded out of water include scorpions, snails, crustaceans such as woodlice and land crabs, millipedes and centipedes, spiders and various worms. And we mustnt forget the plants, without whose prior invasion of the land none of the other migrations could have happened. Moving from water to land involved a major redesign of every aspect of life, including breathing and reproduction. Nevertheless, a good number of thoroughgoing land animals later turned around, abandoned their hard-earned terrestrial re-tooling, and returned to the water again. Seals have only gone part way back. They show us what the intermediates might have been like, on the way to extreme cases such as whales and dugongs. Whales (including the small whales we call dolphins) and dugongs, with their close cousins the manatees, ceased to be land creatures altogether and reverted to the full marine habits of their remote ancestors. They dont even come ashore to breed. They do, however, still breathe air, having never developed anything equivalent to the gills of their earlier marine incarnation. Turtles went back to the sea a very long time ago and, like all vertebrate returnees to the water, they breathe air. However, they are, in one respect, less fully given back to the water than whales or dugongs, for turtles still lay their eggs on beaches. There is evidence that all modem turtles are descended from a terrestrial ancestor which lived before most of the dinosaurs. There are two key fossils called Proganochelys quenstedti and Palaeochersis talampayensis dating from early dinosaur times, which appear to be close to the ancestry of all modem turtles and tortoises. You might wonder how we can tell whether fossil animals lived on land or in water, especially if only fragments are found. Sometimes its obvious. Ichthyosaurs were reptilian contemporaries of the dinosaurs, with fins and streamlined bodies. The fossils look like dolphins and they surely lived like dolphins, in the water. With turtles it is a little less obvious. One way to tell is by measuring the bones of their forelimbs. Walter Joyce and Jacques Gauthier, at Yale University, obtained three measurements in these particular bones of 71 species of living turtles and tortoises. They used a kind of triangular graph paper to plot the three measurements against one another. All the land tortoise species formed a tight cluster of points in the upper part of the triangle; all the water turtles cluster in the lower part of the triangular graph. There was no overlap, except when they added some species that spend time both in water and on land. Sure enough, these amphibious species show up on the triangular graph approximately half way between the wet cluster of sea turtles and the dry cluster of land tortoises. The next step was to determine where the fossils fell. The bones of P quenstedti and JR talampayensis leave us in no doubt. Their points on the graph are right in the thick of the dry cluster. Both these fossils were dry-land tortoises. They come from the era before our turtles returned to the water. You might think, therefore, that modem land tortoises have probably stayed on land ever since those early terrestrial times, as most mammals did after a few of them went back to the sea. But apparently not. If you draw out the family tree of all modem turtles and tortoises, nearly all the branches are aquatic. Todays land tortoises constitute a single branch, deeply nested among branches consisting of aquatic turtles. This suggests that modem land tortoises have not stayed on land continuously since the time of P. quenstedti and P 30talampayensis. Rather, their ancestors were among those who went back to the water, and they then re- emerged back onto the land in (relatively) more recent times. Tortoises therefore represent a remarkable double return. In common with all mammals, reptiles and birds, their remote ancestors were marine fish and before that various more or less worm-like creatures stretching back, still in the sea, to the primeval bacteria. Later ancestors lived on land and stayed there for a very large number of generations. Later ancestors still evolved back into the water and became sea turtles. And finally they returned yet again to the land as tortoises, some of which now live in the driest of deserts.

Hypothesis: Turtles were among the first group of animals to migrate back to the sea.


Hypothesis: It is always difficult to determine where an animal lived when its fossilised remains are incomplete.


Hypothesis: The habitat of ichthyosaurs can be determined by the appearance of their fossilised remains.


Premise: The history of the tortoise. If you go back far enough, everything lived in the sea. At various points in evolutionary history, enterprising individuals within many different animal groups moved out onto the land, sometimes even to the most parched deserts, taking their own private seawater with them in blood and cellular fluids. In addition to the reptiles, birds, mammals and insects which we see all around us, other groups that have succeeded out of water include scorpions, snails, crustaceans such as woodlice and land crabs, millipedes and centipedes, spiders and various worms. And we mustnt forget the plants, without whose prior invasion of the land none of the other migrations could have happened. Moving from water to land involved a major redesign of every aspect of life, including breathing and reproduction. Nevertheless, a good number of thorough going land animals later turned around, abandoned their hard-earned terrestrial re-tooling, and returned to the water again. Seals have only gone part way back. They show us what the intermediates might have been like, on the way to extreme cases such as whales and dugongs. Whales (including the small whales we call dolphins) and dugongs, with their close cousins the manatees, ceased to be land creatures altogether and reverted to the full marine habits of their remote ancestors. They dont even come ashore to breed. They do, however, still breathe air, having never developed anything equivalent to the gills of their earlier marine incarnation. Turtles went back to the sea a very long time ago and, like all vertebrate returnees to the water, they breathe air. However, they are, in one respect, less fully given back to the water than whales or dugongs, for turtles still lay their eggs on beaches. There is evidence that all modern turtles are descended from a terrestrial ancestor which lived before most of the dinosaurs. There are two key fossils called Proganochelys quenstedti and Plaeochersis talampayensis dating from early dinosaur times, which appear to be close to the ancestry of all modern turtles and tortoises. You might wonder how we can tell whether fossil animals lived on land or in water, especially if only fragments are found. Sometimes its obvious. Ichthyosaurs were reptilian contemporaries of the dinosaurs, with fins and streamlined bodies. The fossils look like dolphins and they surely lived like dolphins, in the water. With turtles it is a little less obvious. One way to tell is by measuring the bones of their forelimbs. Walter Joyce and Jacques Gauthier, at Yale University, obtained three measurements in these particular bones of 71 species of living turtles and tortoises. They used a kind of triangular graph paper to plot the three measurements against one another. All the land tortoise species formed a tight cluster of points in the upper part of the triangle; all the water turtles cluster in the lower part of the triangular graph. There was no overlap, except when they added some species that spend time both in water and on land. Sure enough, these amphibious species show up on the triangular graph approximately half way between the wet cluster of sea turtles and the dry cluster of land tortoises. The next step was to determine where the fossils fell. The bones of P. quenstedti and P. talampayensis leave us in no doubt. Their points on the graph are right in the thick of the dry cluster. Both these fossils were dry-land tortoises. They come from the era before our turtles returned to the water. You might think, therefore, that modern land tortoises have probably stayed on land ever since those early terrestrial times, as most mammals did after a few of them went back to the sea. But apparently not. If you draw out the family three of all modern turtles and tortoises, nearly all the branches are aquatic. Todays land tortoises constitute a single branch, deeply nested among branches consisting of aquatic turtles. This suggests that modern land tortoises have not stayed on land continuously since the time of P. quenstedti and P. talampayensis. Rather, their ancestors were among those who went back to the water, and they then reemerged back onto the land in (relatively) more recent times. Tortoises therefore represent a remarkable double return. In common with all mammals, reptiles and birds, their remote ancestors were marine fish and before that various more or less worm-like creatures stretching back, still in the sea, to the primeval bacteria. Later ancestors lived on land and stayed there for a very large number of generations. Later ancestors still evolved back into the water and became sea turtles. And finally they returned yet again to the land as tortoises, some of which now live in the driest of deserts.


