Question: Why do we say "Antisemitism" and "Islamophobia", but not "semiteophobia" or "anti islam"?

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 Why do we say "Antisemitism" and "Islamophobia", but not "semiteophobia" or "anti islam"?

The term "phobia" means an irrational fear or anxiety, as a psychological disorder. But some time in the last few decades, the term started being used a suffix in broader contexts, especially political and social, to denote a simple hate for something. This use of "phobia" arose long after the term anti-semitism was in use. By the time "Islamophobia" entered public consciousness, it was more fashionable to label such things "-phobias" than "anti- -isms". URL_0


Question: Why is it that you can't single out sound from the source once a microphone has been put in front of it?

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 Why is it that you can't single out sound from the source once a microphone has been put in front of it?

Iteraural timing. Basically you can calculate where a sound is coming from based in the timing difference between your ears. When it's coming at the same time from different locations behind you it's hard to conceptualize when you see the person in front of you along with the timing being inconsistent. This makes it so you can't localize where it's coming from.


Question: How do they fit 6.9 billion transistors on a 7 nanometer chip? Additionally, how do they connect them up correctly?

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 How do they fit 6.9 billion transistors on a 7 nanometer chip? Additionally, how do they connect them up correctly?

7 nanometer technology refers to the smallest feature they can make. As for how they can be made they are produced through a process called lithography. Individual layers are made and projected onto the material with light, interacting with chemicals to either stay put or wash away to mask areas so other material can be deposited. Think about making art on a wall by masking things off with tape or paper, then rolling or spraying paint on the wall to stick wherever isn't covered. Then you take it off and repeat again many times to make complex pictures. With chips they can actually be 3D structures as each pass lays down a tiny layer of metal or other material.


Question: If the universe is infinite (assuming the curvature is flat), does this also imply there is infinite matter? How can the space expand any further if the universe is infinite?

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 If the universe is infinite (assuming the curvature is flat), does this also imply there is infinite matter? How can the space expand any further if the universe is infinite?

So, you need to think about what "infinite" means here--and probably what "dimension" means, too. A "dimension" is just a degree of freedom of movement. We live in a 3 dimensional space--that is, we have three degrees of freedom of movement. We can move up and down, we can move left and right, and we can move forward and back. So what does "infinite" mean, in this context? It means no matter how far you move up, there will always be more room to move further up--and you will never end up back where you started by continuing to go up. Same with down, left, right, forward, and back. Next, let's think about "expansion". The expansion of space doesn't mean it's expanding *into* something, as people popularly thing. It just means that, as time passes, there will be more space in between two points than their was previously. Something that is 2 meters to your left today might be 4 meters to your left tomorrow (side note: not really, because gravity and other reasons, but still. Between non-gravitationally-bound objects, it works like that). None of that guarantees that there will always be more matter, so the answer to your first question is no: there is likely not infinite matter. To your second question: The universe can expand because adding more space doesn't conflict with always being able to move further. To your third: Nope, you will never end up at the same spot, eventually. And to your fourth: That's a hard question. There is not necessarily infinite matter, so the answer to this question is "not necessarily." But at the same time, matter seems to be relatively, but not perfectly, evenly distributed throughout the visible universe, so the answer to this question is going to have to be "probably, but not definitely."


Question: when a video game glitches is it the game not understanding your actions or is it literally you breaking code with anomalies?

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 when a video game glitches is it the game not understanding your actions or is it literally you breaking code with anomalies?

I'd define 3 types of glitches all of them are caused by the games programming logic not handling the data it's attempting to display well. The first kind are internal glitches. These are inherent to the games code. Typically these are the kind of glitch which make a game "buggy". They happen during normal intended play. Other glitches are player caused. Where the player creates a situation that the game's code can't just comprehend. If you ever watch speed running, this is the kind of glitch which allows for that sort of thing. No human could have reasonably foreseen a player acting in that way. Finally there are simple network glitches where an online game has problems with the internet it's attempting to use to transfer it's data to the games server and vice versa. Things like "packet loss" or simply a slow connection causing lag are common kinds.


Question: How does Spotify know what music I will like and generate those discover weekly playlists?

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 How does Spotify know what music I will like and generate those discover weekly playlists?

They track what you listen to, and match it up with what other people listen to. And more recently, they use machine learning to find songs and artists that are audibly similar in some manner. The models that result in people listening through the playlists are kept, and the others dropped. This is why you’ll get some really odd suggestions sometimes; you’ve effectively become part of the product.


Question: why are “common” scams allowed to continue when they are only common because no agency is willing to to after them?

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 why are “common” scams allowed to continue when they are only common because no agency is willing to to after them?

I understand that you are frustrated. The government DOES care about scams. The DOJ's Consumer Protection Branch has a the means to prosecute frauds, particularly the Elder Fraud initiative: URL_0 But the government operates with limited resources. I wish we had the ability to send out agents to follow up on your lead, but that's not always possible. Report to IC3, and your report will go into the database for analysis and referral. Additionally, try talking to your state's Attorney General's office. I get your frustration and I'm sorry the FBI wouldn't take your case directly, but I assure you there are scores-hundreds of people in federal law enforcement who care about fraudsters.


