Question: If we can't regrow enamel, how does fluoride rinsing help?

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 If we can't regrow enamel, how does fluoride rinsing help?

Imagine enamel as a fishing net. It consists of many ropes who are tied together. Say you go fishing with it, the problem is that the knots between rope intersections keep breaking. Now a bit of fishing won't make you lose any net, it will just become slowly undone. As more knots get undone, some pieces of rope will become completely detached from the net and float away into the ocean completely. But a single fishing trip will just make some of the ropes dangle due to not being completely knotted. As the knots break, you fix them by driving metal rivets or some kind of metal reinforcement through them. This makes the net far stronger. But undoing each of the knots by hand is hard, so instead you do this progressively, instead of redoing the net completely you just fix any loose ends as you use the net. Over time, you get a far stronger net. This metal reinforcement is fluoride. The key fact is that the enamel does not completely float away, it just gets loose. Chemical explanation: The chemical formula of enamel is Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2, enamel of course is a crystal and there are many of such units within enamel, all bonded together. The problem: Acids are of course chemicals which give off H+ ions, which really really like to steal OH sections from atoms, like our enamel has. This of course produces water, and the acids can either come from the food we eat or bacteria found in our mouth, who consume sugars for energy but release acids as waste. One or two stolen OH sections won't completely get rid of the enamel, enamel is chemically bound together in many places, but nonetheless, if enough enamel around the same place loses its OH, then that section will get loose and just washed away. The solution: As it turns out, the F- ion has similar chemical properties to the -OH ion. Except it is stronger. Acids can't steal an F- ion that easily. So the idea is that as the acids and food we eat steal the OH ions, we replace them with F ions, which both repairs the enamel and makes it stronger against future attacks.


Question: when you heat water in a steel pot and try to pour it out, it hisses and splutters as the water touches the steel higher up along the side, but stops after some water has assed over it. This only happens with steel, not with iron or aluminium or other types of pots. Why?

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 when you heat water in a steel pot and try to pour it out, it hisses and splutters as the water touches the steel higher up along the side, but stops after some water has assed over it. This only happens with steel, not with iron or aluminium or other types of pots. Why?

The hissing and spluttering is the [leidenfrost effect]( URL_0 ). Once the metal has transferred enough heat into the water that it can't sustain the leidenfrost effect, it stops occurring in that location. Other areas of the pot might be comparatively hotter still. The reason it happens in various locations is because conduction through the pot material isn't instantaneous. The cooling effect caused by the water occurs more rapidly than heat from the other side of the pot can conduct through the metal to keep the pot at a uniform temperature. You're creating a "cool" spot while the rest of the pot is still super hot. Slosh some water up the opposite edge of the pot and the effect occurs again. It occurs with other materials. All of my cookware is titanium and it'll do this as well. You'll notice it in thinner pots because there just isn't that much material there for thermal mass and the cross section is small enough that conduction doesn't happen that quickly. A heavy cast iron pot will be more uniform but with a super thin steel pot you'll get little spurts of hissing as the water sloshes up to touch all the dry parts and then the effect no longer occurs because the pot has cooled too much.


Question: How do foreign exchange rates work?

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 How do foreign exchange rates work?

Although purchasing power parity suggests that MUA = MUB, this is a very long term equilibrium at best. More important for the short term is the demand for currency. If MUA exports a lot of product while MUB does little export, there will be more demand for MUA than MUB. (you need to purchase MUA to buy product in country A to export). If there is larger demand for MUA then it will tend to appreciate. Other factors include inflation expectation. If country A is believed to have a high inflation rate, then MUA will depreciate (fewer people will want to hold it) Often inflation expectations are also an assessment of the "risk" or "creditworthiness" of a country - if people believe the government of country A will print money, they won't hold MUA.


Question: How did people teach the first code to machines before code existed?

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 How did people teach the first code to machines before code existed?