Premise: The horse used to be an indispensable part of human life and it was used for transport, war, industry and for fun. In order to support societys dependence on the horse, whole industries grew up around it. There were sectors to breed them, shoe them, saddle them, teach people to ride them, feed them, care for them and finally to dispose of them at the end of their useful lives. The industrial revolution and in particular the invention of the internal combustion engine was the end of the horses central role in peoples lives. Today, it seems there is a further threat to the horse that is causing a drop in its numbers. The American Horse Council (AHC) recently addressed this decline at its national issues forum. Leaders from various stakeholders spoke about the decrease in registered horses and the impact on their segment of the horse industry. There has been an enthusiastic response to the forums discussions. People have been talking about decline in horse numbers for some time, however, this is the first time the issue has been discussed in a comprehensive fashion said AHC president Jay Hickey. It was a very good program and attendees now have a better comprehension of current conditions and what actions are being taken. Tim Capps, Director of the Equine industry program at the University of Louisville, gave the opening address at the forum and tried to pinpoint the reasons for the drop in todays numbers of registered horses. The economy was cited by Capps as the single largest factor, but there are probably several other factors as well. Capps believes the horse industry was in a bubble that peaked about six years ago, which was similar to an earlier bubble in 1980s. The bubble burst and caused the resulting damage to the horse industry. Capps also cites the roles of increasing cost of horse ownership and participation in shows, concerns about welfare, and increased competition for leisure and gambling dollars. In addition, Capps explained that there has been a decline in the number of young horses and registered horses over the last several years that is impacting all breeds and segments of the industry and the leaders of the industry are aware of this decline and are taking actions. Capps also noted that this is not the first such decline in the number of horses, and in previous instances there was later a strong rebound in numbers. Examples of this were most notable during the Great Depression and in the mid 1980s. Capps pointed out the horse industry often parallels the wider economy and current situation closely mirrors the impact of Great Depression had on the industry. In the past, the growth following such declines was often propelled by individuals outside the industry becoming interested and investing in the industry, noted Capps. He believes it will again be important to look beyond current horse industry participants to promote growth in the industry now and in the future. Jim Gagliano, Jockey Club President, reported on the effects of the drop in numbers on the horse racing industry. The thoroughbred foal crop has been declining and is responsible for a drop in number of starts, number of horses in the field, the number of owners, and the number of racing days. This in turn has led to a drop in turnover for all sectors in the industry and makes the industry a less attractive one for new entrants and existing businesses. Forum attendees also heard what actions are being taken by the racing industry. Gagliano said that organisations are working to promote the best races and make better use of social media and online resources to attract a younger demographic and develop new owners. Following up on the need for more and better marketing, Patti Colbert of PCE Enterprises has come up with the Time to Ride initiative. This ambitious national campaign and contest targets the goal of giving 100,000 new people a horse experience in the following calendar year. Colbert reported that Time to Ride had accomplished its initial goal to sign up 1,000 stables, instructors, new participants and others in the horse community to host events. Colbert enthusiastically explained the next step. These hosts will now compete for $100,000 in cash and prizes and several have already hosted their first event. The forum also heard from associated service providers who are also being impacted. Jeff Blea, president of the American Association of Equine Practitioners (AAEP) talked about the impact on the veterinarian community and how fewer horses mean less work for horse vets. Blea additionally spoke about the AAEP programs to help veterinarian create long-term and successful relationships with horse owners and support an increase in horse breeding. The forum has clearly identified that the problem is not only a decline in the number of registered horses, but also a decline in horse owners and people participating in horse activities. However, there is also good news as industry organisations are taking actions both individually and collectively. Hickey, explains why people are not overly worried just yet. The industry also has one great advantage: the enduring appeal of the horse. With continued effort on the part of the entire horse community, the industry will come out of the current economic climate even more robust.

Hypothesis: The current decline in horse industry is still a reaction to the economic slump in the 1980s.


Hypothesis: The Time to Ride movement has gained political as well as industry support.


Hypothesis: The industrial revolution led to increase in numbers of horses required in industry and transportation.


Hypothesis: The horse industry has reacted well to previous drops in the number of horses.


Premise: The hotel is two blocks east of the drugstore. The market is one block west of the hotel.

Hypothesis: The drugstore is west of the market.


Premise: The hottest month According to the Met Office, the UK had its warmest July day ever on July 1, when temperatures hit 36.7 C near London. There were record heat waves in many countries including Spain, while the African continent had the second-warmest July on record. While the impact of increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is a key driver of rising temperatures, another important factor is El Nino. This natural phenomenon, which appears as a large swathe of warm water in the Pacific every few years, is known to push up global temperatures. In recent days there have been reports that this year's El Nino will be particularly intense. As a result, many experts believe that 2015 will be the warmest year on record by some margin. The seas have also been soaking up a large amount of heat, the NOAA said, with record warming in large expanses of the Pacific and Indian Oceans Peter Stott, head of climate monitoring and attribution at the UK Met Office, said: "A strong El Nino is under way in the tropical Pacific and this, combined with the long-term global warming trend, means there is the potential to see some very warm months throughout this year - as the new figures for July appear to show.

Hypothesis: 2015 might be the hottest year in the history.


Hypothesis: The year 2015 might very well consist of a number of very warm months.


Hypothesis: Africa had the warmest July day ever on July 1.


Hypothesis: The temperature is rising due to the increased level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.


Hypothesis: Record warming was recorded in various seas, such as Black and Azov Sea.


Premise: The immaculate white porcelain suddenly fell from vogue, to be replaced by painted porcelain. What was to become known as blue and white ware because of its blue coloured designs over a white background, was greatly in demand for the export markets and used the newly discovered and imported Persian cobalt as an underglazing paint. So great was this trade that the plates and dishes decorated with dragons, phoenixes and flowers graced many European homes and featured in contemporary still-life paintings and portraits. In time the style evolved to include red, yellow and green overgrazes applied over blue outlines. Increasingly, designs depicted symbols of well-being such as groups of children, sages or animals. Five timed realistic tests with interpretations of your score 191

Hypothesis: Persian cobalt gives porcelain a rich emerald-toned green colour.


Hypothesis: It can be deduced from the passage that painted porcelain became more popular than its predecessor.


Hypothesis: The passage describes the development of Chinese ceramics.


Premise: The increasing fragility of the rural economy will be the biggest challenge facing country communities over the next ten years. Agriculture, which accounts for a quarter of rural job, is in decline. Tourism provides no more than half this number of job. The rural manufacturing sector, however, has grown over last ten years. Despite this, it still employs fewer than one in twenty people living in rural area, and is threatened by companies based in industrial areas, which benefit from access to a larger skilled workforce and better transportation networks.

Hypothesis: Industries based in rural areas benefit from better transport links.


Hypothesis: Manufacturing provides the fewest jobs in the countryside.


Hypothesis: The manufacturing sector is likely to be the main source of employment for rural workers in the future.


Hypothesis: Industries based in rural areas suffer from poorer transport links.


Premise: The indigenous Australians are the native people of Australia, also known as the Aborigines. It is believed that they arrived in Australia 50,000 years ago from South-east Asia. They lived a traditional life, which involved living in wooded areas and hunting animals with spears and boomerangs. This lifestyle would not harm the environment of Australia as they believe that the land, with all of its animals and plants, is sacred. When the British people came to Australia in 1788, there were not many people living in Australia. According to British law, any land could be claimed for the monarchy if they believed that nobody owned it and so they claimed all of the land. It was later agreed by the Australian government in 1976 that the aboriginal people would have the rights to the land where they were originally located if they could prove that they have been living there. Nowadays, many of the 517,000 aboriginal people in Australia have chosen to integrate with the modern ways of life. They live in cities and towns and some of them have acquired professional jobs. Others have decided to maintain their traditional aboriginal way of living. Few have been unfortunate in that they havent been educated enough to benefit from Australian society but have also lost their traditional aboriginal ways.