Question: Why does an air-bubble in your vein cause so much problems?

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 Why does an air-bubble in your vein cause so much problems?

A small bubble is harmless. If you've ever had an IV you've probably gotten quite a few small bubbles introduced into your blood stream with no problems at all. Its a big bubble, like a really big one, that can cause a problem. That thing in the movies where a guy sneaks up on another guy with a syringe hiden in his hand and injects a guy with an air bubble from a tiny needle... yeah, that's story telling. You need a really big syringe wiht a really large-bore needle to kill someone. The actual problmems are (if memory serves): 1. Air can be compressed while blood can not be, so a large air bubble can be redirect forces in unhappy ways, the way an "air hammer" can form in the pipes of your house and cause a "Bang" when you turn the water on or off, said bang repeating with each heartbeat. 2. A large air bubble can get into the heart where it's odd consistency and compressability can cause the valves to misbehave, preventing blood flow. 3. Air is much less dense than blood so it can collect in high places where the blood pressure is coincidentally quite low. The highest place in your body is usually your brain. The lowest pressure parts of your blood distribution system is the very small vessels and capilaries. So a large air bubble can fill lots of the small blood vessels of your brain. There's not enough blood flow pressure to force the air back out of your brain, so blood stops flowing in those vessels leading your brain to suffocate. The same thing can happen in significant fractions of the lungs because the blood enters and leaves the lungs "about halfway up" the lungs structure. This lack of blood flow can cut off half your effective lung area for quite some time and so can stress your other organs pretty much the same way a "collapsed lung" can do. Now it's not just direct injection that can lead to air in the blood stream. Any cut is likely to let a little air in, just as it lets a little blood out. With large wounds the amount of air can be substantial. Also getting "the bends" from sudden decreases in ambient pressure, such as returning from under deep water, can cause the air dissolved in your blood to "Fizz Up", like when you open a soda bottle. Finally, the veins (not arteries, just the veins) of your body are full of one-way valves. Muscle activity squeezing the veins is responsible for a lot of the pumping that _returns_ blood to the heart. This is (a significant part of) why immobilized or paralyzed limbs become swollen. So air bubbles in veins _can_ significantly reduce the blood leaving the limbs, which in turn doesn't allow blood to enter those limbs. This can stall blood flow to a whole sector of your body. The emergency treatment for suspected air bubbling in the blood stream is to make your brain and heart regions the lowest parts of your body. Basically you want to lie inclined with your feet raised. Trapping the air there gives your body a chance to deal with it. Non organ tissues (muscles and fat) are actually quite tollerant to lack of oxygen. Finally, exposure to air is a primary trigger of blood clotting. So trapping air in one spot can lead to the body "clotting off" the blood vessels there. That sucks if its the blood vessels in your heart or kidneys. So it's not too terrible until a significant volume of gasses (normally air, but also nitrogen gas from diving, or whatever) are in your blood stream. DISCLAIMER: This is not medical advice and I am not a trained doctor or biologist. This is what I remember from (A) learning to SCUBA dive, (B) asking a doctor about all the tiny bubbles in my IV tube after my knee got crushed by a car, and (C) doing some research about killing people for a novel I was trying to write given what I'd learned from A and B.


Question: How are stock prices determined?

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 How are stock prices determined?

The reported stock price is the price of the last successful trade of that stock. So, how do people agree to these prices? There are order books (on computers now) of **bids** for a stock from people wanting to buy it and **asks** from people wanting to sell it. If the bid list contains three bids of 100, 90, and 80 for the stock and the ask book has asks of 110, 120, and 130 then nothing happens. The person bidding the most (100) is less than the person asking the least (110). Now let's imagine a new seller shows up and puts in an ask of 99. Now, the person bidding 100 is matched up with the asker at 99. The stock sells at 99 and the new stock price is 99 until a new successful bid and ask pair happens.


Question: What is the difference between the medical model and nursing model in medical education?

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 What is the difference between the medical model and nursing model in medical education?

I was a nurse for 3 years and now in school for my M.D. to become a Physician. You are correct that RNs and Nurse Practitioners learn the nursing model, while MDs, DOs, and PAs learn the medical model. Keep in mind that there is a little overlap between the two. The medical model is primarily focused on treating a disease and its underlying causes. It is MUCH more science-based and requires a strong background in anatomy, physiology, pathology, cell & molecular biology, pharmacology, genetics, etc. for EACH organ system. The medical model is used to understand the why. The nursing model briefly dabbles in the sciences, but is much more concerned with addressing the physical, emotional, and lifestyle needs of the patient. Also, a big part of nursing is being the "eyes and ears" of the doctors, which means being very observant and understanding when a patient is deteriorating. It does not, however, require a deep understanding of the pathophysiology behind that patient's condition. To oversimplify things, think of your high school classes in biology and health. The medical model is kind of like how a biology teacher would describe a disease, and the nursing model is kind of like how a health teacher would describe a disease. Two different perspectives, but with obvious overlap.