The first big computers did not execute code from storage as we see it today, the very early ones were "hard wired" meaning that the hardware was wired to do only one thing, no code required, you program it by connecting relays together in specific ways. Later ones used long strips of cardboard with holes in them that would get fed through a reader. The presence of a hole in the punch card will be detected by the reader and will cause the computer to do something. These were also limited in what they could do. For instance, you could have a computer that can do nothing but solve equation systems and is hard wired to do that, you can then use the punch cards to feed it the numbers you want it to solve. Newer processors execute something we call "assembly code" which is sort of a modern version of the punch cards. They are small and simple operations such as add 2 numbers together, compare 2 numbers to see which is bigger, take this number and add 1 to it, go to this particular spot in the code, etc... Code like python or c++ isnt really executed by the cpu, it's a human readable/understandable translation for assembly code, what a compiler does is take the code text and convert it to assembly code which is directly executable by the cpu but quite difficult to write. For instance, to make the computer do something simple like "if a > b then b = b +1" in assembly would require many lines of code that can't be understood by just glancing at it quickly like a python program would be. Assembly programs end up having a loooooot of small detailed lines instead of less more concise one What happened is that people figured out easier ways for humans to tell computers what they want it to do such as the languages we all know and love today. They then wrote compilers in assembly code that can take those new languages and translate them to assembly which allows for the complex programs we see today


Question: How are living DNA and cells formed out of atoms and dust?

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 How are living DNA and cells formed out of atoms and dust?

There are theories about how life started, but we don't know for sure. Laboratory experiments with a mixture of chemicals in water have resulted in some rather complex organic chemicals that ARE part of life, but so far we have not observed an entire cell assembling itself and starting to "live". Otherwise, we do chemistry by dumping 10^23 or more atoms of one kind into 10^23 atoms or molecules of another kind, and they react because atom energy levels are "better" if they complete their electron orbitals by joining with other atoms. Cells, on the other hand, do chemistry internally atom-by-atom: the proteins function like little robots that literally assemble molecules together. Cellular function is extremely complex, but in simple terms, sections of the DNA (master recipe) get copied to RNA (recipes) and proteins get created or used to *do* what the instructions say, with other parts of the cell acting as "sensors" for "too little or too much" and to control the reactions. The cell is a factory, basically.


Question: How do nighttime rainbows function?

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 How do nighttime rainbows function?

A moonbow (also known as a lunar rainbow or white rainbow), is a rainbow produced by moonlight rather than sunlight. Other than the difference in light source, its formation is exactly the same as for a solar rainbow: It is caused by the refraction of light in many water droplets, such as a rain shower or a waterfall, and is always positioned in the opposite part of the sky from the moon relative to the observer. Moonbows are much fainter than solar rainbows, due to the smaller amount of light reflected from the surface of the moon. Because the light is usually too faint to excite the cone color receptors in human eyes, it is difficult for the human eye to discern colors in a moonbow. As a result, a moonbow often appears to be white. [Wikipedia ]( URL_0 )


Question: If color is a spectrum from long waves (red) to short (violet), why is there a color wheel? What wavelength is a pure reddish-purple?

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 If color is a spectrum from long waves (red) to short (violet), why is there a color wheel? What wavelength is a pure reddish-purple?

There is no frequency for purple. It is the color you get when you stimulate the cones in the eye for blue(S) and red(L) cones but not for green(M) cones. Look at [ URL_1 ]( URL_0 ) and it shows the sensitivity of the difference cones depending on frequency. So if you just stimulate S cones with low-frequency light and L cones with high frequency but almost no stimuli on the M cones. Color is just the way our brain interprets different stimuli if S, M and L cones and purple is how we interpreted that stimulation


Question: Why does the ice cubes sometimes freeze with a spike?

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 Why does the ice cubes sometimes freeze with a spike?

1) Ice expands as it freezes. 2) Ice freezes from the outside to the center. As the ice freezes, it places an increasing amount of pressure on the water left inside. That forces its way through a hole in the middle of the surface of the cube, freezing into a spike as it emerges.


Question: Can light be black ?

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 Can light be black ?

I'm scared that this is dangerously close to the *Is black a colour* "debate," but I'll weigh in. Light cannot be black because black is a lack of light. Think of a red car. It's red because the paint absorbs all the other colours (that we can see) and only reflects the red light. Now think of a black car. It's black because the paint absorbs *all* the colours (that we can see), so none are reflected. (Side note, black things are black because we can't see them... black things are invisible?) Black cars also absorb more infrared light, which is why they get so much hotter in the sun than other cars. You could say that invisible light like ultraviolet is black light because, even though it's light, you can't see it. However this is a bit human-centric and doesn't consider the many insects and birds of prey that rely on seeing it to find food.


Question: Why does scoring ribbon make it go curly?

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 Why does scoring ribbon make it go curly?

When you hold ribbon against a surface and pull it, the outside of the ribbon (the part that isn’t against the scissors) stretches, and the part that Is against the scissors is kept closer to its normal state by being held in place. So, when the inner part is tighter than the outer part, it boings.