Hypothesis: Most Aborigines have received enough education to integrate with Australian culture.


Hypothesis: The British people claimed the Australian land because the Aborigines only lived in the wooded areas.


Hypothesis: There are 517,000 Aborigines currently living in the cities and towns of Australia.


Hypothesis: The aboriginal people were able to reclaim all their land in 1976.


Hypothesis: The Aborigine lifestyle is similar to that of the south-east Asians from 50,000 years ago.


Premise: The ineptly titled "America Invents Act, " S. 23 and H. R. 1249, currently meandering through Congress is likely to bring woe to small inventors and startup businesses that collectively drive the nation's economy. A key feature of the current patent system is the incentive for inventors to disclose their invention in a patent application in exchange for the possibility that they may achieve a patent grant in return. The subsequent publication of the patent application serves to inform the public about the invention, and thus enables others, including competitors, to build upon it. However, the new law would award the patent to the first person to file a patent application on the invention, rather than the one who is actually the first to invent. Another provision would eliminate the "grace period" that has traditionally allowed an inventor to get his invention "off the ground" without forgoing the opportunity to patent it.

Hypothesis: The current patent law fosters inventiveness by encouraging inventors to keep sole claim to the knowledge behind the invention, allowing them to reap all the rewards of his own creativity and effort.


Hypothesis: The U. S. will lose its innovative edge in the world if the "American Invents Act" is passed into law.


Hypothesis: Under the new proposal, inventors may fear that they can't possibly win a race to the patent office and can't properly deliberate their invention with others before filing.


Premise: The internet is a convenient place to search for vast amounts of information and to conduct online shopping. However, it has been noted that there is an increased rate of fraud when individuals have purchased items over the internet. The two most popular types of fraud perpetrated on the internet are Rogue Trading and Identity Fraud. Rogue trading is attempted by dishonest individuals who may advertise their items using false descriptions. There may actually be cases where the items do not even exist. Rogue traders are also deceitful when they purposely advertise items without delivery or transportation rates. These rates are then revealed towards the end of the buying process, by which time the individuals payment details may have been received and it may possibly be too late to cancel the transaction. Identity fraud occurs when fraudulent traders gain access to your personal details, such as your credit card number. In most cases an item is usually delivered, hence the buyer will also have to give details of their address. These two personal details combined usually make it easier for a fraudster to withdraw money from their victims bank account.

Hypothesis: The internet is always a prudent place to search for information and to shop for goods


Hypothesis: Internet fraud can be divided into two categories: Rogue Trading and Identity Fraud


Hypothesis: Fraudsters advertising items under false pretences is an illustration of identity deception


Hypothesis: Fraud is universally prevalent on the internet


Premise: The jet stream is a two-mile-high column of wind and in this part of the world it deter- mines the boundary between the Arctic and Atlantic air. When it moves south, much of northern Europe and North America is subjected to cold air and when it moves north, northern Europe and North America enjoy warmer air. In the spring and autumn the jet stream moves much more than at other times of the year and this largely explains why spring and autumn weather in the northern hemisphere can be so changeable. In a matter of a few days the position of the jet stream can fluctuate and warm and possibly wet spring or autumn weather can suddenly be replaced by cold air and dry, clear skies.

Hypothesis: It can be inferred from the information provided that in relative terms Arctic air is cold and Atlantic air is warm.


Hypothesis: By this part of the world it implies northern Europe.


Hypothesis: If it were in fact untrue that the jet stream was a two-mile-high column of wind then the explanation of why spring and autumn weather in the northern hemisphere is so changeable would be compromised.


Premise: The largest thing in the universe More than ten years ago, while taking the temperature of the universe, astronomers found something odd. They discovered that a patch of sky, spanning the width of 20 moons, was unusually cold. The astronomers were measuring the thermal radiation that bathes the entire universe, a glowing relic of the big bang. To gaze at this cosmic microwave background, or CMB, is to glimpse the primordial1 universe, a time when it was less than 400,000 years old. The CMB blankets the sky, and looks pretty much the same everywhere, existing at a feebly cold temperature of 2.725 kelvins - just a couple degrees warmer than absolute zero. But armed with the newly launched WMAP satellite, the astronomers had set out to probe temperature variations as tiny as one part in 100,000. Born from the quantum froth that was the universe a half-moment after the big bang, those random fluctuations help scientists understand what the cosmos is made of and how it all came to be. And standing out amidst those fluctuations was a cold spot. Over the years, astronomers have come up with all sorts of ideas to explain it, ranging from instrumental error to parallel universes. But now, they're homing in on a prime suspect: an enormous cavern of emptiness called a cosmic supervoid, so big that it might be the largest structure in the universe. According to theory, such a vast void, in which nary a star or galaxy exists, can leave a frigid imprint on the CMB. The answer to the mystery, then, might simply be a whole lot of nothing. Yet puzzles remain, and the case is far from closed. Primordial1 - ancient, existing a very long time.

Hypothesis: The CMB varies from extremely low to very high temperatures.


Hypothesis: Investigation of fluctuations of temperature in the space help scientists to understand what the cosmos is made of.


Hypothesis: The CMB is the thermal radiation across the entire universe.


Hypothesis: Astronomers often find something odd on the sky.


Hypothesis: The cosmic supervoid is the largest structure in the universe.


Premise: The law of benefits is a difficult channel, which requires careful sailing or rude boats. It is not the office of a man to receive gifts. How dare you give them? We wish to be self-sustained. We do not quite forgive a forgiver. The hand that feeds us is in some danger of being bitten. We can receive anything from love, for that is a way of receiving it from ourselves (hence the fitness of beautiful, not useful things for a gift); but not from anyone who assumes to bestow. We sometimes hate the meat that we eat, because there seems something of degrading dependence in living by it. He is a good man, who can receive a gift well. We are either glad or sorry at a gift, and both emotions are unbecoming. Some violence, I think, is done, some degradation borne, when I rejoice or grieve at a gift. I am sorry when my independence is invaded, or when a gift comes from such as do not know my spirit, and so the act is not supported; and if the gift pleases me overmuch, then I should be ashamed that the donor should read my heart and see that I love his commodity, and not him. This giving is flat usurpation, and therefore, when the beneficiary is ungrateful, as all beneficiaries hate all Timons, not at all considering the value of the gift, but looking back to the greater store it was taken from, I rather sympathise with the beneficiary than with the anger of my lord, Timon. For, the expectation of gratitude is mean and is continually punished by the total insensibility of the obliged person.

Hypothesis: The author of this passage does not like to receive gifts.


Premise: The leaders of a society might argue they have abolished poverty if they ensure that no citizens are homeless or starving. In developed Western societies, few would accept so narrow a definition. They are very likely to add further indicators such as the level of income, the standard of housing, the quality of diet, and access to everyday commodities such as heating, running hot water, a bath and a washing machine. The list soon grows from items essential to support life to include things that a society views as impracticable to be without. It is clear, therefore, that most people do not mean absolute poverty when they use the term, but something much more relative and dependent on the society in which they live. Because for most people poverty is a relative concept, its abolition is much more difficult. Poverty ends up being defined in terms of people who live on a percentage of the median income.