Question: Stock options - How do they work, and what motivates the buyers and sellers?

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 Stock options - How do they work, and what motivates the buyers and sellers?

Let's say, for example, that they are options to buy the stock at a slightly higher price a month from now. Buyer: "I think the stock is going way up, so an option to buy at this modest price is like free money." Seller: "I don't think the stock is going to go up, so selling you this option is like selling you a worthless piece of paper for cash."


Question: Why light changes color depending on wavelength?

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 Why light changes color depending on wavelength?

Your question seems to assume that colour is a separate property that happens to change based on wavelength. Our eyes have the ability to sense the wavelength of light, and colour is simply the word we use to describe that sensation. So it isn't one thing changing in response to another - they are actually the same thing.


Question: How big/deep would a puncture have to be for you to bleed out?

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 How big/deep would a puncture have to be for you to bleed out?

It’s less about how deep, and more about location. If you get stabbed through your hand, it went all the way through your body but will likely not kill you. You can even get stabbed all the way through the abdomen and not die. However, if you get stabbed in the arm and it hits a main artery you could bleed out in minutes. Location over depth


Question: what exactly is red hat, what do they do and how do they make money?

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 what exactly is red hat, what do they do and how do they make money?

They are a computer software company, more-or-less like Microsoft. The difference is that they develop "open source" software, which means that it is freely available for anyone to modify, or, really, do anything they want with it. While you can run the software they sell without paying any money^*, they largely make money by selling support for computers running that software. \* RedHat has certain trademarks that they don't allow to be freely distributed, but these are largely cosmetic.


Question: What was done differently for SpaceX to create more fitted space suits than NASA ACES suit?

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 What was done differently for SpaceX to create more fitted space suits than NASA ACES suit?

They hired the guy who designs all of the costumes in Disney movies (including the Marvel Cinematic Universe) to design the suit. That guy specifically designed them to look sleek and cool. One of the big changes he made was to not include any external pockets. The orange NASA ACES suit is derived from the pressure suit that was designed by the Air Force for high altitude planes back in the 50's. That suit was covered in pockets because personal computers and LCD screens weren't exactly a thing in the 50's. This meant that the pilots had to take a bunch of paperwork up with them - all of the charts, checklists, and everything else that the needed had to be printed out on paper and carried into the plane. The most convenient place to store this stuff was on the suit itself, which was covered in pockets to facilitate that. This basic "covered in pockets" design was continued on into the Space Shuttle era when it was still necessary for crew members to carry a significant amount of documentation with them which they needed to be able to access quickly. The state of current technology means that all of that paperwork can now reliably be accessed through LCD multi function displays or tablets, meaning that there isn't a reason for the crews to carry it with them, meaning that they don't need a suit that is literally covered in pockets.


Question: What is a Polestar, how can I spot it in the night sky and how is it significant/used?

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 What is a Polestar, how can I spot it in the night sky and how is it significant/used?

Imagine a really tall flagpole stuck into the north pole. If the flag at the top of that pole was bright enough you'd be able to see it at night, and if you walked towards it you would always be heading north. The pole star is a star that just happens to be in the right position, at the end of a *really* long imaginary pole (433 light years) and so is used for navigation. This doesn't work if you're in the south half of the world. You can't see the northern pole star because the body of the earth is in the way. Unfortunately there isn't a bright star above the south pole which can be used. Instead they use the Southern Cross, which is a constellation that is visible almost all year round and points towards the spot where a southern pole star would be. This constellation appears on several southern hemisphere flags, including Australia and New Zealand. The earth's axis also has a slight wobble, and over a period of thousands of years our imaginary flagpole will point to a different star, or to no visible star at all.


Question: How do voice calls work?

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 How do voice calls work?

The simplest way to imagine doing this is by building a circuit which compares a waveform against a bunch of fixed known voltages. Say you have an analog signal ranging from -1V to +1V. By creating a bunch of fixed reference voltages (1V, 0.9V, 0.8V, ... -0.9V, -1V), you can use a simple *comparison* operation to determine which of those voltages your signal is higher than. Say your comparison circuit finds out that it's higher than 0.7V, but not higher than 0.8V. You could transmit this as a `7` to the listener. On the receiving end, a similar circuit (but in reverse) could take this `7` and interpret that by connecting the output signal to the 0.7V reference. By doing this over and over again (say, ten thousand times a second), you can make the voltage at the output roughly match the voltage at the input in basically realtime (as long as you can keep transmitting ten thousand numbers a second). Obviously, real circuits will be much more sophisticated than that. But I hope it illustrates the basic idea.


Question: Why do muscles feel sore after stretching in the same way that they do after working out?

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 Why do muscles feel sore after stretching in the same way that they do after working out?

