Question: Why do drugs speed up or slow down your heart rate?

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 Why do drugs speed up or slow down your heart rate?

Simple explanation: The heart has numerous receptors to which different drugs bind and cause a response. Some drugs bind to the receptors that cause slowing of heart rate which decreases the workload on the heart. Muscarinic receptors in the heart work in this manner. Drugs like epinephrine bind to the receptors which cause an increased heart rate. There are also drugs which block certain receptors and have an opposing effect. Beta-blockers, for example, block the beta receptors which are normally responsive to adrenal stimulation, which, in turn, causes slowing of the heart rate. [Cardiac receptor physiology]( URL_0 ) is as complex as the many drug classes which act on them.


Question: If light rays are independent, why lights from the city blocks our view of stars at night?

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 If light rays are independent, why lights from the city blocks our view of stars at night?

Lights from the city doesn't block the light from the stars, they just make them less noticeable for our eyes. The lights of the city are just too bright compare to the stats. If our eyes receive 100,000 photons from the light of the city, you won't notice the 5 photons from a particular star. P.S. the number of photons here are just for scale, they are made up numbers.


Question: How come people in comas don’t get blood clots but you hear stories of people playing their gaming consoles for too long and dying from a blood clot?

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 How come people in comas don’t get blood clots but you hear stories of people playing their gaming consoles for too long and dying from a blood clot?

People in comas are rotated (well, supposed to be anyway) every 2 hours minimum so that helps relieve pressure points/promotes circulation/decreases risks of bed sores, also someone in a coma might be put on a blood thinner to prevent such an occurrence, depending on the situation. Basically a hospital is a controlled environment where, if procedure is properly followed, little can go wrong (unless it's a natural occurrence).


Question: Why does Europe have some better laws regarding health, education, social welfare than America?

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 Why does Europe have some better laws regarding health, education, social welfare than America?

Europe has multiple, small nations with a handful of political parties all forming coalitions and blocs to help things go their way. This leads to more compromises, and more "what works for the most folks?" types of thinking. Since no one political entity can steer the entire EU "their" way, good ideas rise to the top. In the US, we have a very large, powerful economic engine coupled with 2 political factions in power and a couple mosquito parties that crop up now and then. This means that usa politicians can be less collaborative and more "us VS them" than Europeans folks. Couple this lack of need to collaboration with the resources for corporations and business to give and make lots of things, and it's a lot harder for government to control and regulate industry. It's sort of like the USA is a sports team where we rely too much on one or two star players, and have forgotten how to work well as a bigger team.


Question: Why do Sharpies stain so much?

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 Why do Sharpies stain so much?

[Capilary Action]( URL_0 ) means that porous things (thin tubes, paper, cloth towels, etc.) will actually suck water in, with quite a bit of suction. You can see this if you have a puddle of water on the floor, and you suspend a towel over it, with only a corner touching the water; the water will be sucked UP into the towel, against gravity. It's because water molecules like to stick to things, and porous surfaces like paper and towels have A LOT of surface for water to stick to, so the water kinda climbs up and can overcome gravity a little. In any case, the tip of the Sharpie is made of a porous sponge, and the point is that it will suck the ink out of the reservoir inside the Sharpie and remain wet for a long time, and thus able to smear the ink over whatever you're writing. If you touch the Sharpie to paper or your clothes, those are porous materials too, and will suck the ink out of the tip. You're basically creating a flow of ink into the porous paper or clothing that you're touching the Sharpie to. The ink will be sucked in, creating a rather large stain. Crayola crayons don't have ink, they have a gelatin that's more like dry soap. You can smear it over surfaces to write, but it doesn't get sucked in like liquid ink does.


Question: Why do different alcohols make people act differently?

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 Why do different alcohols make people act differently?

There's no science behind this, or at least, there's no inherent difference in the chemistry or biology that should cause this effect. What is happening however is to some degree a placebo effect around what you expect that alcohol to do. There's also your current mood and what you want out of an evening. If you think that tequila makes you a party animal, you're probably going to drink that when you want to party, not when you're having a chilled evening in. So in a nutshell, your intentions and expectations impact the effect an alcohol has on you a lot more than the type of alcohol.


Question: Why did it take so long to start making cars that turned off their lights when the car turned off?

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 Why did it take so long to start making cars that turned off their lights when the car turned off?

Without the electronics being computer-controlled it becomes difficult to essentially turn off the light with a timer that starts when the car is turned off. It'd be easy to just turn the lights off automatically when the car is off but there's cases where you might want to keep the lights on without the keys in the ignition.


Question: Why is cockroach shown in fiction to survive major apocalypse? What's so special about it that other insects do not have to survive?

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 Why is cockroach shown in fiction to survive major apocalypse? What's so special about it that other insects do not have to survive?

The premise is that cockroaches are relatively hardy with regards to toxins and ionizing radiation. Moreover, they are an easily identified pest that people understand is hard to get rid of. In reality, cockroaches would be casualties of any apocalypse that killed human beings for the simple reason that they're adapted to surviving off human civilization. Without human garbage, cockroaches wouldn't have anything to eat and would mostly die off.