Question: Whats the difference between CPU and GPU and how do they work ?

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 Whats the difference between CPU and GPU and how do they work ?

A CPU, central processing unit, a general processor made to perform many computational tasks. A GPU, graphics processing unit, is a processor dedicated to performing the specific kind of computation that displays graphics. The CPU is like a committee of Maths PhDs. They know a lot, but take a while to get anything done. The GPU is like a colony of a billion leaf cutter ants. They only know how to do one thing - move leaves - but damn do they do it fast.


Question: Why do different brands of water taste different?

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 Why do different brands of water taste different?

100% pure water normally tastes flat & disgusting (or at least boring). People expect there to be some amount of dissolved minerals in there - stuff like sodium, calcium, magnesium and whatnot. These contribute a faint but very noticeable taste to the water. Different brands of bottled water either have the minerals from their source (in the case of spring water) or they've had a blend of minerals added back to them after purification (for other bottled waters) in order to maintain a consistent flavor. You can also see this if you travel & drink tap water. Different sources have different naturally occuring mineral content (as well as differing degrees of chemicals like chlorine).


Question: how can a tiny tug boat push/pull huge tankers and cruise ships?

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 how can a tiny tug boat push/pull huge tankers and cruise ships?

The engines and propellers of those tugboats are comparable in size to those of the huge tankers. The tugboats are smaller not because they have smaller engines but because they do not have any cargo holds or giant fuel tanks. A tugboat is literally just a giant engine and propeller in the smallest boat possible. Not unlike plane tugs.


Question: Why are judges given discretion in deciding penalties for crimes?

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 Why are judges given discretion in deciding penalties for crimes?

In theory, to make sure the punishment fits the circumstances surrounding a crime. If someone robs a convenience store because their kid needed lifesaving medical treatment and the person genuinely appears to feel terrible about it, yes he still deserves to be punished. But, most would argue he shouldn't serve the same sentence as someone that did it because they're a sociopath, and generally acted like an unremorseful dick. It's basically impossible to codify all the potential variables in a case into law, and the law's complicated enough as it is.


Question: What is surface tension and how does it work?

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 What is surface tension and how does it work?

Liquids are liquids because the molecules in the liquid stick to one another. They're not attached strongly enough to avoid sliding around, but they're attached enough that they don't move independently of one another. Inside the liquid, each molecule is pulled equally in all directions by this force, at least on average, because there are always particles above/below/left/right/etc of them. But at the surface, there are no particles above them (or the much sparser particles of a gas). This means that molecules at the surface tend to get pulled back into the bulk of the liquid, because there's a net "downward" force on a particle at the edge of the liquid. Put another way, the liquid wants to have "as little surface area" as possible, because every particle on the surface is trying to get back to *not* being on the surface. Now, suppose you're a little water strider. You put your leg on the water. It *could* compress the water and displace it into a "hole" the shape of your leg, but in order to do so, it creates a lot more surface area, because rough surfaces have more surface area than smooth ones. Because the water "wants" to have a smooth surface (that is, the lowest possible energy state for it to be in is a smooth surface), displacing the water takes force - and the necessary force is more than the weight of a water strider. So the surface stays smooth and the strider can walk.


Question: How did Einsteins theory explained the orbit of Mercury?

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 How did Einsteins theory explained the orbit of Mercury?

Mercury's orbit around the sun isn't a perfect circle. It's actually an oval. This oval isn't centered perfectly on the sun either. During part of its orbit Mercury will get close to the sun and then farther away at the other end of its orbit. Then, just to make it even more complicated, the orientation of this orbit slowly shifts. [This picture]( URL_0 ) makes it a bit clearer than my words. The speed at which the orbit wobbles around the sun is faster than Newton's law of gravity would predict. We observed that it moved twice as fast as predicted. Einstein's general relativity predicted that the sun, as it spins, would drag the fabric of space-time along with it. It turns out that this effect exactly accounted for the increased speed of the wobble in Mercury's orbit.


Question: What is GPT3, the language model recently released by OpenAI?

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</answer>
 What is GPT3, the language model recently released by OpenAI?

The basics of creating a language model are to take as much written text as you can and feed it through a training model. This model then produces a statistical map of the probability of the likely hood of one word following another, e.g., the phrases the dog is brown and brown is the dog contain the same words, but the dog is brown is statistically more likely. When training a model, you get better results as you feed it more examples of the text. This model uses a vast amount of text to train. It has resulted in a model that is so powerful it can be used to automatically write say fake articles to post to social media or can be used to to produce very intelligent answers when asked to summarize a book or answer questions about a document.