I’m not sure what you mean by this but; When you exercise you create tears in the muscle fibres and the DOMS (direct onset muscle soreness) is a result of these tears but as they repair they become stronger to prevent tearing again. Stretching will never prevent DOMS or this pain associated with exercise completely it only helps with it by relaxing the muscle and increasing blood flow which helps remove the by products of exercise such as lactate


Question: Why are ice cubes sticky?

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 Why are ice cubes sticky?

When you touch an ice cube there is either moisture in your hand or the heat of your hands melts a little bit of the surface of the ice. Over time (can be very short depending on how cold the ice cubes are) more heat transfers and that bit of moisture gets cold enough to freeze. Now your fingers are very loosely frozen to the ice cube.


Question: Why do songs get stuck in our heads? Currently on day 8 of “Don’t Stop Me Now” by Queen and this ear worm is keeping me up at night!

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 Why do songs get stuck in our heads? Currently on day 8 of “Don’t Stop Me Now” by Queen and this ear worm is keeping me up at night!

There’s a theory in Sociology that it’s an evolutionary advantage. Before writing, the only way to pass on information and save it for the future was memorizing it. Humans who were better able to remember things and pass them on to others had an advantage, and could have more children and pass the traits on to them. It turns out people are much better at remembering words if they are set to music, especially if things rhyme and have a steady beat and interesting melody. Sociologists think earworms (not being able to get a song out of your head) is one trick your brain uses to help you remember lyrics and melodies better. Many people find that they feel relief from these once they get all the lyrics and melody correct, and that having incomplete lyrics in your head makes it worse. So one thing that can help an ear worm is to listen to a recording of the song and sing along. Another is to listen to a completely different song, especially one with no words. The theme from the Andy Griffith show is pretty good for this.


Question: How are there “lakes” underwater?

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 How are there “lakes” underwater?

Usually it's because the water at that depth is both colder and has significantly more salt dissolved in it, that makes it more dense which makes it separate from the surrounding water. This makes pools, and sometimes rivers and lakes of what is effectively "brine" underwater. It has a really bad habit of killing critters that go into it.


Question: How is plastic made clear?

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 How is plastic made clear?

Transparent plastics are clear because they aren't crystalline, either because that's their natural way to be or because they are carefully made that way in manufacturing. There are two major ways solid materials exist: as crystals or as glasses. Crystalline materials have their atoms and molecules perfectly ordered in a packed structure, like stacking golf balls in a box. Glassy materials don't have that order, their molecules make big messy piles like a plate of spaghetti. Glassy materials don't scatter light, so they look clear. Crystalline materials do scatter light, so they look opaque. & #x200B; Plastics are very versatile. Some of them tend to crystallize some or a lot in the solid state, while others remain totally glassy. Glassy plastics are naturally transparent. A good example of this is the polyester that makes plastic soda bottles. Other plastics form little crystals embedded in a mesh of glassy material, which makes them opaque. A good example of this is high-density polyethylene, a common plastic used to make things like milk jugs and molded plastic items. & #x200B; Even more crystalline plastics can be made transparent, though the use of added chemicals and/or the way they are processed. Certain chemicals, called "plasticizers", stop the plastic molecules from ordering into crystals, and can make a normally opaque plastic clear. You can also do it just by cooling melted plastic really, really fast when you are shaping it. If the plastic is cooled very quickly, it freezes the molecules in place and doesn't give crystals a chance to form. The lack of crystals makes the plastic transparent.


Question: How were maps made before planes and satellites?

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 How were maps made before planes and satellites?

People surveyed lands accurately by splitting them up into triangles and using trigonometry to measure distances between points. This involves physically exploring the lands and setting up appropriate triangulation stations to do the measurements from (preferably on a high point so you have a line of sight to the other stations) and gives an accurate framework for any internal mapping. Filling in the internal details can be done using compasses, spirit levels, measuring ropes/chains and theodolites to measure all the features and such. Elevation can be calculated by measuring the gradient of the land as you go up or down it. Here in the UK we still have the early triangulation stations all over the land which were used to make fine detailed maps of the country, they are known as [trig points]( URL_0 ).


Question: taxes? do people actually keep all their receipts or is that just a movie thing

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 taxes? do people actually keep all their receipts or is that just a movie thing

It depends. If you take the standard deduction you don't need receipts. If you take itemized deductions you need to keep receipts so you know exactly how much to take, and to show the IRS there is no fishy business if they get suspicious. Deductions reduce the amount of income you have to pay income tax on. The standard deduction is a set amount that anyone can take no questions asked. For itemized deductions there are certain things the government wants to encourage people to spend money on, ie charity, so they decided that any money someone spends on these things they can deduct from their taxable income.


Question: why do stubbed toes painful for only a minute and then the pain goes away quickly?

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 why do stubbed toes painful for only a minute and then the pain goes away quickly?

I like to compare nerves to water, ripples as pain signals and rocks as pain stimuli. The water ripples a lot when you throw a rock in it but ripples won’t last long if you don’t keep throwing rocks into the water. Once the brain/nervous system knows that the stimulus is not dangerous (and no damage has been made) pain will go away. Pain is made to make you take action and move away from dangerous things. Edit:added info


Question: Why are heating vents positioned right below windows in homes and apartments? It seems like moving them away from windows would make more sense.