Question: why does our eyeballs move upwards when we close our eyes?

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 why does our eyeballs move upwards when we close our eyes?

It's an awesome protective feature. As your lids go down, your eyes go up. That means as something like a chemical comes toward your eyes, there's a good chance the center part of your cornea (line of sight) will be protected. Your brain really depends on your eyes a lot so it developed many protective measures. We are amazing creatures !!


Question: How do people find digits of graham's number?

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 How do people find digits of graham's number?

The exact method depends on what kind of number you're trying to calculate, but here's an easy to follow example. Suppose I want to compute the last digit of the number 3^(3723139463824547766) (the exponent is just your username, interpreted as a number in base-36, so it's effectively random). This number is absolutely enormous: the *number of digits* in this number *itself* has 18 digits. But if we think about powers of 3, it's actually relatively easy to figure out. If you write out the powers: 3^1 = 3 3^2 = 9 3^3 = 27 3^4 = 81 3^5 = 243 If we continue this for a while, we notice a pattern: the last digits go **3, 9, 7, 1**, *3, 9, 7, 1*, 3, 9, 7, 1... If we think about this a bit, it's easy to tell why: if you write out multiplication by hand the way you did in elementary school, you'll see that only the units digit of the things you're multiplying ever affects the units digit of the output. So in effect, by multiplying by 3 at each step, we're really computing ...3\*3 = ends in a 9, and then ...9\*3 = ends in a 7, and then ...7\*3 = ends in a 1, and then ...1\*3 = ends in a 3 again. In other words, if the power is a multiple of 4, the last digit will be a 1. If it's not a multiple of 4, we just figure out how far off it is. As it happens, the exponent we actually have, 3723139463824547766, is 2 more than a ~~power~~ (EDIT: multiple, sorry) of 4. So the pattern around it goes ...1, 3, **9**, 7, 1, 3, 9, 7... In other words, 3^3723139463824547766 ends in a 9. ---- Graham's number is computed through a similar sort of repeated process, so this kind of logic can be applied there too.


Question: Why does it start to feel like you’re looking at someone else when you stare at yourself in a mirror for too long?

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 Why does it start to feel like you’re looking at someone else when you stare at yourself in a mirror for too long?

Urban legend says it's because you are seeing the faces of yourself in past lives. Most likely it is really because you are focusing on your eyes so intensely that your brain puts the rest of your face in your peripheral vision from what you remember it to be and not necessarily what it is.


Question: Why are some USB cables better at charging than others?

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 Why are some USB cables better at charging than others?

USB cables contain power lines and signal lines. Some very cheap cables don't contain signal lines, so the charger and device can't talk to each other and negotiate the supply power. In addition to this, for higher power levels the cables contain a chip, this signals to the attached devices how much current and voltage can safely flow through the cable. Without this chip, charging will default to 5v 1.5A (or lower).


Question: Is there any difference from iron in your body and foods to iron in the ground? Could you theoretically make an ingot of spinach iron? Could you dilute and absorb raw iron?

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 Is there any difference from iron in your body and foods to iron in the ground? Could you theoretically make an ingot of spinach iron? Could you dilute and absorb raw iron?

Iron is iron, but it makes lots of compounds. Your body contains about 4g of it, mostly in hemoglobin but also ferritin and a few other compounds. You can metabolize many compounds (like ferrous sulfate or iron fumarate) into those things. The measure of how easily/if an organism can use an element or compound is called bioavailability. Spinach does not have massive amounts of iron in it. The myth that it does is usually thought to be because of a misprint in the assays done by von Wolfe in 1870. It's really attributable to bad methods, as the containers and the charcoal used in the assays (by SEVERAL scientists) returned the same high results at the time. Iron from spinach is also not as bioavailable as iron from animals. You're going to poop out more iron from spinach than you would from a steak, because our bodies aren't very good at absorbing iron oxalate, and other compounds in the plant inhibit absorption. And yes, you can absolutely dilute and absorb raw iron. In lots of impoverished areas, getting enough dietary iron into people is a public health challenge. One solution is the [lucky iron fish]( URL_0 ), a chunk of iron you toss into your food as you cook it to fortify your meals. If you want to make an ingot of spinach iron, you'll need to decompose the iron oxalate into iron oxides, then reduce them to get iron metal. And you'll need a LOT of spinach, since a literal TON of spinach will yield less than an ounce of metallic iron.


Question: How do companies such as LaCroix, Bubly, Perrier etc... Have flavors, but contain no fruit juice, no sweeteners and no calories?

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 How do companies such as LaCroix, Bubly, Perrier etc... Have flavors, but contain no fruit juice, no sweeteners and no calories?

They typically contain something called “natural flavors” which La Croix states is “from the natural essence oils from the named fruit used in each of the flavors” which is created by heating the fruit at very high temperature to create a vapor that is then captured. Basically, they heat the fruit so it releases the oils/water into the air, and that is condensed into a scented (and arguably flavored) liquid. It creates just enough of something that you can taste and smell it, but since it isn’t really from the fruit directly, it has no calories.