Hypothesis: Absolute poverty would be cured if the poorest in society were fed, clothed and housed.


Hypothesis: If poverty is defined in terms of people who live on a percentage of the median income, then the number of people classed as in poverty could increase not because people are poorer but because they are not becoming richer as fast as the majority in their society.


Hypothesis: A hundred years ago people would have included in their definition of poverty many of the items listed in the passage as indicators of poverty in developed Western societies.


Premise: The legal term double jeopardy refers to a second prosecution of an individual for an offence for which he has already been prosecuted. Double jeopardy is famously prohibited in the Fifth Amendment of the United States constitution, which states that no person shall, be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb. Not only does the double jeopardy doctrine uphold the finality of criminal proceedings, it also protects individuals from the stress of multiple prosecutions. Despite dating back to Roman times, this legal rule is often challenged. Some legal reform advocates believe that a second trial should be permitted if significant new evidence becomes available for example DNA evidence can reveal more using more recent technology. Double jeopardy laws are intended to protect innocent people from continual harassment by the state. They also prevent a defendant from receiving successive trials for the same offence for instance, someone found guilty of murder cannot also be tried for manslaughter for the same act. Some exceptions exist. A new trial is allowed if the original trial is declared a mistrial, or if an appeal against a conviction is successful. The rules also do not restrict a different sovereignty from prosecuting for the same offence. Similarly, in the United States, civil proceedings can be brought against someone who has already been acquitted or convicted of committing the offence.

Hypothesis: Under double jeopardy rules, someone who has been acquitted of a crime can never be retried for the same offence.


Hypothesis: Double jeopardy laws exist to prevent the government from persecuting innocent individuals.


Hypothesis: The double jeopardy rule was first expressed in the Fifth Amendment of the United States constitution.


Hypothesis: New technology can shed new light on old cases.


Hypothesis: Criminal and civil proceedings fulfil different objectives in the United States.


Premise: The legislative maternity privileges shape a minimum standard of protection recognised by Parliament. Women and their employers (or their legislative bodies) are able to negotiate and consent to more constructive provision on a voluntary or contractual foundation, if they feel that this would be more beneficial in the long term. Where an employer and employee have agreed diverse provisions, an employee will always be able to declare her statutory rights if these are better than those agreed with her employer, therefore if the employee wishes a term by maternity privileges she is able to do so. This therefore means that an employee will not be obliged to accept maternity arrangements which are not as good as the legislative rights. In order to qualify for Statutory Maternity Pay, an employee will have to be an employed earner, therefore the employee will need to work for an organisation that is liable to pay the employees share of National Insurance contributions. To qualify for Maternity Allowance an employee must be, or have recently been either an employed or self-employed earner. The majority of people, who qualify for leave will also qualify for pay, and vice versa. All employees who are parents to new babies have a right to statutory leave with pay. However, there are a few legal clauses. For instance, the privileges relating to time off for antenatal care, to maternity leave and to protection against detriment or unfair dismissal in connection with maternity leave do not apply to the following groups: members of the police force, MPs, the judiciary and various company directors, or to masters or crew members engaged in share fishing paid solely by how much stock they have caught.

Hypothesis: The statement is false as it refers to Maternity Allowance instead of Statutory Maternity Pay (where the grounds to qualify are dependant on the employer paying the employees share of National Insurance contributions). Do not make the mistake of assuming different terms mean the same thing. C Men are allowed time off if they are a parent to a new baby


Hypothesis: In order for an individual to qualify for maternity allowance, an employee will have to work for an organisation who are liable to pay the employees share of National Insurance contributions


Hypothesis: All women are entitled to legislative maternity privileges


Hypothesis: Men are allowed time off if they are a parent to a new baby


Hypothesis: The rights described in the passage above only relate to employees and not those who are unemployed.


Premise: The level of air pollution in London is at a record high, with the level of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) the highest of any EU country. As a result of such high levels of pollution, the UK has received a number of warnings from the EU for its failure to comply with European laws, and may face a possible fine. In addition to this, experts warn that the levels of pollution will affect the weather; leading to periods of storm like weather throughout the summer months and an increase in temperature in the winter. Such pollutants are particularly problematic for those who run in the city on a regular basis; leading to chest pains, a decrease in lung capacity and coughing and other problems.

Hypothesis: The UK has been fined for the high levels of pollution in London.


Hypothesis: London has the highest level of nitrogen dioxide in Europe.


Hypothesis: Running often in the city does not cause chest pains


Hypothesis: European laws ban the production of nitrogen dioxide.


Premise: The life and work of Marie Curie Marie Curie is probably the most famous woman scientist who has ever lived. Born Maria Sklodowska in Poland in 1867, she is famous for her work on radioactivity, and was twice a winner of the Nobel Prize. With her husband, Pierre Curie, and Henri Becquerel, she was awarded the 1903 Nobel Prize for Physics, and was then sole winner of the 1911 Nobel Prize for Chemistry. She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize. From childhood, Marie was remarkable for her prodigious memory, and at the age of 16 won a gold medal on completion of her secondary education. Because her father lost his savings through bad investment, she then had to take work as a teacher. From her earnings she was able to finance her sister Bronia's medical studies in Paris, on the understanding that Bronia would, in turn, later help her to get an education. In 1891 this promise was fulfilled and Marie went to Paris and began to study at the Sorbonne (the University of Paris). She often worked far into the night and lived on little more than bread and butter and tea. She came first in the examination in the physical sciences in 1893, and in 1894 was placed second in the examination in mathematical sciences. It was not until the spring of that year that she was introduced to Pierre Curie. Their marriage in 1895 marked the start of a partnership that was soon to achieve results of world significance. Following Henri Becquerel's discovery in 1896 of a new phenomenon, which Marie later called 'radioactivity', Marie Curie decided to find out if the radioactivity discovered in uranium was to be found in other elements. She discovered that this was true for thorium. Turning her attention to minerals, she found her interest drawn to pitchblende, a mineral whose radioactivity, superior to that of pure uranium, could be explained only by the presence in the ore of small quantities of an unknown substance of very high activity. Pierre Curie joined her in the work that she had undertaken to resolve this problem, and that led to the discovery of the new elements, polonium and radium. While Pierre Curie devoted himself chiefly to the physical study of the new radiations, Marie Curie struggled to obtain pure radium in the metallic state. This was achieved with the help of the chemist Andre-Louis Debierne, one of Pierre Curie's pupils. Based on the results of this research, Marie Curie received her Doctorate of Science, and in 1903 Marie and Pierre shared with Becquerel the Nobel Prize for Physics for the discovery of radioactivity. The births of Marie's two daughters, Irene and Eve, in 1897 and 1904 failed to interrupt her scientific work. She was appointed lecturer in physics at the Ecole Normale Superieure for girls in Sevres, France (1900), and introduced a method of teaching based on experimental demonstrations. In December 1904 she was appointed chief assistant in the laboratory directed by Pierre Curie. The sudden death of her husband in 1906 was a bitter blow to Marie Curie, but was also a turning point in her career: henceforth she was to devote all her energy to completing alone the scientific work that they had undertaken. On May 13, 1906, she was appointed to the professorship that had been left vacant on her husband's death, becoming the first woman to teach at the Sorbonne. In 1911 she was awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry for the isolation of a pure form of radium. During World War I, Marie Curie, with the help of her daughter Irene, devoted herself to the development of the use of X-radiography, including the mobile units which came to be known as Little Curies', used for the treatment of wounded soldiers. In 1918 the Radium Institute, whose staff Irene had joined, began to operate in earnest, and became a centre for nuclear physics and chemistry. Marie Curie, now at the highest point of her 36fame and, from 1922, a member of the Academy of Medicine, researched the chemistry of radioactive substances and their medical applications. In 1921, accompanied by her two daughters, Marie Curie made a triumphant journey to the United States to raise funds for research on radium. Women there presented her with a gram of radium for her campaign. Marie also gave lectures in Belgium, Brazil, Spain and Czechoslovakia and, in addition, had the satisfaction of seeing the development of the Curie Foundation in Paris, and the inauguration in 1932 in Warsaw of the Radium Institute, where her sister Bronia became director. One of Marie Curie's outstanding achievements was to have understood the need to accumulateintense radioactive sources, not only to treat illness but also to maintain an abundant supply for research. The existence in Paris at the Radium Institute of a stock of 1.5 grams of radium made a decisive contribution to the success of the experiments undertaken in the years around 1930. This work prepared the way for the discovery of the neutron by Sir James Chadwick and, above all, for the discovery in 1934 by Irene and Frederic Joliot-Curie of artificial radioactivity. A few months after this discovery, Marie Curie died as a result of leukaemia caused by exposure to radiation. She had often carried test tubes containing radioactive isotopes in her pocket, remarking on the pretty blue-green light they gave off. Her contribution to physics had been immense, not only in her own work, the importance of which had been demonstrated by her two Nobel Prizes, but because of her influence on subsequent generations of nuclear physicists and chemists.