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 Why are heating vents positioned right below windows in homes and apartments? It seems like moving them away from windows would make more sense.

Cold air drops to the floor, warm air rises. By positioning the source of warm air below the window (where cold air is coming from), you make sure that the cold and warm air mix. If you position the heating vent away from the window, you can end up with a layer of cold air near the floor and a layer of warm air near the ceiling.


Question: how can they continue to cram more and more memory into tinier and tinier spaces?

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 how can they continue to cram more and more memory into tinier and tinier spaces?

We're reaching the limit actually. There are two types of informations. RAM (Random access memory) and ROM (Read Only Memory). Ram is the memory you computer use when it work. As the name imply, whenever your computer need to store something to use a few seconds later, it ask the RAM "Hey, where can I put it? It takes X amount of space". RAM, as the name imply, then take a random spot in its memory that is available and tell the computer to store his stuff there for the time being. This memory rely on very thin strip of materials that will simply allow or prevent current from going through. Something like tiny electric switches. It's easy to work with, but it rely on constant electricity to work. As soon as you shut the electricity, all the switches stop working and reset to not working. ROM unlike its name CAN be written to. It's your hard drives, SSD, USB, etc. It's the memory that can actually store information for long term. For hard drive, it's a bunch of polarized disks. By applying a current to that part of the disk, you change the polarization of that part of the disk. When you want to read it, you simply check how the polarization at that place is going. Even if you shut the electricity, the info remain, because polarization doesn't need constant electricity. You only need electricity to read or write. On the other hand, it makes the hard drive sensible to magnets. I'm sadly not knowledgeable on SSD behavior, so I'll leave that out for now. First of for ram. It used to be some big lamp that would turn on an off. Eventually, we realized that the lamp was useless, all we needed was the electricity. So we created these nice little switch that would turn on an off. The big issue with changing size is timing. Computer go really fast, and it's reached the point where the speed of electricity matter. So when you shrink stuff, you speed your computer, but you need to make sure the rest of the hardware can handle the speed. Nowadays, we've kept on shrinking more and more material, to the point that these "switches" are just a couple of micrometers. Now we're hitting a physical barrier. We CAN'T shrink anymore simply because we can't ensure reliable transfer of electricity with less material. We're at a point were we need a whole new technology, as we've shaved off most of the material we could. For Ram, it's partly similar, but we had a couple of other things. The concept has remained relatively similar. But by improving precision, we didn't need to put as much space between each polarization. So we could store more on a same surface. There is also making thinner and thinner disks. As they are thinner, you can put more. And finally, we learned to put on both face of disks. As long as we can keep making the writing tools more precise, and maybe if we find a material that we can make thinner, it can still be improved.


Question: what's the difference between gas grades, i.e. 87, 88 "the new standard" and flex fuel?

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 what's the difference between gas grades, i.e. 87, 88 "the new standard" and flex fuel?

The grade refers to the octane rating of the fuel, which is a measure of how easy it is to ignite. The harder a fuel is to ignite, the more it can be compressed in the engine first, and the more energy it will release. The thing is that an engine has to be designed to work with a higher octane fuel - if you put the wrong octane fuel in a car, it will not be igniting at the correct points in the engines cycle, and will work poorly (in some cases causing damage to the engine). Check your manufacturers information for your car, which should tell you the octane ratings the engine will work best with. If you do end up putting the wrong grade in your car, it isn't the end of the world - the car will run on a range of octane ratings, it just won't work as efficiently, and may increase wear.


Question: How does self-modifiying code actually work? Does this just mean it can continuously teach itself to get better with now peak?

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 How does self-modifiying code actually work? Does this just mean it can continuously teach itself to get better with now peak?

Software developer here, That is highly dependent on context. In Lisp, the code is data, and it's absolutely trivial to reason about it as data, at runtime, in your program. This is quite common to do in the language, as runtime code generation and execution is a fundamental language construct. This means you can take your data, blend it with your code, which is just more data, and execute it as new code. Often enough there are constraints put on self modifying code to where the system isn't going to give birth to Skynet. Genetic Algorithms are one such example, where an encoded sequence, the "genetic code" maps to a set of basic constructs, which you can consider to be a domain specific language, where when evaluated, can make more complex structures and behavior. I've seen this used in AI in video games, and I've known it to be used in radio to solve some sort of frequency problem and my late cousin used it in earlier Alzheimer's research. Typically the use of self modifying code is to optimize code paths, for example, if a computation can be replaced with a constant, or if a branch (decision) can always be found true or false, then the other branch can be eliminated completely and the branch doesn't even need to be evaluated. I've read of solvers that again optimize code. For example, given a sorting algorithm an example input and the expected output, the solver can optimize the algorithm for space or speed. The optimization tends to be specific to the test set, and while you can use a prover to show it's correct for all cases, it may suffer an extreme performance penalty for for any input other than the test set.