Question: What’s so hard about solving a rubik’s cube if there’s a certain way/formula to solve it?

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 What’s so hard about solving a rubik’s cube if there’s a certain way/formula to solve it?

Solving a Rubik's Cube isn't hard once you've memorized the formulas. If you don't know the formulas at all, the difficulty comes from your brain trying to figure them out, despite not realizing that you're figuring them out, if that makes sense. For Rubik's Cube experts, the difficulty is associated with doing it *quickly*. You know all the formulas, but have to analyze every side of the cube in seconds, and decide which formulas you'll need in which order, without stopping to check your progress, while not making mistakes due to your speed.


Question: If friction causes heat, why does moving air create a cooling sensation against skin?

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 If friction causes heat, why does moving air create a cooling sensation against skin?

Normal wind doesn't move fast enough to cause significant skin friction. The cooling sensation is caused by something called convection. Basically, since air doesn't conduct heat very well, the heat from your body stays in the air pretty close to your body, and the best way to carry the heat from your body is to take the warmer air near your body away, and replace it with cooler air, which is what wind does.


Question: The observable universe..how did they know that it is there?

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 The observable universe..how did they know that it is there?

We can see our observational universe because it is billions of years old, and the light has had time to travel to us. Radio waves from us have only traveled some 100 years. As for outside our observational universe, it is our best guesses among many different fields. But we never will know for sure.


Question: Why does an 'off' lightbulb seem to glow more when I'm not looking directly at it?

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 Why does an 'off' lightbulb seem to glow more when I'm not looking directly at it?

You have two kinds of vision. The retina at the back of your eyeball has to kinds of light receptors: cones that see color in bright light, and rods that see black-gray-white in dark conditions. The very center of your vision is almost entirely cones to give you very good image quality for whatever you're looking at. However, your cones only work for bright light. When it's dark, you have a sort of "blind spot" right in the middle of your vision because you have very few rods there. Airplane pilots are taught specifically to use "averted vision" at night. Whatever they want to see, they look off to the side so that they can see it with their rods. You've just discovered this technique. :)


Question: How are sudokus created and how do the creators know how many numbers can be removed so that its solvable?

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 How are sudokus created and how do the creators know how many numbers can be removed so that its solvable?

Having done this for a programming assignment, my solution was to vary the solving algorithms I used. To create my puzzles, I would randomly fill in boxes until the solving algorithms said it was a solvable valid puzzle, and then I'd store the solution. From there I would randomly erase boxes until my algorithms started having trouble solving it. If only easy/straightforward algorithms were needed to solve it, it was an easy puzzle. If complicated/advanced algorithms were necessary it was hard. One more thing: technically, a Sudoku is only valid if there is exactly one solution. One must be careful when removing numbers not to leave the puzzle in a multi-solution state. If that happens, you put one number back in and remove a different one until the puzzle is valid.


Question: Considering the huge profits to be had from cannabis, how does it "hurt big pharma"?

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 Considering the huge profits to be had from cannabis, how does it "hurt big pharma"?

Because right now they have pretty much zero infrastructure to get into the pot game; they don't have the facilities to grow, harvest, process or package it. When pot came out of the shadows, a whole school of cladestinely developed technique and art came with it, and as a result their competition isn't starting from zero, and is locking itself into a dramatically unexploited niche with a product that the big companies can't directly match without significant work and investment. In other words, someone other than them has an advantage in one particular field, and it's pissing them off.


Question: Why does very hot water feel cold when you first touch it?

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 Why does very hot water feel cold when you first touch it?

I learned way back when that there were different nerves responsible for different sensations from the skin. Heat and cold each have different receptors. You feel heat when that particular receptor is activated, however extreme heat actually triggers both the hot and cold nerves simultaneously. That means your brain is getting the combination of both hot and cold and has to sort it out. From experience you eventually learn that when you feel this hot/cold mix that it’s an extreme hot. [Experiment that uses the cold/hot mix to simulate pain. ]( URL_0 )


Question: What exactly does the Queen of England do?

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 What exactly does the Queen of England do?

Theoretically, the Queen has the power to dissolve government aka fire everyone; however the day would most likely never come to where the power is used. More than anything, she’s a diplomatic head of state who owns a lot of property and is the focus of a ton of international tourism


Question: When a sunset makes the sky purple and pink, why do photos you take of this with your smartphone always end up in reds and yellows?

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 When a sunset makes the sky purple and pink, why do photos you take of this with your smartphone always end up in reds and yellows?