Question: Why there's almost no researches trying to create new devices which could allow us to explore the bottom of the ocean?

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 Why there's almost no researches trying to create new devices which could allow us to explore the bottom of the ocean?

Your statement that no one is trying is false. I think most of the limitation keeping us off the sea floor currently is technological, or more specifically materials science limitations. We don't have anything to make a submersible out of that can both withstand the pressures experienced at the bottom of the ocean and also be large enough to house researchers and their equipment.


Question: How is time only an illusion according to Einstein? "For us believing physicists, the distinction between past, present and future is only a stubbornly persistent illusion."

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 How is time only an illusion according to Einstein? "For us believing physicists, the distinction between past, present and future is only a stubbornly persistent illusion."

This is a quote by Einstein on the death of his friend: he's using poetic language inspired by physics, but it's not intended to be precisely true. As Einstein well knew, some events definitely *do* occur in our past, and some definitely do occur in our future. But there's a category of events that could be seen as past, present, or future depending on how fast we're moving.(!) These events, at a "spacelike interval" from us, must be located far enough away in space, and close enough in time, that no signal from the event can have reached us yet (or vice versa). In the case of Einstein's eulogy, his friend definitely died before Einstein did. The only way that could *not* be true is if Einstein died so far away that neither Einstein nor his friend could have heard about each other's deaths. That's important because it means we don't have to worry about "causality": it would be really awkward if it were possible for Einstein to shoot his friend, but the friend died before the bullet was fired. Fortunately the universe is set up so that can't happen. URL_0


Question: Why do hurricanes in the US only occur on the Eastern coast and not the Western coast?

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 Why do hurricanes in the US only occur on the Eastern coast and not the Western coast?

Because of currents. Currents flow "clockwise" in the northern hemisphere. Meaning the US west coast gets cold water from the Pacific before the current turns south at the coast. This is the opposite for the East coast where warm water from the south flows north up the coast. Hurricanes need warm water (in simple terms). So hurricanes on the West start far south and rarely come north far enough. Whereas hurricanes on the East start not as far south and can go up the East and South because of warm waters.


Question: How do doctors know a course of antibiotics is sufficient to kill off harmful bacteria?

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 How do doctors know a course of antibiotics is sufficient to kill off harmful bacteria?

Experience and experimental evidence. Once a doctor knows or has a good idea of what type of bacteria is causing the infection, they can prescribe the correct antibiotic (or a broad-spectrum antibiotic if the cause isn't known). As for "how many pills would be just barely enough," that has come through experiment - it's likely that a couple of pills are enough to kill the infection, but double or triple that amount is prescribed in order to guarantee success and correct for patients who don't take their medicines on the right schedule. I remember reading about a study years ago that showed that three days of treatment was enough to cure something like 90% of pneumonia patients, with no real difference in the group that was given placebos after that first 3-day treatment and the group that was given another week of antibiotics. So they have a good idea of the minimum amount needed from decades of medical research, and they shoot well over that target, as you said, to take a "scorched earth" approach. And of course, if you have a stronger infection than they thought, or if it's something that the antibiotic couldn't fight, they tell you to come back and they will use something else. I remember a few years ago I was treated for a minor infection on a cut that had to be stitched up - they took a culture and I asked what they needed it for if they were just prescribing amoxicillin anyways. The answer was "Odds are good it'll be what we expect and the amoxicillin will take care of it. In case it's something weird, we can call you asap and bring you back in for a different treatment, but we're treating the most likely thing first so that you can get healthy right away."


Question: What is the variance of a system in thermodynamics?

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 What is the variance of a system in thermodynamics?

Degrees of freedom means how many variables you can change without affecting the other variables in the equation. For example, A + B = 5 There's only one degree of freedom. You can change A *or* B willy nilly, but not both at the same time; if you increase A by 5, B must decrease by 5 or else the equation is invalid. A + B + C = 5 There's two degrees of freedom there; you can change A and B arbitrarily, but C must change to compensate for the changes so the equation equals 5 still. Similarly at the phase boundary there's only one degree of freedom. You can change temperature freely but then the pressure has to adjust accordingly, or else you're no longer on the phase boundary line.


Question: Why do video games make you press a button after loading before you can see the main menu?

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 Why do video games make you press a button after loading before you can see the main menu?