Hypothesis: Marie took over the teaching position her husband had held.


Hypothesis: Marie stopped doing research for several years when her children were born.


Hypothesis: Maries sister Bronia studied the medical uses of radioactivity.


Hypothesis: Marie Curies husband was a joint winner of both Maries Nobel Prizes.


Hypothesis: Marie was able to attend the Sorbonne because of her sisters financial contribution.


Hypothesis: Marie became interested in science when she was a child.


Premise: The life and work of Marie Curie Marie Curie is probably the most famous woman scientist who has ever lived. Born Maria Sklodowska in Poland in 1867, she is famous for her work on radioactivity, and was twice a winner of the Nobel Prize. With her husband, Pierre Curie, and Henri Becquerel, she was awarded the 1903 Nobel Prize for Physics, and was then sole winner of the 1911 Nobel Prize for Chemistry. She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize. From childhood, Marie was remarkable for her prodigious memory, and at the age of 16 won a gold medal on completion of her secondary education. Because her father lost his savings through bad investment, she then had to take work as a teacher. From her earnings she was able to finance her sister Bronias medical studies in Paris, on the understanding that Bronia would, in turn, later help her to get an education. In 1891 this promise was fulfilled and Marie went to Paris and began to study at the Sorbonne (the University of Paris). She often worked far into the night and lived on little more than bread and butter and tea. She came first in the examination in the physical sciences in 1893, and in 1894 was placed second in the examination in mathematical sciences. It was not until the spring of that year that she was introduced to Pierre Curie.


Premise: The life and work of Marie Curie. Marie Curie is probably the most famous woman scientist who has ever lived. Born Maria Sklodowska in Poland in 1867, she is famous for her work on radioactivity, and was twice a winner of the Nobel Prize. With her husband, Pierre Curie, and Henri Becquerel, she was awarded the 1903 Nobel Prize for Physics, and was then sole winner of the 1911 Nobel Prize for Chemistry. She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize. From childhood, Marie was remarkable for her prodigious memory, and at the age of 16 won a gold medal on completion of her secondary education. Because her father lost his savings through bad investment, she then had to take work as a teacher. Form her earnings she was able to finance her sister Bronias medical studies in Paris, on the understanding that Bronia would, in turn, later help her to get an education. In 1891 this promise was fulfilled and Marie went to Paris and began to study at the Sorbonne (the University of Paris). She often worked far into the night and lived on little more than bread and butter and tea. She came first in the examination in the physical sciences in 1893, and in 1894 was placed second in the examination in mathematical sciences. It was not until the spring of that year that she was introduced to Pierre Curie. Their marriage in 1895 marked the start of a partnership that was soon to achieve results of world significance. Following Henri Becquerels discovery in 1896 of a new phenomenon, which Marie later called radioactivity, Marie Curie decided to find out if the radioactivity discovered in uranium was to be found in other elements. She discovered that this was true for thorium. Turning her attention to minerals, she found her interest drawn to pitchblende, a mineral whose radioactivity, superior to that of pure uranium, could be explained only by the presence in the ore of small quantities of an unknown substance of very high activity. Pierre Curie joined her in the work that she had undertaken to resolve this problem, and that led to the discovery of the new elements, polonium and radium. While Pierre Curie devoted himself chiefly to the physical study of the new radiations, Marie Curie struggled to obtain pure radium in the metallic state. This was achieved with the help of the chemist Andre-Louis Debierne, one of Pierre Curies pupils. Based on the results of this research, Marie Curie received her Doctorate of Science, and in 1903 Marie and Pierre shared with Becquerel the Nobel Prize for Physics for the discovery of radioactivity. The births of Maries two daughters, lrene and Eve, in 1897 and 1904 failed to interrupt her scientific work. She was appointed lecturer in physics at the Ecole Normale Superieure for girls in Sevres, France (1900), and introduced a method of teaching based on experimental demonstrations. In December 1904 she was appointed chief assistant in the laboratory directed by Pierre Curie. The sudden death of her husband in 1906 was a bitter blow to Marie Curie, but was also a turning point in her career: henceforth she was to devote all her energy to completing alone the scientific work that they had undertaken. On May 13, 1906, she was appointed to the professorship that had been left vacant on her husbands death, becoming the first woman to teach at the Sorbonne. In 1911 she was awarded the Noble Prize for Chemistry for the isolation of a pure form of radium. During World War I, Marie Curie, with the help of her daughter Irene, devoted herself to the development of the use of X-radiography, including the mobile units which came to be known as Little Curies, used for the treatment of wounded soldiers. In 1918 the Radium Institute, whose staff Irene had joined, began to operate in earnest, and became a centre for nuclear physics and chemistry. Marie Curie, now at the highest point of her fame and, from 1922, a member of the Academy of Medicine, researched the chemistry of radioactive substances and their medical applications. In 1921, accompanied by her two daughters, Marie Curie made a triumphant journey to the United States to raise funds for research on radium. Women there presented her with a gram of radium for her campaign. Marie also gave lectures in Belgium, Brazil, Spain and Czechoslovakia and, in addition, had the satisfaction of seeing the development of the Curie Foundation in Paris, and the inauguration in 1932 in Warsaw of the Radium Institute, where her sister Bronia became director. One of Marie Curies outstanding achievements was to have understood the need to accumulate intense radioactive sources, not only to treat illness but also to maintain an abundant supply for research. The existence in Paris at the Radium Institute of a stock of 1.5 grams of radium made a decisive contribution to the success of the experiments undertaken in the years around 1930. This work prepared the way for the discovery of the neutron by Sir James Chadwick and, above all, for the discovery in 1934 by lrene and Frederic Joliot Curie of artificial radioactivity. A few months after this discovery, Marie Curie died as a result of leukaemia caused by exposure to radiation. She had often carried test tubes containing radioactive isotopes in her pocket, remarking on the pretty blue-green light they gave off. Her contribution to physics had been immense, not only in her own work, the importance of which had been demonstrated by her two Nobel Prizes, but because of her influence on subsequent generations of nuclear physicists and chemists.