For the same reason why an old turn of the 20th century photograph doesn't look right. It's a crude representation of what we actually see. Don't fool yourself into thinking your phone is different, it's still a crude representation. Just a better one, much better. No photo your phone takes, nor an image it displays is correct, it's a crude attempt at it. A few reasons why it is still crude though. To start with, you're viewing this on an screen. The screen can't show all the colours you can see, nor all the contrasts you can see. [See here for various red-green-blue (RBG) colour gamuts]( URL_0 ). That funny shape is all the colours your eyes can see. The colors are obviously on the screen so are washed out from what they really could be, but gives an idea. As you can see, RGB three primary colours only draws a triangle that captures part of the colours we can see. That whole thing you were taught in school about three very fundamental and fixed primary colours? A total lie. It's good enough, most of the colours we name are on there. But not all their shades, not all their hues. Some RGBs are better. Different and more pure blue, green, and red pixels can get more covered, but never all. A four primary colour based display and image would be better, but would also make displays much more expensive and files much larger. You'll note the one RGB triangle actually goes outside of the visible gamut, and its triangle tries to cover more of it. It relies on an impossibly red red, but that's fine for the mathematical storage of the image, just means you need to select values that are possible to actually display, and this imaginary extension allows for more of those. Assuming you have a display that can do it, which you probably don't. A very high quality printer, with a lot more than three primary colour inks, might be able to. The rainbow pure colours are actually the curved edge of that shape, not a single true rainbow can be show on a RGB screen. They all look wrong, faded out. The red, green and blue colours a screen can make aren't as pure as a rainbow, and anything they make through combination won't be as pure either. That means a small triangle within that fill possiblity of colours. Why do some displays look better? Because they use high quality pixels that push more to the limits of a very pure red, green, or blue on the edge, a larger triangle. And that's assuming an analog view of just colours. Digital information is stored as bits, there's jumps in it. Not only can you only go within that triangle, you can only go within a grid on it. More missed colours. Then there's brightness and contrast. Again, it's digital so there's fixed brightness steps too, not any brightness is possible. As well, a screen is limited in contrast. Blacks are a dark grey, and whites are not as bright as they could be. A high dynamic range, HDR, display can improve this, both with more bits (so more fine steps) and more brightness on the actual display output. And that's just the display and the file being shown on it, this would all apply to only a computer generated image. Next is the camera. Again, same issues doubled up now. It's digital, it has RGB based sensors. It has all the same limitations. On a phone, your display is probably better than your camera, photos taken with real cameras (or 'shopped) will look better than what it takes. Additionally, the RGB sensors are just best approximation of human cone cells. They don't have the same sensitivity to each colour, and they don't even pick up the same spectrum. Go aim your TV remote at your phone camera and hit a button, you'll see a purple glow that your eyes can definitely not see. There's IR light out there, especially from a sunset, and your camera is going to pick this up and it's going to distort the colours. Then there's more photography related tricks. There's things like white balance, focal length, field of view, saturation. Adjusting all of these makes for better photos. You with your phone are a bad photographer. A professional photographer could get a better photo by playing with these, even without better equipment.


Question: Ive looked it up but i still don’t get it, what exactly is an NFT? Why do people pay so much for some? What does it have to do with crypto?

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 Ive looked it up but i still don’t get it, what exactly is an NFT? Why do people pay so much for some? What does it have to do with crypto?

It’s a non fungible token. Fungibility is when things are exchangeable and nothing is different. For example my one dollar bill is the same as all other dollar bills. Non fungible means this token is not the same as another token. People pay so much for some because either they are super rare or the buyers are stupid. Cryptography is used to make non fungible tokens exist.


Question: Why is Hydrogen bomb way more powerful than classical nuclear fission type bombs ?

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 Why is Hydrogen bomb way more powerful than classical nuclear fission type bombs ?

Per mass of reacting material, nuclear fusion fuel releases more energy than nuclear fission fuel. And because nuclear fusion fuel will not spontaneously explode if you put too much of it in the same place (unlike fission fuel, where you have to avoid creating a critical mass until you are ready for it to blow up), you can put as much as you want in there. For every kilogram of uranium/plutonium that fissions completely, you get about 18 kilotons of TNT worth of energy. For every kilogram of deuterium-tritium that fusions completely, you get about 50 kilotons of TNT worth of energy. So that by itself translates into a quite a lot additional energy! Additionally, the fusion reactions release high-energy neutrons that you can use to do even more fissioning, even in otherwise inert U-238, which you can add quite a lot of to the bomb. So at least half of the energy of a hydrogen bomb comes from a final fission stage.


Question: What is bleach made from and how does it kill germs?

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 What is bleach made from and how does it kill germs?

Household bleach is actually a mixture of chemicals, Its main constituent is a solution of ~3-6% sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl), which is mixed with small amounts of sodium hydroxide, hydrogen peroxide, and calcium hypochlorite. Sodium hypochlorite is used on a huge scale in agriculture, and industries such as chemical, paint, lime, food, glass, paper, pharmaceuticals, synthetics and waste disposal. hypochlorous acid, the active ingredient in bleach, causes the unfolding of proteins in bacteria in much the same was that heat stress or fever does. Those denatured proteins then clump together irreversibly into a mass in living cells, similar to what happens to proteins when you boil an egg


Question: If the moon were closer to Earth, would the shadow it casts during an eclipse be bigger or smaller?