It might just be a long standing convention that many developers continue without giving it much thought. Back in the days of arcade games, the title screen would have the prompt to insert coin(s), which would typically change to Press Start, or similar, after credits had been loaded. (Inserting coins didn't necessarily put you straight into the game, as you'd press a different start button depending on which set of controls you were using - Player 1 or Player 2, for example). Home conversions of arcade titles obviously wouldn't ask you to insert coins. (Come to think of it though, given how keenly publishers embraced microtransactions in more recent years, I'm sure they would have if they could). Nevertheless, they often replicated the arcade title screen, complete with "Press Start" prompt.


Question: why can you feel your heartbeat in a certain part of your body?

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 why can you feel your heartbeat in a certain part of your body?

The heart is a muscle. It pushes blood through the arteries, causing them to expand and contract in response to the flow of blood. You can feel the expansions and contractions, your pulse or heartbeat, in many places throughout the body where an artery passes close to the skin. The principle behind feeling pulse (or the heartbeat) is the compression of the blood vessel against a surface (bone generally) to feel the difference in pulse pressure. One normally feels a pulse at only at certain places where the blood vessel is superficial (closer to the skin) and can be easily compressed against a bone. The pulse felt on the neck is called the carotid pulse. When felt on the groin, it is called the femoral pulse. The pulse at your wrist is called the radial pulse. The pedal pulse is on the foot, and the brachial pulse is under the elbow. A normal resting pulse rate for adults ranges from 60 to 100 beats per minute (bpm). Women tend to have a slightly higher pulse rate than men; the average resting heart rate in women is in the mid-70s, while it is only about 70 in men. Other factors can affect resting pulse rate, too, including age, body size, fitness level, heart conditions, whether you're sitting or standing, medication, emotions, and even air temperature.


Question: How come humans are the only species that have to brush their teeth?

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 How come humans are the only species that have to brush their teeth?

Other species would probably benefit from brushing their teeth. It's common for pet owners to give their pets "dental chews" to clean their teeth. Humans are pretty long-lived. Our teeth are important to our diet (we eat a lot of stuff that requires chewing for optimal digestion). There have been studies about how human life improved when we started brushing our teeth. Brushing our teeth helps remove bacteria and gross buildups. That makes us less susceptible to illness or infection. If our immune system isn't constantly under attack from our mouth, it is more effective at fighting off other assailants. Also, take a look in an animal's mouth. Google primate teeth. The look disgusting. Humans have just recognized the benefits of brushing. Long story short, we're the only species that has developed teeth-brushing, but other animals' teeth would benefit from some scrubbing.


Question: Why is it stressed that after skin contract with certain chemicals that you need to rinse with water for 15 to 20 minutes? Why such a long length of time? Wouldn't whatever it is be gone within 5 minutes?

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 Why is it stressed that after skin contract with certain chemicals that you need to rinse with water for 15 to 20 minutes? Why such a long length of time? Wouldn't whatever it is be gone within 5 minutes?

Many chemicals are dangerous even in extremely small amounts. You need to rinse with water for such a long time to make sure any trace of the chemical is gone from your skin. In addition, a lot of chemicals don't dissolve in water very well, so they are difficult to rinse off. You shouldn't use soap to try and wash them off, because the soap might react with the chemical and just make the problem worse. Using a long water rinse will eventually get these poorly soluble chemicals off your skin.


Question: If we know what chemicals make us happy and how, why cant we create a food or something that keeps us in a good mood permenantly without ruining our dopamine receptors?

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 If we know what chemicals make us happy and how, why cant we create a food or something that keeps us in a good mood permenantly without ruining our dopamine receptors?

We are only just scratching the surface in our understanding of how the brain works. We have seen that activating the dopamine and serotonin receptors tends to make people happy. But, there is an ocean-sized gap between that basic understanding and making a drug that will always make people happy with no side effects. It's entirely possible that the human brain simply isn't capable of maintaining a permanently happy mood without long-term damage. It might be like trying to run a car at top-speed all the time and not expect the engine to break down.


Question: Can’t any random person broadcast at the same frequency as a radio station and show up when someone tries to tune to that frequency? What do stations do to stop this? Do they have to?

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 Can’t any random person broadcast at the same frequency as a radio station and show up when someone tries to tune to that frequency? What do stations do to stop this? Do they have to?