Premise: The living wage represents the minimum hourly rate for employment which allows an individual to cover their basic costs of living. This wage is set at 9.15 per hour in London and 7.85 per hour in the rest of the UK. This difference in living wage between London and the rest of the UK is explained by the significant costs associated with living in London. The minimum wage is currently 6.50 for employees aged over 21 and 5.13 for employees aged between 18 and 20. This is lower than the living wage values quoted above and represents the legal minimum wage. It would be illegal for an employer to pay less than these values. Although many employers have agreed to pay a living wage, they are not legally obliged to do so. The introduction of the living wage in companies has been argued to be beneficial for these companies. Many employers found that employees who were paid the living wage were able to work harder with better quality. It has also improved the quality of life for the families of employees as it has allowed those who are parents to spend more time with their children. However, some employers have argued that the introduction of the living wage would force them to fire some workers, forcing others to work harder.

Hypothesis: Paying someone a living wage will only benefit that individual


Hypothesis: The living cost across UK cities is approximately equal.


Hypothesis: Introducing a living wage would be beneficial for all employees.


Hypothesis: Companies introduce the living wage to avoid the legal complications of underpaying their employees.


Hypothesis: A 24 year old working at minimum wage would be able to live comfortably in Manchester


Premise: The local citizens group submitted a memorandum to the civic authority for allowing them to convert the vacant plot in the locality into a garden at their on cost.

Hypothesis: The civic authority may not accede to the request of the local citizen group.


Hypothesis: The local citizen group may be able to gather enough funds to develop the garden


Premise: The location of a shop operated by a charity in an affluent neighborhood could be deemed extremely advantageous because this increases the potential for a continuous supply of highly valuable donations. However, this may be counterbalanced by an exorbitant rent for the property. Of fundamental importance to the success of the shop is a dedicated group of volunteers who should sort through donations promptly to ensure that items are quickly made available for purchase, in order to promote financial prosperity. Volunteers and staff must be vigilant of thieves, to which these shops are particularly susceptible, usually due to a lack of security cameras or bar codes on the item.

Hypothesis: If the rent for a shop operated by a charity is high, a supply of good quality donations may be compensatory.


Hypothesis: Before the introduction of bar codes and security cameras, shops operated by charitable organizations were as vulnerable to theft as other shops.


Hypothesis: If volunteers do not sort the donations hastily, this could lead to a potential loss in sales.


Hypothesis: An increase in security measures in shops operated by charities will usually encourage individuals from affluent areas to donate more high quality items.


Hypothesis: It is less likely that shops operated by charities which are situated in affluent neighborhoods will have volunteers who are more dedicated, than those in less wealthy neighborhoods.


Hypothesis: The only factor affecting the financial success of a shop operated by a charity is its location.


Hypothesis: Shops operated by charitable organizations are particularly vulnerable to shoplifter if there are no security cameras or bar codes on items.


Premise: The luxury goods market has seen a sudden slump in sales in China thanks to the emergence of Chinese labels. While Chinas love of Western brands, such as Prada and Louis Vuitton, shows no sign of ending, a new group of smaller luxury Chinese companies is gaining in popularity. Such companies try to promote traditional Chinese values, rather than the exclusivity of Western labels that have been ever popular in China. Feedback for the new rivals has been positive so far, yet they are expected to face an up-hill struggle as Western heavy- weights rise to meet the challenge.

Hypothesis: Luxury Chinese labels decreased sales of western luxury goods.


Hypothesis: The Western market is rising to the challenge of Chinese companies.


Hypothesis: Chinese companies are trying to promote traditional values


Hypothesis: Chinese companies are emulating the exclusivity of Western luxury goods


Premise: The main monetary policy objective is to reduce substantially, the import surplus of the coming years while resuming economic growth. Realisation of this goal entails a marked structural change of the economy, which can be brought about by freezing the standard of living (per capita private consumption plus public services) and restricting investments that do not further exports.

Hypothesis: If people consume less, the economy grows.


Hypothesis: Economic growth will lead to structural changes in the economy.


Hypothesis: In order to reduce import surplus investment needs to be restricted.


Hypothesis: People should be persuaded to give up consumption in order to achieve the national good.


Premise: The majority of Member States have been holding discussions in recent years regarding the introduction of new taxes on the financial sector and the impact they would have on pensions. They recognise that creating additional taxes on the financial sector could be a path to alleviating the problems they now face in relation to pensions and the lack of funds available to run them. However, the reason for such debate relates to the role that the banks and other financial service institutions played in the causes of the crises as well as the current government support offered to the financial sector. There is also a general perception that, as financial activities are generally exempt from VAT, the financial sector is under-taxed currently. One potential new tax rule being considered is that which would introduce a tax on as broad a range of financial transactions as possible. This could include bonds, shares and derivatives as a starting point. Almost all financial institutions would be liable but there would be exemptions for some day to day activities such as mortgages and payment services. An impact assessment of the likely revenue this tax could generate was close to 6 billion Euros per year. That said though, as the tax revenue would be collected on the basis of the principle of residence of the financial institute, one has to consider the possibility that a bank based in the area which is liable could transfer its transactions to a subsidiary outside of the relevant jurisdiction.

Hypothesis: it is important to find a way to generate extra income to alleviate the problems our pensions face


Premise: The management of XYZ Pvt. Ltd. Asked the workers union to call off strike immediately otherwise the management would be forced to close down the factory.

Hypothesis: People like a glowing complexion


Hypothesis: No alternative other than closing down the factory is left for the management of XYZ Pvt. Ltd.


Hypothesis: Complexion becomes dull in the absence of circulation.


Hypothesis: Such threat may have some effect on the workers union.


Premise: The medieval period lasted from 1000 to 1500. It was preceded by the Dark Ages. Many towns were formed across Europe during this period as trade and populations increased. Kings ruled and with the leaders of the church they decided state affairs. Most people lived in the countryside and worked on the land. They gave a share of their produce to the local lord in return for protection and as rent. They had to work very hard and for much of their lives lived in abject poverty. Life expectancy for the commoner was much shorter than it is today. As a result of the expansion of trade coins became commonplace.

Hypothesis: The medieval period lasted for 500 years.


Hypothesis: When a harvest failed or was poor the commoner risked starvation.


Hypothesis: The Dark Ages followed the medieval period.


Hypothesis: The majority of the population lived in the countryside.