Question: What's the guy waving a stick in front of the orchestra doing?

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 What's the guy waving a stick in front of the orchestra doing?

He is setting the rhythm for the instrumentalists, as well as directing individual sections or musicians when to come in, when to get louder or softer, when to hesitate, etc. He is directing everyone, so everyone doesn't have to take cues from each other. Basically, without him, musicians would have to either look around at the others to keep time and take cues, but he becomes the central person to glance up at in front of them to take cues, preventing the musicians getting lost by looking up, and allowing the ensemble to be more precise in timing and execution of the piece. :)


Question: What happens to a car battery internally, that causes it to “go bad?”

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 What happens to a car battery internally, that causes it to “go bad?”

Car batteries are two thin sheets of lead alloy, separated by a solution. As the battery charges, lead is plated from one plate to the other. As the battery discharges, the process is reversed. In an ideal world, the lead ions would be perfectly uniformly distributed in the solution, and the plates would remain completely flat. So, that's not how it really works. One plate gets a little bump from random concentration imbalances. That makes the gap between the plates a little smaller. The smaller gap makes that point a more active part of the battery. Over time, a little stalagmite starts to grow toward the other plate. One day, it touches, and the battery has an internal short. Lots of heat in generated, and the plate might be damaged, or even crack and come loose. Not to worry, there are a couple dozen plates in each cell, and the other ones are working fine, for now. Over time, more plates are damaged. that's why it's bad to run a battery dead, this is the stage where the maximum plating effect occurs, shortening the overall life.


Question: Why does the peak volume vary so much from different sources on the internet: music, videos, etc? Also why can't your computer/speakers artificially amplify the peak level?

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</answer>
 Why does the peak volume vary so much from different sources on the internet: music, videos, etc? Also why can't your computer/speakers artificially amplify the peak level?

It's actually more about average loudness than peak, but /u/swordgeek hit it - lack of standards. It used to be in some genres that musicians and/or engineers would push the loudness as high as possible into a peak limiter (therefore reducing dynamic range, which is a measure of peak to average loudness). This was done in order to stand out, for example, on the radio - when the radio is on in the background and your song comes on just a touch louder, it would catch people's attention. But then the [Loudness War]( URL_1 ) ensued, and that's because in music, film, spoken word, ...everything is pretty much left up to the mastering engineer (and artist, producer, etc) as to final loudness. However, a lot of services (iTunes, Spotify, YouTube, etc) are instituting their own loudness cap, such that if a video or song is louder than their prescribed loudness, their algorithm will detect that and turn it down. It's the beginning of the end of the Loudness Wars, since there's no point in absolutely crushing the life out of a mix that's just going to get turned down anyway. You might as well just have more dynamic range, which IMHO sounds better anyway. Read more [here]( URL_0 ).


Question: Why is it not difficult to engage physically with those you have no feeling toward but difficult to engage physically with those you do?

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 Why is it not difficult to engage physically with those you have no feeling toward but difficult to engage physically with those you do?

Probably because we have a fear of rejection + something to lose. & #x200B; Fear of rejection leads to difficulty to engage them physically for the first time. If they reject your advances such as attempts to hold their hand/s etc it might get awkward and it might cause you two to be less close than you were before if you hadn't made those advances. & #x200B; You have nothing to lose with those you don't care about so that fear of rejection holds almost no value. & #x200B; & #x200B;


Question: I have 4 young plants in a vase. One starts losing strength, space is running out. I take it out of the vase. The other plants now battle for their space and grow stronger than the first plant killed. After a while, one remains. Do plants eat each other's roots? How do they take the space?

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 I have 4 young plants in a vase. One starts losing strength, space is running out. I take it out of the vase. The other plants now battle for their space and grow stronger than the first plant killed. After a while, one remains. Do plants eat each other's roots? How do they take the space?

Each plant's roots need a certain amount of space to ensure adequate nutrient and water absorbtion from the soil. If it's cramped in there, all of them are getting less than they need. This is also why you have to keep transplanting your plants into larger and larger pots as they continue to grow, because they've "outgrown" the one they're in.


Question: in mathematics, what do sin, cos and tan do to a number?

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 in mathematics, what do sin, cos and tan do to a number?

The ***sine*** is a measure of vertical-*ness*. Imagine a Ferris wheel, the wheel rotates by an angle and the **sine** of that angle tells you how "high" or "low" you are on the wheel. (With -1 being at the very bottom, and 1 being at the very top). The ***cosine*** is a measure of horizontal-*ness*. Using the Ferris wheel analogy, this would be how far "left" or "right* you are on the wheel. The ***tangent*** is the slope-*ness* of a ramp. It's the height divided by the base (or Sine divided by Cosine) 0 slope would be a horizontal ramp and infinite (undefined) would be a cliff face.


Question: why do people and businesses "dump" money at the end of the year?

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 why do people and businesses "dump" money at the end of the year?