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 If the moon were closer to Earth, would the shadow it casts during an eclipse be bigger or smaller?

In a way it depends on what you mean by shadow, it can be Smaller and Bigger at the same time. The moon is at just the right distance to block the entire sun in an area called the Umbra. And to partially occlude it in a large torus around it called the penumbra. If the moon were closer the Umbra (where there is a total eclipse would grow even as the penumbra shrinks. Farther away, the penumbra grows and the umbra shrinks (until it is gone and there is no total eclipse anywhere. The shadow of the penumbra would get lighter and lighter the closer the moon got to the sun, until it could not be distinguished with the unaided human eye. But this is not to say the penumbra ever fades entirely. When they search for exoplanets using the transition method, they are actually searching for the planet's penumbra. So it would not be correct to day the shadow disappears. The shadow is a really small dip in energy, that takes sensitive specialized equipment to detect, but is enough to allow exoplanets to be detected from light years away.


Question: Ibuprofen - why is it recommended to take 2 x tablets every 4 hours but not allowed 1 x tablet every 2 hours. Surely it would make the pain relief longer lasting?

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 Ibuprofen - why is it recommended to take 2 x tablets every 4 hours but not allowed 1 x tablet every 2 hours. Surely it would make the pain relief longer lasting?

There's a few reasons. First, there's the convenience. It's much easier to remember every four hours to take two tablets than it is to take one every two, plus it gets it over with. Most people don't want to set an alarm every two hours to keep the dosage proper, they just wait for the signal to take more pills if after four hours the pain starts coming back. Then there's the dosage level. If you take one, and then take another two hours later, you're only getting 50% of best possible pain relief for the first two hours. When you're hurting enough for two tablets as the "full dose", you're going to want that pain relief NOW, so you take the full dose at the start. Next, a lot of reasons to take Tylenol are completely solved by the first dose. A lot of headaches or other aches go away completely on a single two-tablet dose, so you don't have to come back two hours later to dose up again. And you should really only take pain meds when you actually need them, not take them sequentially over a period of hours if the pain has already been taken care of.


Question: Why do vacuum insulated containers insulate cold beverages longer than hot beverages?

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 Why do vacuum insulated containers insulate cold beverages longer than hot beverages?

They don't. It's a difference in your perception of what constitutes "hot" and "cold", and the way thermal transfer works. Room temperature is ~70F; a hot beverage might be ~170F. A 100F difference. A cold beverage isn't going to be any colder than ~32F, about a 40F difference. So you need to heat your beverage up a lot for you to think of it as truly hot...much more so than making a beverage cold. Then there's heat transfer. Heat transfer happens the fastest when the temperature difference is the greatest. So your "hot" beverage initially loses heat faster than your "cold" beverage gains it. So there are two factors working against the hot beverage. It cools faster due to the greater temperature difference, and you don't think of it as "hot" when it cools down just a bit. If you were to take 2 beverages and cool one 20 degrees below room temperature and heat another 20 degrees above room temperature, you'd find that they both approach room temp at the same rate. EDIT: Note that to do this correctly, I should have represented all temperatures in Kelvin. The conclusions are still correct, but the numbers are not quite right as I wrote it.


Question: Why do spirits stop burning (as much) after you get used to drinking them?

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 Why do spirits stop burning (as much) after you get used to drinking them?

ELI5: You got "used to it" and changed the way you drink. ELI21: As a whiskey, especially bourbon, fan I would conjecture it's a combination of the following: * You have become accustomed to the "burning" sensation. Knowing what to expect has a huge impact on how we taste things. Imagine drinking what you think is a glass of water only to find out it's beer or milk or diet sprite. Now that you've had many liquors, your mouth and mind are ready for it. * You have changed the specific whiskeys you drink to ones that less "burny". While no one is going to confuse water with 80 proof whiskey there is a significant difference between two alcohols with the same proof. Often times people will describe this as "smooth finish" or inversely a "strong bite". People with much more sophisticated palates than I will also talk about how different whiskeys impact various parts of the tongue as well. (Seems like a little bit of pompousness to me, but what do I know?) * You've manipulated your memory. First/early experiences are much more memorable than the dozens or hundreds that follow. That surprise the first time you took a shot of whiskey, that time a friend got you your first "cask strength" bottle, the first time you ordered a whiskey neat at a bar. Everything seems brighter and and more poignant. * You do drink differently. You breathe out slightly when the glass nears your mouth (or more likely your nose). When it's in your mouth you taste it on the top of your tongue, but you rarely let it flow under your tongue and never outside your teeth. (Between the gums and cheek) When you first started drinking it's likely you drank it much like a soda, beer, wine, coffee or whatever your choice was. Now you've adopted your own whiskey drinking style. I'd recommend playing with that. When you find a drink you like and you want to savor it, experiment with different ways of taking a sip. * Finally, you just "want" it to burn less. Perhaps you think it looks cool, maybe you've got a good friend who's an aficionado, or who knows...maybe you just have a nice tumbler glass that you're dying to use. The mind is particularly good at convincing oneself of things. "If I go jog a half mile today, I can totally eat an extra cheeseburger." "No, I actually \_like\_ salad." "Oh, I know he cheated on me...but he's totally changed now." We can convince ourselves of quite a lot if we want to. & #x200B; In the end, it probably doesn't matter. Just keep enjoying it, sharing it, and be safe. :)


Question: Why can fully cooked (crisp) bacon be safely left out at room temperature all day in restaurants?