Premise: The megafires of California Drought, housing expansion, and oversupply of tinder make for bigger, hotter fires in the western United States Wildfires are becoming an increasing menace in the western United States, with Southern California being the hardest hit area. There's a reason fire squads battling more frequent blazes in Southern California are having such difficulty containing the flames, despite better preparedness than ever and decades of experience fighting fires fanned by the Santa Ana Winds. The wildfires themselves, experts say, are generally hotter, faster, and spread more erratically than in the past. Megafires, also called siege fires, are the increasingly frequent blazes that burn 500,000 acres or more - 10 times the size of the average forest fire of 20 years ago. Some recent wildfires are among the biggest ever in California in terms of acreage burned, according to state figures and news reports. One explanation for the trend to more superhot fires is that the region, which usually has dry summers, has had significantly below normal precipitation in many recent years. Another reason, experts say, is related to the century- long policy of the US Forest Service to stop wildfires as quickly as possible. The unintentional consequence has been to halt the natural eradication of underbrush, now the primary fuel for megafires. Three other factors contribute to the trend, they add. First is climate change, marked by a 1-degree Fahrenheit rise in average yearly temperature across the western states. Second is fire seasons that on average are 78 days longer than they were 20 years ago. Third is increased construction of homes in wooded areas. We are increasingly building our homes in fire-prone ecosystems, says Dominik Kulakowski, adjunct professor of biology at Clark University Graduate School of Geography in Worcester, Massachusetts. Doing that in many of the forests of the western US is like building homes on the side of an active volcano. ' In California, where population growth has averaged more than 600,000 a year for at least a decade, more residential housing is being built. What once was open space is now residential homes providing fuel to make fires burn with greater intensity, says Terry McHale of the California Department of Forestry firefighters' union. With so much dryness, so many communities to catch fire, so many fronts to fight, it becomes an almost incredible job. ' That said, many experts give California high marks for making progress on preparedness in recent years, after some of the largest fires in state history scorched thousands of acres, burned thousands of homes, and killed numerous people. Stung in the past by criticism of bungling that allowed fires to spread when they might have been contained, personnel are meeting the peculiar challenges of neighborhood - and canyon- hopping fires better than previously, observers say. State promises to provide more up-to-date engines, planes, and helicopters to fight fires have been fulfilled. Firefighters unions that in the past complained of dilapidated equipment, old fire engines, and insufficient blueprints for fire safety are now praising the state's commitment, noting that funding for firefighting has increased, despite huge cuts in many other programs. We are pleased that the current state administration has been very proactive in its support of us, and has come through with budgetary support of the infrastructure needs we have long sought, ' says Mr. McHale of the firefighters union. Besides providing money to upgrade the fire engines that must traverse the mammoth state and wind along serpentine canyon roads, the state has invested in better command-and-control facilities as well as in the 58strategies to run them. In the fire sieges of earlier years, we found that other jurisdictions and states were willing to offer mutual-aid help, but we were not able to communicate adequately with them, says Kim Zagaris, chief of the state's Office of Emergency Services Fire and Rescue Branch. After a commission examined and revamped communications procedures, the statewide response has become far more professional and responsive, he says. There is a sense among both government officials and residents that the speed, dedication, and coordination of firefighters from several states and jurisdictions are resulting in greater efficiency than in past siege fire situations. In recent years, the Southern California region has improved building codes, evacuation procedures, and procurement of new technology. I am extraordinarily impressed by the improvements we have witnessed, says Randy Jacobs, a Southern California- based lawyer who has had to evacuate both his home and business to escape wildfires. Notwithstanding all the damage that will continue to be caused by wildfires, we will no longer suffer the loss of life endured in the past because of the fire prevention and firefighting measures that have been put in place, he says.

Hypothesis: Personnel in the past have been criticised for mishandling fire containment.


Hypothesis: Many experts believe California has made little progress in readying itself to fight fires.


Hypothesis: California has replaced a range of firefighting tools.


Hypothesis: The amount of open space in California has diminished over the last ten years.


Hypothesis: More firefighters have been hired to improve fire-fighting capacity.


Hypothesis: Citizens and government groups disapprove of the efforts of different states and agencies working together.


Hypothesis: Randy Jacobs believes that loss of life from fires will continue at the same levels, despite changes made.


Premise: The megafires of California. Drought, housing expansion, and oversupply of tinder make for bigger, hotter fires in the western United States Wildfires are becoming an increasing menace in the western United States, with Southern California being the hardest hit area. Theres a reason fire squads battling more frequent blazes in Southern California are having such difficulty containing the flames, despite better preparedness than ever and decades of experience fighting fires fanned by the Santa Ana Winds. The wildfires themselves, experts say, are generally hotter, faster, and spread more erratically than in the past. Megafires, also called siege fires, are the increasingly frequent blazes that burn 500, 000 acres or more 10 times the size of the average forest fire of 20 years ago. Some recent wildfires are among the biggest ever in California in terms of acreage burned, according to state figures and news reports. One explanation for the trend to more superhot fires is that the region, which usually has dry summers, has had significantly below normal precipitation in many recent years. Another reason, experts say, is related to the century-long policy of the US Forest Service to stop wildfires as quickly as possible. The unintentional consequence has been to halt the natural eradication of underbrush, now the primary fuel for megafires. Three other factors contribute to the trend, they add. First is climate change, marked by a 1-degree Fahrenheit rise in average yearly temperature across the western states. Second is fire seasons that on average are 78 days longer than they were 20 years ago. Third is increased construction of homes in wooded areas. We are increasingly building our homes in fire-prone ecosystems, says Dominik Kulakowski, adjunct professor of biology at Clark University Graduate School of Geography in Worcester, Massachusetts. Doing that in many of the forests of the western US is like building homes on the side of an active volcano. In California, where population growth has averaged more than 600, 000 a year for at least a decade, more residential housing is being built. What once was open space is now residential homes providing fuel to make fires burn with greater intensity, says Terry McHale of the California Department of Forestry firefighters union. With so much dryness, so many communities to catch fire, so many fronts to fight, it becomes an almost incredible job. That said, many experts give California high marks for making progress on preparedness in recent years, after some of the largest fires in state history scorched thousands of acres, burned thousands of homes, and killed numerous people. Stung in the past by criticism of bungling that allowed fires to spread when they might have been contained, personnel are meeting the peculiar challenges of neighborhood and canyon- hopping fires better than previously, observers say. State promises to provide more up-to-date engines, planes, and helicopters to fight fires have been fulfilled. Firefighters unions that in the past complained of dilapidated equipment, old fire engines, and insufficient blueprints for fire safety are now praising the states commitment, noting that funding for firefighting has increased, despite huge cuts in many other programs. We are pleased that the current state administration has been very proactive in its support of us, and has come through with budgetary support of the infrastructure needs we have long sought, says Mr. McHale of the firefighters union. Besides providing money to upgrade the fire engines that must traverse the mammoth state and wind along serpentine canyon roads, the state has invested in better command-and-control facilities as well as in the strategies to run them. In the fire sieges of earlier years, we found that other jurisdictions and states were willing to offer mutual-aid help, but we were not able to communicate adequately with them, says Kim Zagaris, chief of the states Office of Emergency Services Fire and Rescue Branch. After a commission examined and revamped communications procedures, the statewide response has become far more professional and responsive, he says. There is a sense among both government officials and residents that the speed, dedication, and coordination of firefighters from several states and jurisdictions are resulting in greater efficiency than in past siege fire situations. In recent years, the Southern California region has improved building codes, evacuation procedures, and procurement of new technology. I am extraordinarily impressed by the improvements we have witnessed, says Randy Jacobs, a Southern California-based lawyer who has had to evacuate both his home and business to escape wildfires. Notwithstanding all the damage that will continue to be caused by wildfires, we will no longer suffer the loss of life endured in the past because of the fire prevention and firefighting measures that have been put in place, he says.