If you're describing what I think you are, you're referring to budget surplus in a department. So, if I give you $10 to run a lemonade stand per year, but it turns out you only need $8 to run it, next year I'll only give you $8. So, to avoid losing money that you might want to use next year, you spend that $2 at the end of the year to make it appear that it costs $10 each year to run the lemonade stand, and your budget is not reduced.


Question: Why are certain elements bad for humans but when combined together arent so harmful?

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 Why are certain elements bad for humans but when combined together arent so harmful?

For Sodium Chloride, AKA table salt, it has to do with ionization. An atom of Chlorine (Element #17) for reasons best left unexplained on this sub, really wants to gain an extra electron. [If you look at a periodic table]( URL_0 ), all the elements on its vertical column want to do the same. These elements are called Halogens. If you move one step to the right, you get to the Noble Gases. These elements have all the electrons that they want, and as a rule of thumb, an element wants the same number of electrons as the nearest Noble Gas. Now, if you look at Sodium, its nearest Noble Gas is Neon. It wants to lose an electron. So you have Sodium that wants to gain an electron, and Chlorine that wants to lose one. Match made in the cores of very large stars. This is called an ionic bond, and is often created whenever a non-metal (All the orange, dun and light blue ones on the periodic table I linked to, except Hydrogen, sometimes) and a metal (All the rest except the brown ones, those are metalloids or semi-metals.) are combine. If you have just pure Sodium or Chlorine, however, they try to get the amount of electrons they want from other sources, like taking electrons from your lungs (Poisonous) or giving them to water (explosive). Carbon dioxide is somewhat harmful to us in large amounts, but we have mechanisms specifically designed to get rid of it. It poses no danger to healthy humans. Carbon Monoxide however, is different. If introduced to our bloodstream, say, if you breath it in, it replaces oxygen in our red blood cells- Carbon Monoxide is better at binding to them than oxygen is, and this presents a problem because you need that oxygen to survive. Feel free to ask any other questions.


Question: Whate does it mean when an academic article says "X predicted 19.4% of the variance in Y"?

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 Whate does it mean when an academic article says "X predicted 19.4% of the variance in Y"?

I know this one! I think! So in regression you have something you want to explain, Y. You can have several variables, X, that all have something to do with it. You run regression models to find significant Xs that explain Y. This is called the r-square, which is a decimal between 0 and 1. This tells you how much an X explains the variation in Y. Example: how can I explain temperature variation in a given day? Let's say the amount of cloud cover is significant, with an r-square of .36. This means that cloud cover explains 36% of the variation in daily temperature. But what about the rest? If you have other significant variables, they can also add on, but you'll never get 100% of the explanation because life isn't perfectly explainable.


Question: what makes a drug a drug, if a drug has a physiological effect then wouldn't everything we consume be considered a drug?

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 what makes a drug a drug, if a drug has a physiological effect then wouldn't everything we consume be considered a drug?

> [A drug is any substance (other than food that provides nutritional support) that, when inhaled, injected, smoked, consumed, absorbed via a patch on the skin, or dissolved under the tongue causes a temporary physiological (and often psychological) change in the body.]( URL_0 ) The key is that it's something that's *not normally needed* that changes the standard chemistry & operation of your body. You might argue that this is a completely arbitrary distinction but language is full of those.


Question: How are copies of celluloid film reels made?

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 How are copies of celluloid film reels made?

They use a device called a contact printer/copier. It's basically a mechanized lightbox that is used to photograph each individual frame from a master onto a new piece of film, called the release print. So what they do is take the original camera negative, which is used to create an interpositive. You do all your grading and editing work with this. Then it's used to create an internegative. The internegative is then used to create release prints for theaters. In the modern age, the original film negative is scanned into a computer, where a digital interpositive is created. Once all your post-production is done, it's then copied back to film using a digital film recorder. Which works like the contract printer, but it swaps the film master for a high resolution video display. From there you use the contact printer to make release prints from the internegative from your film recorder. Or you can use your final digital interpositive to create digital video files that can be played on cinemas using digital projectors.


Question: What is the purpose or long-term goal of cryptocurrency?

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 What is the purpose or long-term goal of cryptocurrency?