They can. The issue is that it's very expensive to broadcast a frequency that goes any reasonable distance. Also, the FCC will come down on anyone who does that like a ton of bricks. It's pretty easy to triangulate a signal to find out exactly where it is, so getting caught is fairly inevitable.


Question: What is a viral vector?

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 What is a viral vector?

A vector, terms of biology, is an organism that transmits something from one place to another. In the case of a viral vector, a virus is being used to transmit genetic elements or the production of some biologically-relevant component between cells or organisms. One example of a viral vector would be a non-harmful virus (only a small fraction of viruses cause harm during infection), which has been genetically modified to deliver DNA encoding a protein that a person otherwise lacked.


Question: How is life expectancy calculated?

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 How is life expectancy calculated?

> Is it a simple average of the age in which all people die including babies who die young, e.g. SIDS? More or less, yes. > What got me thinking about this was the fact that the life expectancy would be pulled downward by things like babies dying or college guys doing stupid shit. However, once you make it past those stages are 40, then your life expectancy is higher than that average that includes these folks. Again, yes. This is why life expectancy long ago was so low. High infant mortality. Once you survived past childhood, your life expectancy was very similar to what it was today, but the high death rate among the young drew the average down.


Question: if we've only explored 5% of the ocean, how do we know that the Mariana trench is the deepest point?

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 if we've only explored 5% of the ocean, how do we know that the Mariana trench is the deepest point?

We can map depth fairly accurately, but exploring means actually looking and observing several key points down there. Imagine it as flying over an island at 10 kilometers height versus actually being on the island, walking around and exploring the area. We sort of know how it looks and such, but we don’t know whether there are insects or people down there. Of course there are larger areas of ocean we haven’t really mapped yet. Such as non commercial shipping lanes and vast ocean waters. But we can make some assumptions and estimate depth by taking samples. If we take two points of reference, 200 kilometers apart, where we observe depths of 2000 meters. And there isn’t any larger objects in between such as continental plate borders and such, we can fairly surely say that there isn’t going to be a large trench there.


Question: What is rate setting and how does it effect the public?

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 What is rate setting and how does it effect the public?

Instead of allowing a doctor/hospital to charge whatever they want, specific rates are established for procedures. An MRI costs $XXX and an append removal costs $YYYY, vs. now where it might cost $2000 for an MRI at one hospital and $5000 at another, but one insurance company might pay $300 and another $1000. The lack of consistency and transparency are a big part of the reason why healthcare costs so much in the U.S. Of course the businesses profiting from that will be against it, and so they pay to run ads trying to sway public opinion in their favor.


Question: How does the derivatives market work?

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 How does the derivatives market work?

Derivatives are based off of, but do not consist of, another asset A call option means you pay a little up front for the *option* to buy an amount of a certain stock at a set price on or before a certain date. If the price goes above the set price you can *exercise* your option and buy the goods at that price, you can also close your position without taking possession of the stock, basically buying at the set price and instantly selling at the higher market price Put options are the option to sell at a fixed price. If the price drops below the set price you make money. In both the options, if the price is unfavorable at the end you don't have to follow through and are only out the small premium A Futures contract is an agreement to buy/sell at a fixed price on an agreed upon date. There is no option to back out if the price is no longer favorable You can invest in derivatives, but if you're asking here you're not ready yet. Derivatives increase your leverage so you can take a small pile of money and make it bigger quicker, but you can also lose it a lot faster.


Question: Where do old e-car batteries go?

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</answer>
 Where do old e-car batteries go?

Lithium batteries are among the most difficult to recycle, given their unique chemistry. However, they can be reprocessed and the technology is rapidly improving with the advent of electric vehicles. You've got two big ways of doing it. Both are focused on extracting the precious metals- lithium, copper, cobalt, nickel, and others. Everything else is waste. One method, smelting, involves literally putting the battery in a furnace to burn off anything that's not made of metal. Then you can smelt out all the different metals in a conventional smelter and reuse them elsewhere. It takes a lot of energy and recovers only a fraction of the battery material. Another involves putting the battery in a corrosive acid bath, dissolving the metals and leaching them into an aqueous solution that they can be extracted from later one. More efficient, but also difficult and expensive. The problem is (currently) that it's cheaper to mine new metal for batteries than it is to recycle them. However, with the explosion of electric vehicles, the scale of battery recycling is expected to increase greatly and hopefully refine these techniques.


Question: is there any truth to the idea that cooked vegetables are “less good for you” than raw vegetables?

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 is there any truth to the idea that cooked vegetables are “less good for you” than raw vegetables?