Premise: The merger between the Australian owned BHT and British owned Billis has formed a world class leader in the natural resources sector. Financially weaker Billis has brought to the merger its diversified business portfolio and high profitability whilst BHT brought substantial capital and a strong governmental lobby as a leading Australian organisation. Whilst oil, copper, coal and uranium will remain the main products of the newly merged company BHT Billis is looking to penetrate other markets such as additional oils, gases, silver, titanium, other minerals and diamonds.

Hypothesis: BHT Billis wants to shift business focus from oil, copper, coal and uranium to new markets like gas, silver, titanium, minerals and diamonds.


Hypothesis: Billis provided the major financial support for the merger.


Hypothesis: Shareholders should expect greater return on the value of their shares as a result of the merger.


Premise: The merits of single-sex education have long been debated in the United States, where demand for single-sex schools is on the rise. Title IV, a 1972 law prohibiting sex discrimination in education, was amended in 2006, allowing for the establishment of single-sex state schools so long as a co- educational alternative is available. While critics view single-sex schools as discriminatory and inadequate preparation for adult life, advocates claim that children, and particularly girls, benefit from a single-sex education. Some American research shows that girls attending single-sex schools have higher self-esteem, participate more in class, and score higher on aptitude tests than their counterparts in co-educational schools. A 2005 study claimed that both girls and boys attending single-sex schools spent more time on homework and had less disciplinary problems. Single-sex schools subvert stereotypical course-taking patterns and results. Advocates of single-sex schooling argue that educators can teach more effectively by tailoring their tuition to reflect current research about gender-based brain development. Many experts, however, believe that research into single-sex education is inconclusive, and that so long as the education provided is gender-fair, both girls and boys can thrive in a co-educational environment.

Hypothesis: Critics of single-sex education believe that such schools reinforce pre- existing gender stereotypes.


Hypothesis: Girls who attend single-sex schools perform better in maths and sciences than their counterparts in co-educational schools.


Hypothesis: The trend towards American single-sex state education is a relatively recent phenomenon.


Hypothesis: Proponents of single-sex education believe there are neurological differences between the two genders.


Hypothesis: Whereas girls benefit academically from single-sex education, the only advantage for boys is improved discipline.


Premise: The ministry of railways has decided to develop 400 identified railway stations under the innovative Swiss Challenge method; it has decided to go ahead with the development of a few stations on its own.

Hypothesis: Railways has decided to develop stations into commercial hubs along with all the amenities for passengers.


Hypothesis: There are several methods to develop a railway station.


Hypothesis: Railways has decided to revamp the railway stations with the help of private sector.


Hypothesis: Railways has decided to upgrade a few stations with the help of the public sector.


Premise: The model of consumer behavior on which neo-classical demand theory is based implies that consumers are perfectly informed about the price and quality characteristics of the products on offer, and are constantly altering their expenditure patterns in response to price and quality changes, so as to maximize their total utility(satisfaction). This model is unrealistic, as the range of products on offer in modern markets is immense, and no consumer has the knowledge or inclination to acquire the information that would be needed to make choices in this way.

Hypothesis: Being up to date with product information plays little part in neo-classical demand theory.


Hypothesis: Neo-classical demand theory is only one of a number of models of consumer behavior.


Hypothesis: Maximizing the total utility of a product purchase implies consideration of both price and quality characteristics.


Hypothesis: There are some consumers who are perfectly informed about the price and quality characteristics of products on offer.


Premise: The model of consumer behaviour on which neo-classical demand theory is based implies that consumers are perfectly informed about the price and quality characteristics of the products on offer, and are constantly altering their expenditure patterns in response to price and quality changes, so as to maximise their total utility (satisfaction). This model is unrealistic, as the range of products on offer in modern markets is immense, and no consumer has the knowledge or inclination to acquire the information that would be needed to make choices in this way.


Hypothesis: Neo-classical demand theory is only one of a number of models of consumer behaviour.


Hypothesis: Maximising the total utility of a product purchase implies consideration of both price and quality characteristics.


Premise: The most commonly cited reasons for companies to use the internet for recruitment were cost-effectiveness, ease of use and the potential to access a larger number of candidates. In the past year the number of organizations using the internet to fill jobs has risen by almost a third. Now 12 million job seekers are expected to apply online in the UK each year. In the United States 51% of all jobs were advertised online; the UK figure is around 27%, so analysts feel that there is still considerable growth left in the UK market. The age of online recruitment seems to have arrived, but many companies are using it only as one part of a multimedia recruitment strategy.

Hypothesis: One reason for online recruitments popularity is because it represents good value.


Hypothesis: The majority of UK jobs are now advertised on the internet.


Hypothesis: To be sure to access an even larger number of candidates a company must advertise vacancies on the internet as well as through more traditional media.


Premise: The most prevalent neurological condition in the developed world, migraine is characterised by severe, recurrent headaches, with additional symptoms including nausea and sensitivity to light and sound. The frequency and duration of migraine attacks are variable: attacks may occur a few times a year or several times per month, while pain may last between four hours and three days. Approximately one third of sufferers experience an aura a perceptual disturbance occurring before the migraines onset. There are numerous theories on the cause of migraines. The vascular theory posits that migraines are caused by problems with blood vessels in the brain. A more widely held view is that migraines result from low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin in the brain. Prophylactic drug treatment, which prevents the onset of migraines, has declined in recent years, because of side effects and also improvements in medications treating an actual attack. Whereas older varieties of pain medication are potentially addictive, newer drugs called triptans work by reducing pain information travelling to the brain. Treatment plans typically include avoidance of known migraine triggers, such as diet, alcohol, and stress, as overuse of medication can lead to chronic rebound headaches. Not only do migraines have a debilitating effect on sufferers, they are also bad for the economy, with an estimated 25 million days lost from work every year in the UK alone.

Hypothesis: The vascular theory has been discredited.


Hypothesis: The passage states that it is not possible to work when suffering from a migraine.


Hypothesis: One third of migraines are preceded by a heightened sensitivity to light.


Hypothesis: Triptans are a new form of prophylactic drug which are less addictive than older medications.


Hypothesis: Although the cause of migraines is unknown, serotonin deficiency is the most commonly held theory.


Premise: The music industry continues to be one of the fastest growing sectors of the British economy. This trend can be traced to the large range of medias available, such as concerts and downloads, and the wide ranging target audience. For example, the music industry confidently boasts to be the only form of media enjoyed by both the youngest and oldest individuals in society. In comparison, forms of media, such as gaming, are enjoyed a by a marginal sector of society. However, statistics suggest that not all forms of music are enjoying this boom. Sales figures for operatic music continue to decrease steadily. In this way, it is feared that the dominance of the music industry, catering to popular culture, comes at the expense of long-standing art forms.

Hypothesis: the music industry the fastest growing sector in the British economy because it caters to a wide target audience.


Premise: The music, film and video game retailer HMV recently reported annual loss of 38.6 million due to declining sales and restructuring costs. The main reason attributed to this decline in sales is the rise of online music and film download websites. Music and film lovers are now able to download songs and film at the click of a button, without requiring a stop at their local HMV or retailer. Only time will tell if the online music and film industry will make HMV, the CD and the DVD obsolete in favour of a fully online entertainment industry.

Hypothesis: HMVs reported annual loss was 38.6 Million