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 Why can fully cooked (crisp) bacon be safely left out at room temperature all day in restaurants?

Bacon is a cured food. It was designed to be preserved via salt curing. This salt content kills most bacteria and fungi and means that proper bacon is safe to store uncooked at room temperature for a significant period of time. (not safe to consume raw though). Cooked bacon has almost no water content left it it. Particularly if it is properly crisp. Any harmful things in it have been killed so we are looking at harmful things that can fall onto it. As such it can last for days at room temp without posing any real issue and does not have "the window" other cooked foods have.


Question: What exactly is essence for flavoring? And how does it work?

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 What exactly is essence for flavoring? And how does it work?

Flavor and aroma compounds can be extracted from plants in a few different ways. Steam distillation is a common one used for many flowers and herbs. Water is heated until it boils and the steam is passed through plant matter, picking up some of its oils on its way through. Then it is passed through some cooled tubing where it condenses (turns back into liquid) and is collected at the end into a vessel. Most of the fragrant and flavorful oils float at the top of the water. They are separated to yield scented/favored water and essential oil. Because of the heat and the use of water as a solvent, steam distillation isn't always appropriate as the chemicals of interest may be destroyed or just not be released through this process. Another method is cold-pressing to physically force the oils out of the plant material. This method is commonly used to get citrus oils from citrus rind and pith. Finally, there is solvent extraction. A solvent, usually hexane, alcohol, or supercritical CO2, is used to "wash" the chemical essence out of the material and into the solvent. The solution is then distilled to recover the solvent and the result is a very complete and faithful extract called a concrete. Technically there is another method called enfleurage but because it is so labor-intensive, it is usually reserved for materials that can fetch a high price, typically for perfumery. This involves laying up the material in fat which then collects the aroma chemicals. The fat can then be washed in alcohol to collect and separate the fragrance.


Question: how do they get a photo or image transferd to a printing press?

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 how do they get a photo or image transferd to a printing press?

modern day full color printing presses are basically flow thru laser printers. your image is split into 4 colors, cyan, magenta, yellow, and black. or sometimes 8 colors, cmyk and light cyan, light magenta, light yellow and light black. each of those single color shade images are electrostatically imprinted on a drum by a laser. the static charge picks up the ink or liquid toner and is transferred onto the print media (whatever kind of paper product). each color is layered on top of the others to create other shades of colors. then a heat drum if toner or just hot/dry air if ink to sets the image. URL_0


Question: Why do horse hoofs need so much care, and why do they need horseshoes?

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 Why do horse hoofs need so much care, and why do they need horseshoes?

Wild horses are constantly wearing down their hooves on rough plains, rocks, gravel. Just like our own finger nails, if you let them get too long they split, can lead to infection etc. Trained horses on the other hand have relatively soft stables and paddocks so their hooves don't wear the same way and periodically need to be trimmed. Working horses on the other hand (like mounted police and draft/carriage horses) spend a good chunk of their day on pavement which would wear down their hooves too fast, hence the shoes.


Question: How does whiskey get better with age?

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 How does whiskey get better with age?

Whiskey is aged in wood barrels. The wood absorbs some of the harsher chemicals & there's some chemical reactions that give you some new flavor compounds. For American whiskies, like bourbon, the inside of the barrels is charred, giving you charcoal - which gives you another layer of new organic molecules to work with. Once you take the whiskey out of the barrel & put it in a bottle, this aging stops. A 10 year old bottle of 7-year-aged whiskey is not a bottle of 17-year-aged whiskey, it should be the same as a brand new bottle of 7-year-aged whiskey.


Question: Why do coughs happen during sleep and not sneezes?

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 Why do coughs happen during sleep and not sneezes?

You're on the right track. You sneeze when an *external* irritant enters your nose. However, the neurotransmitters that send signals to the brain in order to initiate a sneeze are shut down during REM sleep. Also, because of reduced movement, you don't encounter as many particulates in the air. You can sneeze if the irritant is significant enough, but you will wake up to do it (you can test this on your roomy with some cinnamon). On the other hand, coughing during a cold is to expel *internal* mucus from your airway, and is instigated by internal stimuli and those nerves are not suppressed the same way while sleeping.


Question: Why does encryption require prime numbers? A why is it so hard to find massive prime numbers?

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 Why does encryption require prime numbers? A why is it so hard to find massive prime numbers?