Because of plant cell wall structure some raw veggies are difficult to digest. They’re still useful as fiber. When you cook them, you break down some of the cell walls and it’s easier for you to get the nutrients out of them. Ultimately, it’s a trade off. For example cooking can rob food of vitamin C, but it makes beta carotene available for digestion. Boiling drains the most nutrients from foods. Steaming and roasting loses much less. Nutritionists typically recommend eating a variety of fruits and vegetables—cooked and raw.


Question: How can we sustain 300+ million people constantly using water every day? Talking USA only.

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 How can we sustain 300+ million people constantly using water every day? Talking USA only.

There is a gargantuan amount of water in the air, ground and rivers/seas etc. There is just so much water, practically every piece of the environment has water in it. Water, thankfully is mostly a solvent and not chemically changed by being used. It just moved stuff around, so water isn't really ever "used up" since its rarely destroyed. Water is the car and most things are just hitching a ride alongside the water on its way. It can become unuesable from contamination. When the car is filled up with trash, can't really use it for a lot of our hygenic purposes so it has to he treated or "washed".


Question: Why dont we go to the moon anymore?

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 Why dont we go to the moon anymore?

Long story short, lack of will. Apollo was more than a space project, it was an international pissing contest with the Soviets. It's easy to throw nearly unlimited funds at that. Once you get there, though, with a country facing a recession and basically "more of the same" each trip, the willpower got sucked away. NASA started focusing more on projects in low orbit with tangible benefits, and developed the Space Shuttle project for science and satellite maintenance, and the lunar program basically withered and died.


Question: Are humans the only species that become aroused when viewing their own species have sex or are there other animals that experience similar things?

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 Are humans the only species that become aroused when viewing their own species have sex or are there other animals that experience similar things?

I saw some study a while back in which apes were given tokens to trade for food or watch "porn" of their species. Most chose the porn. Edit: It was macaques not apes. Juice was the currency that they were using. [Here's an article.]( URL_0 ) They also "paid" to see photos of high status males.


Question: if an object accelerates in space without slowing, wouldn't it eventually reach light speed?

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 if an object accelerates in space without slowing, wouldn't it eventually reach light speed?

Nope. Because of mass-energy equivalence, as something gains speed (kinetic energy) it actually becomes more massive. Any object will gain less and less speed per unit of force applied to it, to the point where reaching light speed (referred to in physics as *c*) requires an infinite amount of energy. Continuing to accelerate it would just add more decimal places to the end of its percentage of *c*. So something going 99% of light speed can be thrusted to 99.99999999...% until all the energy in the universe is exhausted, but never actually hit 100. Reaching *c* is not just beyond our current ability to produce thrust. It's literally impossible to do with conventional physics.


Question: how does a TV remote control when a television turns on and off?

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 how does a TV remote control when a television turns on and off?

Aim your phone camera at it, specifically the shiny black part at the front. You'll see a purple dot glowing there. That's a very near infrared LED light. Just outside of human vision, but within the range of your camera. Purple because it causes the red and blue sensors on your camera to react. Not intentional or anything, but we just don't care about about this near IR light so let it do whatever. At least not with cheap cameras, good ones have a filter so this doesn't get in and slightly distort colours. If you don't see it on your phone camera, you have some fancy phone with an expensive camera that has this filter. Anyways, you'll note it flashes when you hit buttons. That's literally it. Just some Morse code (sort of, not literally the same patterns) flashes to your TV. A camera like sensor on your TV that is always on watches, and turns the rest of the TV on when it sees the right flashing code. A visible LED would work as well, but would annoy people with the flashing. This also explains why you don't need to point directly at the TV to make it work, but if you point the opposite way or completely block the remote it fails to work. It's not radio waves, doesn't go through things. It's more like a flashlight that just need enough of the beam to hit the TV. Also explains why you can bank it off a mirror or window while facing the wrong way. As well why sunlight sometimes interferes and makes it so you have to point very precisely at the TV and might need multiple tries, while it's very reliable at night.


Question: how and acid or base causes burns to the skin. What happens at a chemical level?

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 how and acid or base causes burns to the skin. What happens at a chemical level?