First and foremost, cryptocurrency is about decentralization. The theory is that since it is run by a very large amount of people across countries, it's much harder for one government, corporation, sector or individual to control it. Because of that, it's supposed to be harder for those groups to fix prices, add unnecessary fees, control where the money can go, control how fast it goes there, etc. Anonymity is a mixed bag. Since it's a public ledger, as soon as one transaction reveals the identity of a wallet owner, the complete history of that wallet is also revealed. So, if you're a criminal if you EVER (1) buy cryptocurrency using dollars from a business that can have a warrant served, (2) sell cryptocurrency to get dollars to a business that can have a warrant served or (3) reveal in any communications/records what your wallet address or keys are (things that you have to keep in order to use it) that the police can intercept/confiscate, then literally your *complete*, perfect financial history becomes indestructible public knowledge. So, in this sense, it's an EXTREMELY dangerous step for criminals. Anonymity refers less to *permanent* anonymity and more to per-transaction anonymity. In terms of permanent anonymity, since most businesses will store whatever your payment method is (e.g. credit, checking) along with some identifying information (e.g. your name), you're going to be at risk for any company that gets hacked, etc. of having your payment information revealed. (Then again, you can instantaneously make an arbitrary number of wallets with unique addresses to shield against that a bit.) So, the anonymity refers less to that, which is as much about the record keeping of businesses as it is about the actual payment method. The reason why cryptocurrency counts toward anonymity is that you never *have to* associate your account with a name, legal jurisdiction, age, etc. Right now the most common counterparts to cryptocurrencies for online payments are credit cards and perhaps services like paypal. With both, to use them you have to associate personal information with the account first, such as your name. The primary security piece that is common to cryptocurrency is that transactions are guaranteed, decentralized and irreversible. With a credit card or paypal, it's easy and common for transactions to be reversed upon the seller. With bank accounts, it's possible for governments (e.g. with WikiLeaks) or even credit card companies (e.g. with FetLife) to freeze your account without notice for whatever reason they choose. So, in regard to these qualities, in terms of digital payments, cryptocurrency stands out enormously. Obviously, when you think about things like sanctions, this creates the potential for criminal acts. However, some people who don't believe in the government's right to control their property so closely see this as a very important benefit. We need to separate "cryptocurrency" from bitcoin. They are not synonyms and even Bitcoin continues to change its practical design over time. For example, cryptocurrency can be designed to facilitate "off chain" transactions in order to get around everything being public. One other use of cryptocurrency is microtransactions. Cryptocurrency is easy to reliably control via code and it's also able to be split into arbitrarily small amounts (say, $0.0001). As a result, you can use such tokens in ways that it's not convenient to use cash or credit. For example, [Brave web browser]( URL_0 ) uses it in a sort of transparent "micro-rentals" design for viewing content online ad-free. You could imagine a messaging system that reduces spam by implementing postage (i.e. you have to send $0.01 to the recipient's wallet in order for your message to be delivered). In these kinds of designs, the anonymity (i.e. not needing to swap names), the lightweight nature of it (i.e. being able to perform arbitrarily small and arbitrarily frequent transactions), the security (i.e. irreversible transactions), etc. make it practical to use currency in a way that's prohibitively difficult with alternatives. In addition to micro-transactions like that, there is also the related Ethereum (which is another blockchain with an associated cryptocurrency). You can think of the Bitcoin network as a massive distributed computer to which you pay (supposedly tiny) transaction fees for that computer to execute publicly verifiable programs (e.g. the "transfer money" program) on publicly verifiable data (i.e. your wallet balance). Ethereum is a similar concept except anybody can write/add any programs. So now, the focus becomes less on just the transfer of money (one of the only programs Bitcoin has) and instead on any program you want to run under those same security/integrity guarantees. On Ethereum, the cryptocurrency's actual purpose is just for you to compensate others for the amount of execution time your program will take on the network. So, for example, IIRC somebody was making an online gambling program which is guaranteed be "fair" because it's actual code sitting on the blockchain, verifiable and guaranteed to run as stated. Here the cryptocurrency is inseparable from these other uses of the blockchain it's sitting on. So there are lots of advantages to cryptocurrency over competitors even where there isn't an advantage, it has parity in a lot of areas too. It's not perfect though. The main drawback is freedom. The inability for a government to control it and the inability for a payment processor to reverse a transaction can be dangerous to users who count on protections offered by their government or credit card company. In the long run though, these same kinds of protections could be implemented where they are desired. For reversible transactions, for example, escrow services are a solution that could be implemented.


Question: why is the G on an alto saxophone a concert B flat?

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 why is the G on an alto saxophone a concert B flat?

It's to make it easier when switching instruments. All instruments are designed to be the best shape and size to complement their pitch and tone, but the tricky part comes when someone wants to learn a new instrument. If all music was in concert pitch and an alto saxophone player wants to pick up the flute or the clarinet, or even a different sax like the tenor or soprano, they'd have to re-learn which fingerings correspond to which notes, which gets pretty confusing. Instead, instruments are shifted away from concert pitch, and their music is written in their own respective keys. While this adds the mild annoyance of transposition, it makes it a whole lot easier to switch between instruments. What you'll often find is that a written G for an alto sax (concert Bb), a written G for a tenor sax (concert F) and a written G for a flute (which is concert G, as flutes are in concert pitch) will all have very similar fingerings. Check it out, looking at G on the staff: [Alto Sax]( URL_0 ) [Tenor Sax]( URL_1 ) [Flute]( URL_2 ) Three written G's that will sound as different notes, but which all have those three fingers down (plus an extra on the flute). Makes it really easy to switch between instruments and master them without having to re-learn a confusing amount of fundamentals. You can mostly learn the one fingering, and then just have to remember minor adjustments between instruments, because the music as written will always correspond to the instrument's proper key.