The "why" is very unfriendly to ELI5. The short version is that when you limit yourself to counting in a number space between 0 and a prime number (minus 1) with a loop-around rule, a bunch of things become true that are useful for inventing encryption. Without going into too much detail, Diffie-Hellman and RSA encryption both make use of prime numbers because only those can be used to build secret keys that reliably encrypt and decrypt. As for the size, they're only hard to find when you need millions and millions of digits in length. Encryption today doesn't do that. 2048 bit encryption (which is considered the minimum norm today for RSA) only needs primes that are in the 300-600 digit long area. That only takes a few seconds. Then you keep the primes you find and use them to set up a web site for the next 1-2 years before you do it again when you need to renew the SSL certificate (because that's what you use the primes for)


Question: How do long term space projects (i.e. James Webb Telescope) that take decades, deal with technological advancement implementation within the time-frame of their deployment?

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 How do long term space projects (i.e. James Webb Telescope) that take decades, deal with technological advancement implementation within the time-frame of their deployment?

A bit of both. The key component of some things, like the lenses themselves, are pretty much "locked in" at some point. We know we can build them today, and we know we'll find a better way to build them when we actually start manufacturing them. So, how they will actually be made is up in the air but we know the size and precision needed. The next thing is that no one wants to send the newest tech into orbit - first generation things tend to break, and so when scientists discover some lighter than air nanomaterial, it's not about to make it into a satellite a week later. But in 20 years, they've definitely improved a lot. Plans would have been generally drawn up, knowing that computers would change over time, and individual components would be tested and swapped out if they can work. Each time, someone would make sure that the weight, format, reliability, and everything else will keep working as planned.


Question: Why can't we stimulate human body part growth yet?

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 Why can't we stimulate human body part growth yet?

The body is ridiculously complex and is programmed by DNA to grow to certain proportions before stopping. There's a name for excessive cell growth past these points: Cancer. Breast size in particular is controlled by DNA, fat levels and hormones, one we can't control, one that fluctuates constantly, and one that has nasty, unavoidable side effects if you mess with willy nilly.


Question: If physical exercise/working out releases endorphins, why isn’t it more addicting?

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 If physical exercise/working out releases endorphins, why isn’t it more addicting?

[For some people, it is]( URL_2 ). They exercise themselves sick and push their bodies beyond what it can take. They exercise when they shouldn't, and allow it to interfere with their lives. Why one person gets addicted to something and another person doesn't isn't something that can be explained here. Different people are different: genetics, life experiences, psychology, biology, class, race, etc. And there's a fine line between "I like doing this a lot and do it a lot" and "I am addicted to this." However, there are some *very broad* factors that you can apply to this specific kind of addiction. The first thing to note is that it's probably an addiction that is under-reported. When you're addicted to, say, meth it shows. It very obviously damages your body, and there are few, if any positive effects that meth has (except for very rare cases like when methamphetamines are prescribed for ADHD). In other words, no reasonable, rational person thinks that an addiction to meth can be anything but bad, including most meth users themselves. Addiction to exercising *feels* like not a terrible thing, superficially. Exercise has a lot of benefits. In moderation, it's good for you. Even more than moderate amounts is still mostly good for you. The negative effects usually don't show up until you're much older, and they're mostly fairly benign like joint problems. Nobody can look at someone else with a straight face and say, "It's just meth, it's good for you, why are you worried?" But it's pretty easy to say, "I'm exercising, it's good for you!" And then when they die of a heart attack, you just say, well they had a weak heart! It's hard to pin the blame on over exercising. And the other problems associated with addiction, like isolation and missing work are usually blamed on something else. There are a lot of addictive behaviors like that, that seem good and so they go unreported. But that doesn't mean people are just as likely to get addicted to running as they are to heroin and just don't talk about it. Exercise does release endorphins, but it also can hurt, a lot. It's painful and uncomfortable, sometimes, and hot and sweaty. The endorphin high that you get from it has to be better than the suffering you also get. For some people, exercising is very easy, and it doesn't hurt and it's not uncomfortable; but also, the high they get isn't super awesome, either. So it's good, they do it sometimes or often, and that's enough for them. It takes the right combination of endorphin high in spite of, or even *because of* the pain of exercise to make it addicting. And some people are just genetically predisposed for reasons scientists don't fully understand to being susceptible to addiction in general - could be cocaine, could be gambling, could be cigarettes, could be running. Or they don't get addicted to anything for whatever reason. Everything and anything that feels good can be addicting: gaming, gambling, sex, masturbation, porn, food, shopping. All of those things also tend to have drawbacks that mitigate that good feeling, and different people have different levels of self-control that says, no matter how good the good, and no matter how minor the bad, I can't just do this one thing without controlling myself. Some people, for a variety of reasons, find that they can't say no anymore, and it becomes an addiction. Drugs are usually addicting because they completely bypass the obvious drawbacks and punch you so hard in the feel-good part of your brain that the negative effects are nothing in comparison to the high that you get. There's no "work hard for this and get a reward for your effort," it's just straight to the reward and all the downsides usually require some long-term thinking that you're not prepared to do when you're high, or coming down off of a high. They can also be chemically addictive, meaning they alter your brain chemistry artificially in ways that your normal internal chemistry can't, or can't easily. If you're chemically addicted, it means that your brain and/or body have adjusted so much to the presence of that chemical that, regardless of your behavior or your emotions, you are biologically no longer capable of functioning properly without it. Addictive behaviors can't do that, really. It's also important to recognize that addiction isn't just about one behavior being awesome. If you get a good endorphin high from enough other (hopefully healthy) things, you won't focus so hard on getting it from that one thing. Some people just don't make enough endorphins normally so they *have* to aggressively seek out behaviors that give them a boost, whatever that behavior is. And addiction has social factors, too. Isolation isn't just a symptom, it's a risk factor for addiction. Some people seek out behaviors because of the people around them. For instance, many people aren't addicted to exercise itself, but they are addicted to how they look, usually because of social pressure. They have [body dysmorphia]( URL_1 ) and work out obsessively to achieve the body they think is better than the one they have, even if their goals are unrealistic or downright dangerous. Bulimia and anorexia are perhaps the most well-known disorders associated with body dysmorphia, but people can obsess about gaining muscle as much as others obsess about losing fat. But again, different people are different. EDIT: Some comments seem to think I'm saying any compulsion to exercise at all makes it an addiction. That's not at all what I'm trying to say! It's an addiction when you want to stop, but don't. Not like, "I'm really tired *right now* but I'll push through the pain to reach the end." Rather, when you're sitting at home thinking "I've been to the gym for hours every day this week, I've reached my weight goal, I've achieved what I set out to do, I *need* to rest..." and then you go exercise again anyway. It's an addiction when you start losing friends or lose your girlfriend or your family stops reaching out to you because you always blow them off to go exercise, even when you don't need to be doing it. It's an addiction when you start calling in sick from work and you're worried you'll get fired, but you still go exercise. It's an addiction when it literally does make you sick, your joints start degrading and your heart hurts and you *still* keep going to the gym or the track or getting on your bike. Just exercising a lot, even when you *probably* shouldn't isn't an addiction. EDIT: Added some stuff. **EDIT: Thank you for silver[s and gold]! However, in lieu of Reddit awards, please consider donating to a charity dedicated to helping people fighting addiction. Addiction is a health problem, not a criminal one, and those suffering from addiction need treatment, not incarceration. [This list of non-profits seems reputable if you aren't sure where to donate.]( URL_0 )**