Typically, what happens is the breakdown of fats and proteins in the skin. Many parts of the body have carbonyl groups, which in the context of skin means a carbon double bonded to an oxygen, single bonded to a carbon, and single bonded to one other thing. That other thing might be a nitrogen with other stuff attached in the caste of protein, or an oxygen with other stuff in the case of fats. When a strong acid or base gets on skin, it attacks the carbonyl, and replaces the "other thing" with either the base, or water in the case of acid. So by sort of "kicking out" an essential part of the chemicals that make up skin, acids and bases break down tissue and cause burns. With acids, this is somewhat reversible, but with bases it's essentially irreversible, which is why bases cause much worse burns


Question: Why has the progress and development of human society sped up so much in the last 150 years or so?

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 Why has the progress and development of human society sped up so much in the last 150 years or so?

We are standing on the shoulders of giants. As we create new technologies (or other advances in society), we are able to use those technologies to then create other newer technologies and so on. We built crappy computers that helped us build faster computers that helped us build even faster computers and so on. Ever heard of The Singularity? It's basically the implied "endpoint" of the rapidly accelerating nature of technology you are asking about. One interpretation is that when we create AI it's going to be able to create a better AI and so on and so forth until the speed at which it evolves at becomes so fast that one day it will basically become advanced way beyond us (and evolving almost near instantly from our PoV) and society/humanity will change almost immediately as a result. URL_0 > The first use of the concept of a "singularity" in the technological context was John von Neumann.[4] Stanislaw Ulam reports a discussion with von Neumann "centered on the accelerating progress of technology and changes in the mode of human life, which gives the appearance of approaching some essential singularity in the history of the race beyond which human affairs, as we know them, could not continue".[5] Subsequent authors have echoed this viewpoint.[3][6] Edit: RIP inbox. Loving all the discussion! FTR I'm not claiming this is definitely gonna happen, it's just a ton of fun to think about.


Question: Why do some wounds get just stitches or staples to heal while others get packed with sterile gauze?

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 Why do some wounds get just stitches or staples to heal while others get packed with sterile gauze?

You want the wound to heal from the bottom up; if the skin heals itself closed before the sides of the wound have joined back up, the bubble that's trapped under the skin can turn into an abscess, which is bad news. So you pack the wound with gauze so that only the deepest part can knit itself back together; then when you replace the gauze, you can't push it in as deep, and the the wound gets a little shallower, bit by bit, until, finally, it closes at the top.


Question: Why is phonecall audio still low quality, despite the fact we can stream much higher quality audio via the internet?

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 Why is phonecall audio still low quality, despite the fact we can stream much higher quality audio via the internet?

Because a significant portion of the phone network is still running on the POTS, or Plain Old Telephone System. That is, still the straight up no computers involved wires relays super basic system that's been around since the late 19th century. No doubt any call from a big city nowadays that is any distance, at some point your voice will be turned into bits, and transmitted as data, but for a lot of the phone network, particularly in more remote areas, it'll just be pure wires, and a few basic electronic components more or less. Purely analog. The quality is down to the interaction with those old electronic parts - and it was done like that because it's enough to transmit the spoken word, which is what the phone system was designed to do. Edit to clarify slightly - I'm talking any call that is done as a normal phone call, be it from a cellphone or a landline phone, all of those were designed with interoperability in mind and so they work to the lowest common denominator of quality - i.e the POTS system. With a VOIP based call (Skype, Telegram, Whatsapp, any other online service) those limits no longer apply because for a lot of the calls you're talking across the Internet, everything is just data. So those calls can be much higher quality.


Question: Why can't windows uninstall more than one application at a time?

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 Why can't windows uninstall more than one application at a time?

Windows absolutely can, but the software is told not to. This is so two unrelated programs don’t mess with each other’s settings or try to modify the same files at the same time. Since you can’t control every other companies in the worlds software, it’s easier to just tell other applications they have to wait.


Question: Why do airlines force people to keep their seat belts on for so long when people in private planes can lay down, sleep, party, etc.?

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 Why do airlines force people to keep their seat belts on for so long when people in private planes can lay down, sleep, party, etc.?

Seatbelts aren’t just for collisions or sudden stops while taxiing. They are primarily there to keep you in your seat in the event of bad turbulence. Turbulence can happen suddenly and without warning. If you’re not secured you can easily fly up and hit the ceiling. On your way back down, you can land on another passenger and injure them too. On private planes, it’s more of a “your house your rules” deal as no one will be liable for injury but you, but I can guarantee the pilots up front who know what’s up are wearing theirs at all times. Edit: pilots are required to wear seatbelts at all times. Even in private aircraft. What I meant to imply was that given their awareness of clear air turbulence, I’m sure they would do so regardless of requirement.