Question: How did wolves become domesticated? Wolves like being dominant so how would humans go about having a “pet” one? And wolves are in packs, it’s not like a singular wolf they train it’s loads of them.

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 How did wolves become domesticated? Wolves like being dominant so how would humans go about having a “pet” one? And wolves are in packs, it’s not like a singular wolf they train it’s loads of them.

> Wolves like being dominant I think this statement is a bit misleading. There is a certain faction of people who like to emphasize "alpha dogs" and stuff like that, depicting wolves and dogs as strictly hierarchical animals with a clear pecking order. But wolf behaviorists reject this. Wolves in their natural state live in small family packs of parents and offspring. Wolves have ways of settling disputes but there isn't typically a strict hierarchy beyond parents and offspring. The "alpha" depictions arose from watching wolves and dogs in groups that they aren't typically found in nature--like a bunch of random animals put together due to human intervention in a zoo or sanctuary or neighborhood. In such cases, sure, they compete for resources, but it's exaggerated. Animals in groups have evolved ways of resolving conflicts--it's in their genes. This means animals know when to assert themselves and when to not assert themselves and when to be submissive. So looking at them as wanting to always be dominant is only providing a fraction of the picture. Animals can and will be submissive, given the right circumstances, and that same animal will refuse to submit in other circumstances. They like being *social*, not just being dominant. They might look upon humans as part of their pack and will submit to them, and they'll like it sometimes, and other times want to be dominant. But wolves are extremely socialized and will be able to tell when dominance and when submission are called for.


Question: We drink filtered water from the fridge. If you leave a cup of it sitting for a few days, it starts to turn yellow. Why is this happening?

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 We drink filtered water from the fridge. If you leave a cup of it sitting for a few days, it starts to turn yellow. Why is this happening?

There's a high concentration of Iron and Manganese in your water, it's harmless. What's likely happening is you have an old house and iron pipes whose coating has worn off so it's leaching into your water. If it's ONLY happening to your fridge then the good news is it's probably a pipe that's just connected to that one so if you can gain access to your pipes you can search for the one that's rusting and replace it.


Question: Why would it take 6-10 weeks to receive the first issue of a new magazine subscription?

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 Why would it take 6-10 weeks to receive the first issue of a new magazine subscription?

6-10 weeks has been the traditional waiting period on magazine subscriptions for as long as I can remember, and it doesn't seem to have changed. One reason is that it gives the provider an extra monthly magazine cycle to get you into the delivery schedule. Before computerized and automated delivery scheduling, this would have actually been important. Reason two is that its always nice as a business to get your customer to pay for something weeks or months before delivery.